A Guide To Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 KV: Toll Free Customer Service Number

A Guide To Diagnostic
Insulation Testing Above 1 kV
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Why a 10 kV Insulation Tester?
Megger invented insulation testing before the beginning of the 20th century and has continued to lead the market
in innovation and technological advancement. So, why did we develop a 10 kV model when all other suppliers
stopped at 5 kV? The answer is in the IEEE standards. Megger developed a 10 kV unit to meet the new testing
recommendations outlined by the IEEE. Megger has offered a 10 kV insulation resistance tester since 2001.
In March 2000, The IEEE-SA Standards Board approved a revision to IEEE Std 43-1974. The “IEEE Recommended
Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating Machinery,” Std 43-2000, emphasizes the need for upgrading
current practices to accommodate changes and improvements in insulating materials and the value of higher voltage
testing that reveals otherwise hidden flaws.
Following is a brief summary of the highlights of the standard:
n Test voltages up to 10 kV are recommended for windings rated greater than 12 kV.
n Both the Insulation Resistance test and the Polarization Index test are recommended.
n Test results should be compared to historical values to identify changes.
n In
lieu of historical records, minimum acceptable values (based on the type of equipment) for both tests are
indicated.
n Depending on the machine rating, the readings for one or both tests should exceed the minimum acceptable
values.
n If the readings are below the minimum acceptable values, the winding is not recommended for an over voltage
test or for operation.
IEEE Std 43-2000 recommends a procedure for measuring insulation resistance of armature and field windings
in rotating machines rated 1 hp, 750 W or greater and applies to synchronous machines, induction machines, dc
machines and synchronous condensers. It does not apply to fractional horsepower machines. It also recommends the
insulation test voltage (based on winding rating) and minimum acceptable values of insulation resistance for ac and
dc rotating machine windings.
For more information on the IEEE Standard, please turn to page 25 in the booklet.
Table of contents
Introduction.........................................................................2 Ramped Voltage Test...................................................18

What is Insulation?.............................................................2 Dielectric Discharge Test..............................................19
What Causes Insulation to Degrade?............................3 Different Problems/Different Tests.............................21
Electrical Stress............................................................3 Appendices........................................................................22
Mechanical Stress........................................................3 Potential Sources of Error/Ensuring Quality Test
Chemical Attack..........................................................3 Results...........................................................................22
Thermal Stress.............................................................3 Test Leads..................................................................22
Environmental Contamination..................................3 Making Measurements above 100 GΩ....................22
How Can Predictive Maintenance Help Me?................3 Accuracy Statements.................................................22
The Benefit of New Technology....................................4 Delivery of Stated Voltage.......................................22
Interference Rejection..............................................23
How Insulation Resistance is Measured............................4
How an Insulation Resistance Tester Operates............4 Rules on Testing and Comparing.............................23
Components of Test Current.........................................4 CAT Rating....................................................................24
Capacitive Charging Current......................................4 CAT Rating Guidelines..............................................24
Absorption or Polarization Current...........................4 The Importance of a CAT Rating.............................24
Surface Leakage Current............................................5 Some CAT Rating Basic Statistics..............................25
Conduction Current....................................................5 Testing Insulation Resistance of

Rotating Machinery.....................................................25
Connecting your Insulation Tester................................6
Effects of Temperature................................................26
Selected Typical Connections........................................6
Effects of Humidity......................................................27
Shielded Power Cable.................................................6
Ingress Protection.........................................................27
Circuit Breaker/Bushings.............................................6
High Potential Testing.................................................29
Power Transformer.....................................................6
Current (nA) Readings vs. Resistance (MΩ)
AC Generator..............................................................7 Readings....................................................................29
Insulation Resistance Tester Scale.................................7 Burn Capability.............................................................29
Voltage Characteristics..................................................8 Drying Out Electrical Equipment.................................29
The Guard Terminal............................................................9 Test Item Discharge......................................................30
Introduction....................................................................9 Charging Time for Large Equipment..........................31
How the Guard Terminal Works..............................10 Motor Driven Insulation Testers..................................31
Guard Terminal Performance...................................10 Test Lead Design ..............................................................31
Comparing Results....................................................11 Significant Safety Enhancements................................32
The Guard Terminal as a Diagnostic Tool...............11 Things to Consider for Safe Operation.......................32
Guard Terminal Protection.......................................11 Safety Warnings...........................................................33
Final Words...............................................................12 Instrument Case Design....................................................33
Evaluation and Interpretation of Results........................13 Fire Retardant Safety...................................................33
Interpretation of the Infinity Reading........................13 Megger Insulation Testers................................................35
Diagnostic High Voltage Insulation Tests.......................14 MIT515, MIT525, MIT1025...........................................35
Spot Reading Test........................................................14 S1-552/2, S1-554/2, S1-1052/2, S1-1054/2.....................35
Time vs. Resistance Test...............................................15 Models MJ15 and BM15...............................................36
Polarization Index Test................................................16 Test Leads.....................................................................36
Step Voltage Test.........................................................17
A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kV 1

Introduction Diagnostic insulation testing at voltages above 1 kV is an
Electrical insulation degrades over a period of time area that is less familiar to many electrical maintenance
because of various stresses, which are imposed upon it personnel. The purpose of this booklet, therefore, is to:
during its normal working life. The insulation has been n Acquaint the reader with making diagnostic
designed to withstand these stresses for a period of insulation resistance tests.
years, which would be regarded as the working life of
n Provide guidelines for evaluating the results of these
that insulation. This often runs into decades.
diagnostic insulation resistance tests.
Abnormal stresses can bring about an increase in this
n Introduce the benefits of multi-voltage testing at
natural aging process that can severely shorten the
working life of the insulation. For this reason it is good higher voltages.
practice to perform regular testing to identify whether A series of appendices are included at the end of
increased aging is taking place and, if possible, to the booklet to provide the reader with additional
identify whether the effects may be reversible or not. information related to diagnostic insulation testing.
The purpose of diagnostic insulation testing is: This booklet is based on the principles established in
n To identify increased aging. the booklet “A Stitch in Time… The Complete Guide to
Electrical insulation Testing” first published in 1966 by
n To identify the cause of this aging. the James G. Biddle Company.
n To identify, if possible, the most appropriate actions
What is Insulation?
to correct the situation.
Every electric wire in a facility, whether it’s in a motor,
In its simplest form, diagnostic testing takes the form of
generator, cable, switch, transformer, or whatever, is
a “Spot Test.” Most electrical maintenance professionals
covered with some form of electrical insulation. While
have made spot tests where a voltage is applied to the
the wire itself is a good conductor (usually made of
insulation and a resistance is measured. The diagnosis
copper or aluminum) of the electric current that powers
in this case is limited to “the insulation is good” or “the
electrical equipment, the insulation must resist current
insulation is bad.” But having made this diagnosis what
and keep the current in its path along the conductor.
do we do about it? It’s a bit like going to the doctor with
Understanding Ohm’s Law, which is expressed in
a bad cough and the doctor simply telling you, “You’ve
the following equation, is the key to understanding
got a bad cough.” You wouldn’t be happy to come away
insulation testing:
with only that information. You expect the doctor to
examine you, carry out a few tests, and tell you why you E = I x R
have a bad cough and what to do about it to cure the where,
cough.
E = voltage in volts
In insulation testing, a spot test on its own is the I = current in amperes
equivalent of the doctor telling you that you are well
R = resistance in ohms
or you are sick. It’s minimal information. This is the sort
of test that is typically applied to low-voltage circuits For a given resistance, the higher the voltage, the
where the cost of a failure is low and equipment can be greater the current. Alternatively, the lower the
replaced easily and inexpensively. Since the equipment resistance of the wire, the more current that flows for
being tested is low voltage equipment, these tests are the same voltage.
typically performed using a 500 or 1000 V test voltage
No insulation is perfect (has infinite resistance), so some
and will be familiar to all electrical maintenance
current does flow along the insulation or through it to
personnel.
ground. Such a current may be insignificantly small for
However, if the doctor records the results of his most practical purposes but it is the basis of insulation
examination and compares them with those from testing equipment.
previous visits, then a trend might be apparent which
So what is “good” insulation? “Good” means a relatively
could lead to medication being prescribed. Similarly,
high resistance to current flow. When used to describe
if insulation resistance readings are recorded and
an insulation material, “good” also means “the ability
compared with previously obtained readings, it may be
to maintain a high resistance.” Measuring resistance can
possible to see a trend and to prescribe remedial actions
tell you how “good” the insulation is.
if such are called for.
2 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

What Causes Insulation to Degrade? For example, pinholes or cracks can develop in the
There are five basic causes for insulation degradation. insulation or moisture and foreign matter can penetrate
They interact with each other and cause a gradual spiral the surface(s). These contaminants readily ionize
of decline in insulation quality. under the effect of an applied voltage providing a
low resistance path for surface leakage current which
Electrical Stress increases compared with dry uncontaminated surfaces.
Insulation is designed for a particular application. Cleaning and drying the insulation, however, will easily
Overvoltages and undervoltages cause abnormal stresses rectify the situation.
within the insulation, which can lead to cracking or
Other enemies of insulation may produce deterioration
delamination of the insulation.
that is not so easily cured. However, once insulation
degradation has started, the various initiators tend to
Mechanical Stress
assist each other to increase the rate of decline.
Mechanical damage such as hitting a cable while digging
a trench is fairly obvious but mechanical stresses also
How Can Predictive Maintenance Help Me?
may occur from running a machine out of balance
or frequent stops and starts. The resulting vibration While there are cases where the drop in insulation
from machine operation may cause defects within the resistance can be sudden, such as when equipment is
insulation. flooded, it usually drops gradually, giving plenty of
warning if tested periodically. These regular checks
Chemical Attack permit planned reconditioning prior to service failure
While you would expect insulation to be affected by and/or a shock condition.
corrosive vapors, dirt and oil can also operate to reduce Without a periodic testing program all failures will come
the effectiveness of insulation. as a surprise, unplanned, inconvenient and quite possibly
very expensive in time and resources and, therefore,
Thermal Stress
money to rectify. For instance, take a small motor that
Running a piece of machinery in excessively hot or cold
is used to pump material, which will solidify if allowed
conditions will cause over expansion or contraction of
to stand, around a processing plant. Unexpected failure
the insulation which might result in cracks and failures.
of this motor will cost tens, maybe even hundreds
However, thermal stresses are also incurred every time
of thousands, of dollars to rectify if downtime of
a machine is started or stopped. Unless the machinery is
the plant is also calculated. However, if diagnostic
designed for intermittent use, every stop and start will
insulation testing had been included in the preventive
adversely affect the aging process of the insulation.
maintenance program it may have been possible to plan
maintenance or replacement of the failing motor at a
Environmental Contamination
time when the line was inactive, thereby minimizing
Environmental contamination covers a multitude
costs. Indeed, it may have been that the motor could
of agents ranging from moisture from processes, to
have been improved while it was still running.
humidity on a muggy day, and even to attack by rodents
that gnaw their way into the insulation. If advanced insulation degradation goes undetected
there is an increase in the possibility of electrical shock
Insulation begins to degrade as soon as it is put in
or even death for personnel; there is an increase in the
service. The insulation in any given application will
possibility of electrically induced fires; the useful life
have been designed to provide good service over many
of the electrical equipment can be reduced and/or the
years under normal operating conditions. However,
facility can face unscheduled and expensive downtime.
abnormal conditions may have a damaging effect
Measuring insulation quality on a regular basis is a
which, if left unchecked, will speed up the rate of
crucial part of any maintenance program as it helps
degradation and will ultimately cause a failure in the
predict and prevent electrical equipment breakdown.
insulation. Insulation is deemed to have failed if it fails
to adequately prevent electrical current from flowing in This is particularly appropriate now when we consider
undesirable paths. This includes current flow across the that large parts of the electrical network in the USA and
outer or inner surfaces of the insulation (surface leakage Europe were installed in the 1950s in a burst of postwar
current), through the body of the insulation (conduction investment. Some equipment is approaching the end of
current) or for a variety of other reasons. its design life, while some has already exceeded it but is
still operating satisfactorily.
A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 3

Since diagnostic testing is generally reserved for more Now that the insulation tester isn’t limited to values
critical items, we normally, but not always, find that associated with faulty or aged equipment, it can be
diagnostic testers have voltage outputs of 5 or 10 kV. used to pinpoint the test item’s position anywhere
These voltages are more suitable for testing the assets along its aging curve. The “infinity” indication that is a
which themselves are usually medium voltage machines, delight to the repair technician represents a void to the
cables, transformers, etc. diagnostician. Some instruments have diagnostic tests
preprogrammed into their software and can run them
The Benefit of New Technology automatically, filling that void with valuable analytical
Insulation testers date back to the early 20th century data.
when Sidney Evershed and Ernest Vignoles developed
their first insulation tester (which evolved in 1903 into How Insulation Resistance is Measured
the Megger® range of testers).
How an Insulation Resistance Tester Operates
In the early days, most instruments were hand-cranked. The Megger® insulation tester is a portable instrument
This limited their ability to carry out tests which took that provides a direct reading of insulation resistance
an extended time to complete, and limited the voltage in ohms, megohms, gigohms, or teraohms (depending
stability to the operator’s ability to crank steadily. on the model chosen) regardless of the test voltage
Later, these same instruments were capable of having selected. For good insulation, the resistance usually reads
an external motor drive added which helped with long in the megohm or higher range. The Megger insulation
duration tests but did very little to improve the voltage tester is essentially a high-range resistance meter
stability. However, the range of these instruments rarely (ohmmeter) with a built-in dc generator.
exceeded 1000 MΩ. The analog movements were very
heavy and actually served to damp out any transient The instrument’s generator, which can be hand-cranked,
events. battery- or line-operated, develops a high dc voltage
that causes several small currents through and over
The appearance of electronics and the development surfaces of the insulation being tested. The total current
of battery technology revolutionized the design of is measured by the ohmmeter, which has an analog
insulation testers. Modern instruments are line- or indicating scale, digital readout or both.
battery-powered and produce very stable test voltages
under a wide variety of conditions. They are also able Components of Test Current
to measure very small currents so that their insulation
If we apply a test voltage across a piece of insulation,
resistance measuring range is extended several
then by measuring the resultant current and applying
thousandfold into the teraohm (TΩ) range. Some
Ohm’s Law (R=E/I), we can calculate the resistance of the
can even replace the pencil, paper and stopwatch,
insulation. Unfortunately, more than one current flows,
which were formerly used to manually collect results,
which tends to complicate matters.
by recording data in memory for later download
and analysis. It is fortunate that these astonishing Capacitive Charging Current
enhancements were made since the manufacturers of We are all familiar with the current required to charge
insulating material have been working hard also, with the capacitance of the insulation being tested. This
the result that modern insulating materials now exhibit current is initially large but relatively short lived,
much higher resistances than those in the early 20th dropping exponentially to a value close to zero as the
century. item under test is charged. Insulating material becomes
Newer technology offers enhanced performance so charged in the same way as a dielectric in a capacitor.
that established procedures can yield greater insights
Absorption or Polarization Current
and new methods can be made available. Modern
instruments deliver stable voltage over their full Absorption current is actually made up of up to three
resistance range, with microprocessor sensitivity in the components, which decay at a decreasing rate to a value
measuring circuit enabling measurements in the TΩ close to zero over a period of several minutes.
range. The combination of stable voltage and enhanced The first is caused by a general drift of free electrons
sensitivity enables the tester to measure the minuscule through the insulation under the effect of the electric
amounts of current that are passed by quality insulation field.
in new, capital equipment. Accordingly, sophisticated
procedures that rely on precise measurement have been
developed and may be easily implemented.

The second is caused by molecular distortion whereby Conduction Current
the imposed electric field distorts the negative charge of Conduction current is steady through the insulation
the electron shells circulating around the nucleus toward and is usually represented by a very high value resistor
the positive voltage. in parallel with the capacitance of the insulation. It
is a component of the Leakage Current, which is the
The third is due to the alignment of polarized molecules
current that would be measured when the insulation is
within the electric field applied, see figure 1. This
fully charged and full absorption has taken place. Note
alignment is fairly random in a neutral state, but when
that it includes surface leakage, which can be reduced
an electric field is applied, these polarized molecules line
or eliminated by the use of the guard terminal (to be
up with the field to a greater or lesser extent.
discussed later).
The graph in figure 2 shows the nature of each of the
components of current with respect to time.
Figure 1: Alignment of Polarized Molecules
The three currents are generally considered together as

a single current and are mainly affected by the type and Figure 2: Components of Test Current
condition of the bonding material used in the insulation.
Although the absorption current approaches zero, the The total current is the sum of these components.
process takes much longer than with capacitive current. (Leakage current is shown as one current.) It is this
current that can be measured directly by a microammeter
Orientational polarization is increased in the presence
or, in terms of megohms, at a particular voltage by
of absorbed moisture since contaminated materials
means of a Megger insulation tester. Some instruments
are more polarized. This increases the degree of
offer the alternatives of displaying a measurement in
polarization. Depolymerization of the insulation also
terms of current or as a resistance.
leads to increased absorption current.
Because the total current depends upon the time
Not all materials possess all three components and,
that the voltage is applied, Ohm’s Law (R = E/I) only
indeed, material such as polyethylene exhibits little, if
holds, theoretically, at an infinite time (that implies
any, polarization absorption.
waiting forever before taking a reading). It is also
Surface Leakage Current
highly dependent upon starting from a base level of
The surface leakage current is present because the total discharge. The first step in any insulation test is,
surface of the insulation is contaminated with moisture therefore, to ensure that the insulation is completely
or salts. The current is constant with time and depends discharged.
on the degree of ionization present, which is itself
dependent on temperature. It is often ignored as a
separate current, being included with the conduction
current below as the total leakage current.

Please note: The charging current disappears Selected Typical Connections
relatively rapidly as the equipment under test
Shielded Power Cable
becomes charged. Larger units with more
capacitance will take longer to be charged. This Connected to measure the insulation resistance between
current is stored energy and, for safety reasons, one conductor and ground.
must be discharged after the test. Fortunately,
the discharge of this energy takes place relatively
quickly. During testing, the absorption current
decreases at a relatively slow rate, depending upon
the exact nature of the insulation. This stored
energy, too, must be released at the end of a test,
and requires a much longer time to discharge than
the capacitance charging current.
Connecting your Insulation Tester

With modern insulating materials there is little, if
any, difference in the reading obtained, regardless of
Figure 4: Connection to a Shielded Power Cable
which way the terminals are connected. However, on
older insulation, a little-known phenomenon called
electroendosmosis causes the lower reading to be Circuit Breaker/Bushings
obtained with the positive terminal connected to the
grounded side of the insulation being tested. If testing
an underground cable, the positive terminal would
normally be connected to the outside of the cable since
this will be grounded by contact with the soil, as shown
in figure 3. Please note that you do not connect directly
to the insulation but rather to the cable’s neutral or
ground.
Figure 5: Connection to a Circuit Breaker
Power Transformer
Figure 3: Simplistic Connection to a Cable
Figure 6: Connection to a Power Transformer

AC Generator valuable supplementary information would be difficult
Keen observers will note that the hookup to measure the or nearly impossible to discern from the dancing digits of
circuit breaker bushing included the connection of the an LCD. A few examples are listed here:
third, or Guard, terminal. The use of this terminal is
n As the test voltage increases and the item under
explained in greater detail later in this booklet.
test approaches breakdown, corona discharge
will cause the pointer to “jitter,” indicating to the
operator that the maximum voltage that the item
can withstand is being approached. This warning
happens in time to terminate the test before actual
breakdown, and possible damage, occurs.
n To the experienced operator, the speed at which
the pointer travels imparts information on the
capacitance of the item under test. This is a useful
property in high-voltage cable testing, and relates
to the theoretical basis of the more sophisticated
dielectric discharge test that is described elsewhere
in this booklet.
n If the pointer alternately rises and drops back, it
Figure 7: Connection to an AC Generator
could indicate arcing in the item under test that is
too small to cause the automatic shutdown of the
Insulation Resistance Tester Scale
tester. Such information helps direct the operator in
Most modern insulation testers offer displays that pinpointing a problem.
provide the operator with both a digital readout of the
n Observing a pointer as it slows to an apparent halt
result and some form of analog movement or pointer
travel. Figure 8 shows the top panel and display of the (it may still be moving, but at a “speed” likened
Megger MIT1025. to that of a clock hand) can be more agreeable to
taking a quick or spot reading than trying to decide
when a digital display has reasonably stabilized.
No digital display “freezes” on a precise number
without at least some fluctuation of the least
significant digit.
This kind of detail is difficult or impossible for the eye to
extract from the scrolling digits on an electronic display.
But whereas pointer travel may be desirable, when it
stops, the operator is left to interpolate the reading
between the scale markings, introducing an element of
judgment, which can be a source of error. Digital models
present no such problem, as they inform the operator
exactly (within the unit’s accuracy specification) what
Figure 8: Megger MIT1025 top panel and screen display measurement has been taken. And remember, most will
give you a value of capacitance at the end of the test.
When an insulation tester is “hooked up” to the item to
be tested, and a test is started, several things occur. The Most Megger insulation testers above 1 kV come with
three different currents, capacitive charging, dielectric an analog/digital display. One of the advantages of
absorption, and conduction/leakage are flowing. The sum this display is that the analog portion of the meter
of these three currents will cause the instrument display will sway and oscillate, indicating to the operator that
to vary, with the reading increasing, initially quickly and the item under test has not yet reached a steady state
then more slowly with time. and is still under the influence of the absorption and
charging current. This indication means that the item
With an analog display, the movement of the pointer should be tested longer or that there is a problem. When
may provide information to an experienced operator. the analog portion of the display becomes steady, the
Is the pointer traveling smoothly, or “stuttering”? Is instrument displays the result in an unambiguous digital
it rising steadily or intermittently dropping back? This direct reading form, with no multipliers or math to
perform.

Unlike the analog/digital display mentioned above, an You should always ensure that an insulation tester is
“average sensing” bar graph meter does not provide provided with a “load graph” that indicates output
a real-time indication of insulation resistance. Some voltage characteristics against load resistance or,
instruments offer a curved bar graph in place of a alternatively, an integral voltmeter that actually
genuine logarithmic arc, in which the low end of the measures the terminal voltage during a test and displays
scale is expanded relative to the high end. The bar graph it continuously. By this means you can ensure that an
takes readings over time, performs calculations and adequate voltage is produced over the resistance range
then displays the results. The problem with this type of interest.
of meter is its principal of operation. If an event occurs
A quality insulation tester will have a voltage
when the bar graph is not taking readings, it will be
characteristic that exhibits a sharp rise in voltage up to a
missed and not shown on the display. Additionally, bar
level of resistance commensurate with good insulation.
graph simulations of pointer travel may not appear to
A fast rise time ensures an effective measurement. The
the eye the same as the familiar pointer travel and may
voltage characteristic shown in figure 9 represents a
not replicate a mechanical movement to the expected
good characteristic. In this example, the output voltage
degree.
will have reached 500 V at a load as low as 500 kΩ
When doing insulation testing, the more the operator and 1000 V by 1 MΩ. These values are legislated by
knows about the results (during and after the test), the international standards for testing wiring in houses,
better his/her decision on how to correct the problem, if shops, etc. While this is hardly a common use for typical
one exists. If something is missed during a test because diagnostic insulation testers, it does provide a good
the instrument had a bargraph-style meter, important benchmark for the serious manufacturer. Similar figures
information could also be missed. would apply at higher voltages. Voltage should rise
sharply up to anywhere from one to five megohms,
Voltage Characteristics depending on the voltage selection, and maintain that
The output voltage of an insulation tester depends on voltage at all higher resistances.
the resistance it is measuring. At low resistances, say tens With lower quality insulation testers, voltage ramp is
of ohms, the output voltage will be close to zero, maybe far slower. The instruments typified by the poor curve
a few volts. As the resistance load is increased so the shown in figure 10 do not produce the rated voltage
test voltage will increase until it reaches the requested until much higher resistances have been reached. Thus
voltage. As the resistance increases further, the test tests could produce results that provide pass levels of
voltage will slowly increase until a steady value is insulation but have only been subjected to half the
reached. This value will probably be slightly in excess of desired test voltage.
the requested nominal voltage (e.g. 5104 V when 5000 V
Note: Beware of instruments that do not have published load
was selected).
curves.
Figure 9: Good Load Curve

Figure 10: Poor Load Curve

circuit that diverts surface leakage current around
the measurement function. If parallel leakage paths
exist, a guard connection will eliminate those from the
measurement, and give a more precise reading of the
leakage between the remaining elements.
Surface leakage is essentially a resistance in parallel
with the true insulation resistance of the material being
tested. When making a two-terminal measurement, this
resistance path is very much part of the measurement
and can affect the readings dramatically. A three-
terminal measurement, which includes the use of the
Figure 11: Use of the Guard Terminal on a Power Cable guard terminal, ignores the surface leakage. This can be
quite important when testing high voltage components
The Guard Terminal like insulators, bushings and cables where high
resistance values are expected.
Introduction
When making an insulation test, we are often so As an example, dirt and moisture on a transformer
preoccupied with the resistance of the actual insulator bushing will promote surface leakage between the +
that we forget the resistance path on the outer and – connections, thereby bringing down the reading
surface of the insulating material. This resistance path and possibly giving a false impression that the bushing is
can be very much part of our measurement and can defective. Connecting the guard to a bare wire wrapped
dramatically affect the results. around the bushing will intercept this current and yield
a measurement based predominantly upon leakage
As a refresher, the total current that flows during an through defects in the ceramic.
insulation resistance test is made up of three main
components:
1. The charging current, which is charging up the
object’s capacitance.
2. An absorption current, which is the current that is
being drawn into the insulation by the polarizing of
the electrons; initially high but drops over time (at a
rate slower than the charging current).
3. The conduction or leakage current, which is the
small, steady state current that divides into two
parts:
a. The conduction path through the insulation.
b. The current flowing over the insulation’s surface.
Figure 12: Guard Terminal Diagram
The current flowing over the surface is the component
of current that we do not want to measure if we want It is most important not to confuse the guard with a
to measure the insulation resistance of the material. ground. Connecting the guard and return lead to the
Surface leakage introduces errors into the measurement same element of the test item only shunts the current
of insulation resistance. Removing the surface leakage that is supposed to be measured, and thereby short-
from the measurement becomes more critical the higher circuits the measurement function. When selecting a
the expected insulation resistance values. tester, consider:
Some insulation testers have two terminals, others have n Thegoals of testing (basic installation checks don’t
three. As these are dc testers, two of the terminals are generally require a guard).
the + and -. The third (if present) is a guard. It does n The electrical composition of the items to be
not have to be used and many operators use insulation tested (motors and transformers can be tested for
testers satisfactorily without ever employing the guard. leakage between windings, with ground leakage
However, it affords the operator an extra function for eliminated).
diagnosis of equipment problems. The guard is a shunt

n The possible effects of surface leakage (wire and
cable can carry current across the surface, via dirt Guard Terminal not being used
and moisture, as well as through the insulating
material).
n The degree to which results must be analyzed (are
“bad” items merely to be replaced or discarded,
or will it be necessary to localize faults for possible
repair).
How the Guard Terminal Works

The following high voltage bushing example shows a
typical application for the guard terminal. In the first
graphic, the guard terminal is not used and the leakage
currents flowing through the bushing and across the
surface are combined and measured together by the
instrument. In the second graphic, wire has been Guard Terminal in use
wrapped around the bushing and connected to the
guard terminal so that the surface leakage flows to the
guard terminal. Current flowing into the guard terminal
is not measured by the instrument, meaning that it is
ignored in the insulation resistance measurement.
To better understand what is actually happening within
the instrument, consider figure 14. The insulation tester
has three main elements; the high voltage dc current
source, the high voltage voltmeter and the current
meter. The insulation resistance measurement is simply
Ohm’s Law, measured voltage divided by the measured
current. The guard terminal allows leakage current to
bypass the current measurement and be ignored. Figure 13: High voltage bushing example
Guard Terminal Performance

Testers with guards generally cost a bit more than
two-terminal models, but in many applications, a two-
terminal model won’t be imparting the full spectrum of
information that can be accrued by insulation testing.
Something that is often forgotten is the difference in
the capabilities of the guard circuit. Guard terminal
performance is often hidden in the instrument datasheet
or left out altogether. The guarding capability of
the insulation tester is much more important when
measuring leaky insulation than the usually quoted
measurement accuracy figure, which may be 5%.
Surface leakage is part of the uncertainty of the
measurement. The more surface leakage bypassing
the current measurement means less left to measure.
When measuring high voltage electrical components,
the better the performance of the guard terminal, the
more accurate the insulation resistance measurement.
Effective predictive maintenance depends on reliable
trending of test results to provide early indication of
failure. Faulty readings due to surface leakage not being
properly guarded can skew a maintenance program.

Consider the following example, an extreme case where result before the leakage value is added to the circuit
the surface leakage path is 200 times less than the (measured unguarded) and after it is added to the
resistance of the insulation. circuit (and measured guarded). In addition, the test
voltage will remain at the selected level.
Here we show an insulator of value 100 MΩ that we
wish to measure. It is dirty and contaminated and so it Instruments with poor guard terminals can show a
has a surface leakage path of 500 kΩ. If we apply our variance (error) of upwards of 95% in the reading with
test voltage from the positive and negative terminals the guard terminal in use. In addition, they often show
without guarding the circuit, 20 times as much current a significant drop in the delivered voltage from the
will flow through the surface leakage compared with selected voltage level. Even units with more accurate
the current flowing through the insulation we wish to guard terminals can still show a significant drop in
measure and we will read a resistance of only 497 kΩ. delivered test voltage, making the measured result
questionable.
Following are some results from actual instruments,
using the 1 TΩ position on a calibration box and then
introducing 5 MΩ leakage to be guarded out. The
names and model numbers of all but the Megger unit
have been removed. This data is being used to show
how much error can be introduced into the readings by
a poor guard terminal.
Instrument Reading Delivered Added Reading Delivered

without voltage leakage with voltage
guard without guard with
guard guard
Megger 978 MΩ 5090 V 5 MΩ 978 MΩ 5001 V
MIT525
Figure 14: Instrument circuit simplified
Instrument 1 1.01 TΩ 5010 V 5 MΩ 37.6 MΩ 3287 V
If we “guard” the sample, here shown as being guarded Instrument 2 975 MΩ 5103 V 5 MΩ 961 MΩ 3757 V
such that we split the leakage resistance equally on Instrument 3 978 MΩ 5269 V 5 MΩ 746 MΩ 3680 V
either side of the guard connection, we will be able to
eliminate the effect of the surface leakage to a certain The Guard Terminal as a Diagnostic Tool
extent. How much we eliminate the effect of the The user can quickly identify when surface leakage
surface leakage is based on the guard circuitry of the is present and how much by performing two tests,
insulation tester used. Depending on the instrument one with the guard terminal and one without. If
chosen, this error level can range from less than 1.0% the instrument gives the option of looking at the
to more than 80.0%. If you intend to use the guard measurement in leakage current rather than resistance,
terminal, investigate the error level before purchasing the user simply subtracts the measured value with the
an instrument. guard terminal in use from the value without the guard
This is a classic example of the need to compare tests on terminal. The result shows exactly how much current is
a like to like basis. An unguarded measurement and a surface leakage.
guarded measurement yield very different results. How Poor insulation resistance measurements can lead to
is an operator to know whether the guard terminal expensive remedial action like replacing a bushing. It
was previously used unless the test records record this may be that all the bushing needed was a good clean.
seemingly unimportant detail? Using the guard terminal helps identify this type of
situation and saves money.
Comparing Results
A way to check guard terminal performance is to Note: Beware of specs that provide input impedance.
compare results with and without the guard terminal
Guard Terminal Protection
in use on a calibration box with a known leakage value
added to the circuit (to be guarded out). A top quality The guard terminal is an important part of a >1kV
instrument (and guard terminal) will provide the same insulation tester. The guard terminal not only has
to perform well, but also has to be well protected.
The performance is its ability to efficiently remove
the effects of surface or unwanted leakage from an

insulation measurement. The protection is against
the inadvertent application of voltage or transients
as required by the specified safety CAT rating from
IEC61010.
The Megger MIT and S1 families of 5 kV and 10 kV
insulation testers have a unique specification for the
performance of their guard terminals. The specification
means the instrument has the ability to take IR
measurements when the guarded leakage current is 200
times the magnitude of the measured insulation leakage
current and have no more than an additional 2% error
in accuracy.
To achieve this and still provide the required safety
Figure 16: Measurement circuit with low-impedance
protection to meet IEC61010 is of course important.
high-accuracy guard
However, the most common approach used by some
instrument manufacturers is to employ a higher input In figure 16 the Megger guard terminal input protection
impedance to provide the required protection. This will is low impedance but still protects to the requirements
effectively destroy the measurement performance of the of IEC61010. The importance of the low impedance
guard terminal. protection is evident with the additional error
To understand this effect let’s take a case study of an introduced to the guarded measurement being no more
instrument manufacturer that has highlighted the than 0.2% in this calculated example.
benefits of a guard terminal protected with 200 kΩ It is important when selecting a 5 kV or 10 kV insulation
input impedance. tester to ensure the instrument is properly protected
on all terminals including the guard terminal, but also
to ensure the protection used has not destroyed the
instrument’s performance as an insulation tester. Megger
will not make compromises.
Final Words
Clearly, the guard terminal is a very useful feature, but
a few words of caution are necessary. The presence
of the guard terminal alone does not guarantee that
an insulation test set will give accurate results in the
presence of high levels of surface leakage. In particular,
it is difficult to maintain the performance of the guard
terminal if the instrument is also to offer a CAT IV 600V
safety rating. Make sure the insulation tester is able to
achieve its CAT rating without compromising the guard
Figure 15: Measurement circuit “protected” by high impedance
guard
terminal performance.
There can be many reasons why some instruments
Figure 15 above shows an equivalent circuit of a 1000
achieve poor guard terminal performance, but one of
MΩ insulation resistance being measured with a surface
the most obvious is that, with a guard terminal, the
leakage of 6 MΩ across it. The surface leakage has been
instrument not only has to supply the current needed
connected to the guard terminal to ensure it is not
for the actual insulation test, but also the diverted
measured. However this instrument is protected with a
current that flows via the guard terminal. If the voltage
200 kΩ input impedance. The result is a measured value
generator in the test set has insufficient capacity —
of about 43 MΩ, over 2000% away from the 1000 MΩ
effectively having a high internal resistance — the result
that should have been measured.
will be that the test voltage falls, giving inaccurate
In a Megger insulation tester the guard deploys results. This is a very important consideration because
effective protection but the input impedance remains the current in the guard terminal circuit can be ten or
at an acceptable level as shown in the example below in more times greater than that in the test circuit itself.
figure 16.

The stability of the test set also has an effect on the But for maintenance of capital equipment, a tester with
accuracy of the results obtained when the guard only a limited range is “shortchanging” the operator.
terminal is in use, as does leakage on the surface of the For preventive/predictive maintenance, infinity readings
test leads used. There are instruments currently available are of no use. The operator knows that the test item
that can give results that are in error by as much 80% is “good”, but not much more. Testers with extended
when the guard terminal is in use. Such huge errors, range, up into teraohms (1 TΩ = 1,000,000 MΩ), afford
of course, nullify the benefits of the guard terminal. actual measurements right from the time of installation,
In fact, they do worse than this because, by delivering thereby establishing a long time line that gives the
spurious results, they may mask real problems. So what maintenance professional plenty of “breathing room.”
can purchasers of high-voltage insulation test sets do to
Significant changes in insulation quality can occur at
avoid problems of this type?
high levels of insulation resistance, beyond the range
Fortunately, the answer is straightforward. All that’s of more limited instruments, as shown by graph in
necessary is to ask the instrument manufacturer, before figure 17.
making a purchase, to confirm the accuracy that the
In this example, a limited-range tester would not capture
instrument will deliver when the guard terminal is
this valuable data. We can clearly see that, although
used. Any reluctance to provide this information will
the last recorded insulation value is in excess of 10 GΩ,
enable the obvious conclusions to be drawn, and the
the rate of decline is increasing; something is wrong. An
appropriate purchasing decisions made!
instrument with a range limited to 2000 MΩ would miss
High-voltage insulation testing is invaluable both in this totally. By the time the readings had degraded into
fault diagnosis and in condition monitoring. The quality the instrument’s range, the maintenance person would
of the results obtained, however, depends on the quality be left with comparatively little time to schedule routine
of the test equipment used. Three-terminal test sets, off-line maintenance. (It may even be too late to rectify
which incorporate a guard terminal, are invariably a the fault condition.)
little more expensive than their two-terminal equivalent.
As we’ve seen, however, the small extra cost is money
well spent, provided that using the guard terminal
doesn’t destroy the instrument’s accuracy. Do not
forget to ask for those accuracy figures before making a
purchase.
Evaluation and Interpretation of Results
Interpretation of the Infinity Reading

One of the most important features of an insulation
tester is the range that the instrument can measure.
Testing goals determine whether basic function is all
that is needed, or enhanced range is recommended.
Simple proofing applications, such as an electrician
signing off a job, can be met with a basic range of a
thousand megohms (MΩ). Admittedly, new equipment,
if not defective or damaged during installation, will
Figure 17: Changes in Insulation Resistance at High Values
over-range all but the most advanced testers; however,
this is okay. In such cases, the electrician is not looking
for an actual value, but rather wants to see a high value
and “infinity”certainly meets that criterion. However,
“infinity” is not a measurement; it is an indication
that the insulation being tested has a resistance that
exceeds the measuring capabilities of the tester and
should always be recorded as “greater than 1000 MΩ”
or whatever is the highest available number on your
insulation tester. Usually this is adequate since the
minimum acceptable value of resistance is likely to be
much lower than the maximum reading available.

Diagnostic High Voltage Insulation Tests Compare the two traces in figure 18. Apparatus “A”
shows a high insulation resistance while Apparatus
Diagnostic insulation tests electrically stimulate the
“B” shows a low value. However, when the trend is
insulation and measure the response. Dependent upon
examined, Apparatus “B” shows little cause for concern;
that response, we can draw some conclusions about the
it has been around the same value for several years and
condition of the insulation.
shows every prospect of continuing in the same vein for
Diagnostic insulation testing covers a very wide range of many years to come. Conversely, the curve for Apparatus
techniques, some of which involve portable equipment “A” is diving dramatically and the apparatus will, if
and some that require considerable fixed equipment. nothing is done to prevent it, fail within the next
Here we shall consider only those tests that may be few years.
performed with a readily portable dc insulation tester.
While Apparatus “A” has much higher absolute
These are:
resistance values than Apparatus “B,” the trend is quite
n Trending spot tests worrying. Apparatus “B” has a fairly consistent flat
n Time constant trend, indicating that the insulation quality is probably
acceptable.
n Polarization Index (PI)
n Step Voltage (SV)
n Ramp test
n Dielectric Discharge (DD)
Each test gives a different view, or window, into the
condition of the insulation; the whole picture is only
available when all required tests have been completed.
Spot Reading Test

The spot reading test is the simplest of all insulation
tests and the one most associated with lower voltage
insulation testers; the test voltage is applied for a short,
specific period of time (typically 60 seconds as usually
any capacitive charging current will have decayed by this
time) and a reading is then taken. The reading can then
Figure 18: Comparison of Trended Test Results
be compared to the minimum installation specifications.
Unless the result is catastrophically low, it is best used Insulation resistance readings should be considered
when trended against previously obtained values. relatively rather than absolutely. They can vary widely
for one motor or machine tested three days in a row, yet
However, insulation resistance is highly temperature
not mean bad insulation. As mentioned, the important
dependent, and thus the results should be corrected to a
information is the trend in readings over a time period,
standard temperature, usually 40º C. While temperature
showing lessening resistance and warning of coming
effects will be covered later, a good rule of thumb is
problems. Periodic testing is, therefore, critical to
that for every 10º C increase in temperature, the current
preventive maintenance of electrical equipment. The
doubles (resistance halves). The key to making the spot
interval between tests (monthly, twice a year, once
reading test valuable is consistent timekeeping, effective
a year, etc.) depends upon the type, location, and
record keeping, and trending of results.
importance of the equipment. Evaluating a series of
As noted previously, the increased sensitivity available in readings taken over a number of months or years moves
microprocessor-based diagnostic insulation testers allows the operator toward being a diagnostician.
the operator to identify insulation problems in their
Periodic tests should be made in the same way each
early stages rather than when those problems become
time. Use the same test connections and apply the same
catastrophic. In many cases, the trend is far more
test voltage for the same length of time. Tests should
important than the absolute value.
also be made at about the same temperature, or the
operator must correct them to the same temperature. A
record of the relative humidity near the equipment at
the time of the test is helpful in evaluating the reading

and trend as low temperatures and high humidity might it “charges” during the course of a test thanks to the
suggest condensation on the surface of the insulation. movement of electrons as explained previously. This
For this reason it is essential to ensure that equipment to movement of electrons constitutes a current.
be tested is at a temperature in excess of the dew point,
Its value as a diagnostic indicator is based on two
as otherwise, condensation will form which will distort
opposing factors; the current dies away as the structure
the readings unless the measurement is well “guarded.”
reaches its final orientation, while “leakage” promoted
The following table contains some general observations by moisture or deterioration passes a comparatively
about how to interpret periodic insulation resistance large, constant current. The net result is that with
tests and what should be done with the result. “good” insulation, leakage current is relatively small
and resistance rises continually as current decreases
Condition What To Do
from the effects of charging and dielectric absorption.
a) Fair to high values n No cause for concern, Deteriorated insulation will pass relatively large amounts
and well maintained well maintained. of leakage current at a constant rate for the applied
b) Fair to high values n Locate and remedy the voltage, which will tend to mask the charging and
but showing a cause and check the absorption effects.
constant tendency downward trend.
Graphing the resistance reading at time intervals from
towards lower values
initiation of the test yields a smooth rising curve for
c) Low but well n Condition is probably “good” insulation, but a “flat” graph for deteriorated
maintained all right but cause equipment. The concept of the time resistance test is to
of low values should take successive readings at specified times. It is based
be checked. May on the relative magnitudes of leakage and absorption
simply be the type of currents in clean, dry insulation compared to that of
insulation in use. moist or contaminated insulation. Good insulation
d) So low as to be n Clean, dry out, or shows a continual increase in resistance over time. With
unsafe otherwise raise the contaminated insulation, the leakage current is much
values before placing larger and the effects of the absorption current are,
equipment in service therefore, much less apparent.
(test wet equipment
The benefits of the time resistance test are that it is
while drying out).
relatively independent of temperature and can give
e) Fair or high values n Make tests at frequent conclusive information without the records of past tests.
previously well intervals until the
maintainced but cause of low values is
showing sudden located and remedied
lowering or,
n Until the values have
become steady at a
lower level but safe
for operation or,
n Until values become
so low that it is
unsafe to keep
the equipment in
operation.
Time vs. Resistance Test
Familiar, standardized test procedures that have
been employed for years benefit from the improved
capabilities of enhanced diagnostic testing. Most basic of
Figure 19: Time Resistance Test Graph
these is the time-resistance method. A valuable property
of insulation, but one that must be understood, is that

Polarization Index Test Some high values of PI (above 5) could indicate brittle
The simplest implementation of the time resistance or cracked insulation; this should be fairly obvious. A
test for solid insulation is represented by the popular sudden increase in PI greater than 20%, without any
Polarization Index (PI) test, which requires only two maintenance having been performed, should serve as a
readings followed by a simple division; the one-minute warning; insulation may hold its value for long periods,
reading is divided into the ten-minute reading to but is not likely to dramatically improve all by itself.
provide a ratio. The result is a pure number and can A benefit of the PI test is that it can provide an
normally be considered independent of temperature indication of insulation quality in ten minutes on very
since the thermal mass of the equipment being tested large pieces of equipment that might take an hour or
is usually so great that the overall cooling which takes more to fully charge, see figure 20. With a spot reading
place during the 10 minutes of the test is negligible. test, the operator would have to wait until the reading
In general, a low ratio indicates little change, hence stabilized. For this reason it is normal to conduct a PI
poor insulation, while a high ratio indicates the test at relatively low voltage before applying the high
opposite. References to typical PI values are common voltages typically applied for a withstand test.
in the literature, which makes this test very easy and
readily employed. However, we say “in general” because
as mentioned previously there are materials that exhibit
very little or no dielectric absorption. Carrying out a test
on these materials would then produce a result very
close to 1.
Note that resistance readings alone are difficult to work
with, as they may range from enormous values in new
equipment down to a few megohms just before removal
from service.
A test like the PI is particularly useful because it can be
performed on even the largest equipment, and yields a
self-contained evaluation based on relative readings
rather than absolute values. But no PI can be calculated
with a tester of limited range, because “infinity” is not a
number! Advanced testers reach the teraohm range, Figure 20: Benefit of the Polarization Test for Large Equipment
and therefore, do not run off the graph. The largest and
newest capital equipment can be readily tested to yield Although the PI value table has been used for many
repeatable data for recording and subsequent trend years and is well accepted, PI readings can occasionally
evaluation. The following chart highlights selected PI be encountered which are exceptional. Many years ago
values and what they mean to the operator. the freshly cooked stator of a 3750 kVA generator was
tested and a PI of 13.4 was obtained. The stator had
Polarization Index Insulation Condition cooled down and no doubt was still in its curing phase.
<1 Poor Subsequent tests yielded reducing PI values until it
stabilized around 4.7. During routine maintenance, PI
1-2 Questionable
values do not reach these heady heights.
2-4 Okay
It is also interesting to note that many people have
>4 Good
tried to use the PI test on oil-filled transformers and
Values above 4 indicate excellent equipment for cannot understand why a known good transformer
which no action is likely to be necessary within the gives them results close to 1. The answer is simple. PI
immediate maintenance schedule. The operator may testing is not appropriate for oil-filled transformers.
be called upon to make critical judgments, however. The concept depends on the relatively rigid structures
of solid insulating materials, where absorption energy
is required to reconfigure the electronic structure of
comparatively fixed molecules against the applied
voltage field. Because this process can go to a
theoretical state of completion (at “infinite time,”

n Insulationfails at 2,500 V - Motor is in question;
which obviously cannot be achieved in the practical
would most likely fail in service even if an attempt
field, but can be reasonably approximated), the result
were made to recondition it on the basis of low-
is a steady diminution of current as molecules reach
voltage tests only.
their “final” alignment. Because the PI test is defined by
this phenomenon, it cannot be successfully applied to The graphs in figure 21 are taken from a motor that
fluid materials since the passage of test current through was damp and dirty (lower trace) and after cleaning and
an oil-filled sample creates convection currents that drying (upper trace).
continually swirl the oil, resulting in a chaotic lack of In general, if a deviation of 25% in resistance
structure that opposes the basic premise upon which the measurements is observed over the range of successive
PI test rests. voltages, it is an indication of the presence of moisture
or other contamination. Localized physical damage
Step Voltage Test
may be further revealed by breakdown or arcing. A
Since good insulation is resistive, an increase in test “stuttering” or “jittery” pointer movement can anticipate
voltage will lead to an increase in current with a result this condition as the breakdown voltage is neared. It may
that the resistance remains constant. Any deviation be desirable to terminate the test at such point before
from this could signify defective insulation. At lower insulation breakdown further deteriorates the condition
test voltages, say 500 V or 1000 V, it is quite possible of the test item.
that these defects might be unobserved, but as the
voltage rises we reach a point where ionization can take
place within cracks or cavities, resulting in an increase
in current, and therefore a reduction in the insulation
resistance. Note that it is not necessary to reach the
design voltage of the insulation for these defects to
become apparent, since we are simply looking for
ionization in the defect.
The Step Voltage test follows exactly this principle and
can be employed usefully at voltages reaching 2500 V
and upwards. The Step Voltage test may be employed
as an undervoltage or overvoltage test. However, it
must be remembered that an overvoltage test can lead
to a catastrophic failure if the insulation breaks down
because high voltage test sets (i.e. high-pots) have a lot
of power available. An undervoltage test carried out by
an insulation tester has relatively little power available
and it is therefore far less likely to result in a destructive Figure 21: Step Voltage Graph
test.
Like the PI test, the Step Voltage test is a repeatable, self-
A recognized standard procedure is to increase voltage evaluating test that, because of its short duration, is free
in five equal steps at one-minute increments and of extraneous influences like temperature effect.
record the final insulation resistance at each level. Any
marked or unusual resistance reduction is an indication
of incipient weakness. Modern electronics allows these
readings to be captured automatically.
Following are some possible results from a Step Voltage
test on a motor from 500 to 2500 volts and what they
mean to the operator:
n No appreciable difference in values - Insulation is in
reliable condition.
n Appreciable difference in values - Insulation requires
more thorough reconditioning.

Ramped Voltage Test n Any deviation from a smooth curve should be
The ramped voltage test is endorsed in IEEE95-2002 as viewed as a warning that the insulation test could be
part of the recommended practice for insulation testing approaching a possible breakdown (deviations could
of AC electric machinery (2300 V and above) with high be obtained as close as 5% below the breakdown
direct voltage. When using this test method, the test voltage).
voltage is gradually increased (ramped) at a set rate to n An imminent breakdown is usually indicated in a
a final level, which results in an increase in the current. sudden increase in current.
Any variations in current compared to the increase
n An abrupt drop in current is rare, but if it happens
in applied test voltage can provide useful diagnostic
information about the condition of the insulation. when the test voltage is above the peak operating
Commonly used on rotating machinery, this test helps voltage of the winding it can also be an indication of
diagnose various insulation defects and forms of impending breakdown.
deterioration such as:
n Cracks or fissures
n Surface contamination
n Uncured resin
n Moisture absorption
n Delamination
n Voids
This test is recommended by the US Bureau of

Reclamation on a wide range of rotating machines with
polyester, asphalt and epoxy-mica insulations. Another
possible application for the ramp test is to test voltage Figure 22: Typical ramp test result for epoxy-mica insulation
suppression devices by monitoring the applied voltage at
a specified current.
The ramp test offers better control of the applied test
voltage compared to the step voltage test, providing a
better warning of impending insulation breakdown, and
therefore an opportunity to avoid insulation damage.
In addition the rate of voltage increase is typically 1000
V per minute whereas the greater rate of voltage rise
during a step increase is typically 1000 V per second. The
slower rate of voltage increase is also less likely to result
in insulation damage.
In addition the ramp test allows the user to separate the
leakage current from the capacitive and polarization Figure 23: Typical ramp test result for asphalt-mica insulation
currents. This means small defects in insulation can be
detected more easily. Comparing the results of epoxy-mica insulation in figure
22, to asphalt-mica insulation in figure 23, the difference
The ramped voltage test, like the step voltage test,
is due to the level of absorption current present. Asphalt-
requires the operator to interpret the test results and
mica insulation has a much higher level of absorption
make a determination of insulation condition from
current relative to the conduction leakage current. This
graphs produced. Following is a quick guide to what the
results in a much steeper slope. However both insulations
graphical display of results indicates:
diagnosed as being in good condition because of the
n Windings in good condition should produce a linear response.
smooth, almost linear rising current curve versus the
applied voltage.

Figure 24: Typical ramp test showing moisture ingress Figure 26: Epoxy-mica winding with cracked insulation
Figure 24 is the response from insulation with absorbed The current curves from different phases can also be
moisture. This could be caused by a long period of compared. All three windings should provide
disuse for example. This test, due to the sudden increase comparable results. A phase that shows a different
in current, would have been stopped to prevent response, such as shown in figure 27 will usually indicate
breakdown occurring. a problem with the insulation condition.
Figure 25: Asphalt-mica insulation with localized weakness

Figure 27: Test on three phases tested separately
Old asphalt insulation may provide a slightly non-linear
The graphs shown are examples of the type of faults
response and can show very small deviations, or blips in
that can be diagnosed with the ramp test. Referring to
the current graph. Significant localized weaknesses will
IEEE95-2002 will provide much more detail of the test’s
show a much larger, sudden increase in current, as seen
diagnostic capability.
in figure 25. In this case the test has been terminated as
the graph was approaching vertical; breakdown would
Dielectric Discharge Test
have been imminent in this case
The Dielectric Discharge test (DD) is a relatively new test
Cracks in the ground wall insulation will also show a method that was developed by EdF, the national power
sudden near vertical current response, often preceded by utility of France, and based on years of research. While
small spikes before breakdown finally occurs. Figure 26 the other methods mentioned measure the currents
shows a typical response which in this case is an epoxy- flowing during the charging process, the DD test
mica insulation. measures the current that flows during discharge of the
test sample. As such, it is not a pure insulation resistance
test but rather an adjunct to traditional insulation tests.

The charge that is stored during an insulation test is capacitance has been discharged and the voltage has
automatically discharged at the end of the test when the collapsed so that the charge stored in the dipoles can be
insulation tester’s discharge resistors are switched across viewed independently of the “masking” currents that
the terminals. are dominant during the charging phase of an insulation
test.
The measured results are then entered into the
following formula and an index is calculated.
Current flowing after 1 minute (nA)
Test Voltage (V) x Capacitance (µF)
The measurement is temperature dependent, so it is
important to test at a reference temperature or to
record the temperature.
Insulation in high voltage equipment often consists of
layers, each having its own capacitance and associated
leakage resistance. When insulation is built up in this
Figure 28: Discharge of Test Item’s Stored Charge way, the aim is to make each layer such that the voltage
stress is shared equally between layers. When the
The rate of discharge depends only on the discharge insulator is discharged, each layer’s charge will decrease
resistors and the amount of stored charge from the equally until there is no voltage remaining.
insulation. However, the capacitive charge is discharged
When a layer is faulty between good layers, its leakage
rapidly until the voltage across the insulation has
resistance will decrease while capacitance is likely to
reduced to almost zero. At that time, the effect of
remain the same. A standard insulation test will be
leakage currents will be negligible. So only the reversal
determined by the good layers, and not likely to reveal
of dielectric absorption is left. This is known as dielectric
this condition. But during dielectric discharge, the time
reabsorption and is a mirror image of the dielectric
constant of the faulty layer will mismatch the others to
absorption.
yield a higher DD value. A low DD value indicates that
The capacitive current quickly decays from a high value reabsorption current is decaying quickly, and the time
with a relatively short time constant (a few seconds). The constant of each layer is similar. A high value indicates
absorption (or reabsorption during a discharge) current that reabsorption exhibits long relaxation times, which
always starts at a high level but has a much longer time may point to a problem.
constant (up to many minutes). It is caused by the dipoles
randomizing their alignment within the insulation and
the electron shell returning to an undistorted shape.
This has the effect of a current flowing if the discharge
circuit is still connected, or a voltage reappearing on
the sample if it is left open circuit. Rapidly removing the
effects of leakage and capacitive currents allows the
possibility of interpreting the degree of polarization
of the insulation and relating it to moisture and other
polarization effects.
The test item is first charged for anywhere from 10 to 30
minutes at high voltage until full absorption has taken
place. (The Megger insulation testers that automate this
test charge the test sample for 30 minutes.) At this time,
Figure 29: Reabsorption Currents
capacitance is fully charged and the dielectric absorption
is essentially complete. Only leakage current continues
to flow. At this point the test voltage is removed and
the insulation is discharged through the instrument’s
internal discharge resistors to quickly dissipate the
capacitive charge. After 60 seconds of discharge, any
remaining current flow is measured. At this time, the

Typical conditions from practical research, primarily
carried out on generators by EdF, arrived at the
figures of merit in the following table. This technique
was developed for high voltage generators but has
application on any multilayered insulation.
D Value (in mA V-1F-1) Insulation Condition

>7 Bad
4-7 Poor
2-4 Questionable
<2 OK
Different Problems/Different Tests

As we have just seen, the Dielectric Discharge Test
can be used to identify problems in a single layer of
multilayer insulation. Other test methods might not
point to problems on this specific type of insulating
structure. Similarly, the Polarization Index test is
particularly valuable in revealing moisture ingress,
oil soaks, and similar pervasive contamination. These
invading contaminants provide convenient paths for
electrical leakage, which damages the surrounding
insulation and eventually burns through as a “short.”
This type of problem is revealed at almost any test
voltage and will appear as a characteristically “flat”
PI. Moisture and contaminants will also bring down
the readings, but this requires a previous value for
comparison; the PI test has the advantage of making an
internal comparison.
However, other problems may seem to “pass” a PI or
simple Spot Reading test by yielding high resistance
values at a given voltage. Such problems include
localized physical damage like pinholes or dry, brittle
insulation in aged equipment. Step voltage tests reveal
such problems. Increasing numbers of imperfections will
pass current as higher and higher voltage is applied, and
be reflected in a declining resistance. Higher voltage
will pull arcs across small air gaps, thereby providing an
“early warning” of an incipient problem. As equipment
ages, such gaps can narrow by accumulation of dirt and
moisture until a short to ground develops.

Appendices Analog statements listed as “percent of scale” or “full
scale deflection” (f.s.d.) can be deceptive. Because
Potential Sources of Error/Ensuring Quality Test Results the accuracy interval is based on the full-scale length,
The following section identifies several areas of it translates into an increasing percentage error as
potential error in insulation testing above 1 kV. These the readings rise against a logarithmic scale. In other
factors may be of less importance in 1 kV testing, but words, the same number of pointer widths on the
increased voltages and sensitivities make them critical expanded low end of the scale will account for only a
for higher voltage testing. few megohms, while on the contracted upper end, this
will be hundreds of megohms. Therefore, when meeting
Test Leads a desired or required accuracy spec, don’t stop at the
Beware of instruments with low quality leads whose percentage statement but also examine the terms.
voltage rating is less than the test voltages employed.
It is extremely important that the only leakage currents Accuracy statements can also be misleading if not
during a measurement are those that are developed explained carefully. Be sure to check the range covered
by the insulation under test. If the leads themselves by the accuracy statement in the datasheet, as it can
produce leakage, you may be measuring lead insulation vary dramatically among different instruments. There is
resistance rather than the item under test. a significant difference in an instrument that shows 5%
accuracy up to 40 GΩ or 100 GΩ and one that shows 5%
All leads supplied with Megger insulation testers are accuracy up to 1 TΩ. Some instruments show an accuracy
high quality leads, which have been tested to withstand statement but do not give the applicable range. Always
voltages well above the highest test voltage generated ask about the range for a specific accuracy if it is not
by the particular instrument. Even then, it is important specified.
to reduce stray leakage by preventing the leads from
contacting each other, the ground and particularly Note: Beware of instruments that do not have published load
water. curves.
Additional information on the design and the Delivery of Stated Voltage

importance of operating safely can be found on page 31. Voltage regulation is indicated for an insulation tester
with a load graph in the instruction manual showing
Making Measurements above 100 GΩ the output voltage against resistance load. The load
Measurements up to 100 GΩ can be made without curve ensures that, at typical insulation resistance
any special precautions, assuming that the leads are values, the insulation tester is delivering full rated test
reasonably clean and dry. The guard can be used to voltage to the test item. While this may appear to be
remove the effects of surface leakage if necessary. obvious, it is not necessarily the case unless so stated by
Greater precautions are required when measuring the manufacturer of a given tester. A poorly-regulated
resistances above 100 GΩ as stray leakage current can tester may load down under a high-resistance load so
spoil the quality of the readings taken. Be aware of the that the insulation of the test item may actually be
following: experiencing only a fraction of the rated test voltage,
n Testleads should not be allowed to touch each which the transformer can output only under maximum
other or any other object since this will induce conditions. Such instrumentation is not likely to come
leakage paths. provided with a load curve.
n Sharp points at the test lead connections should be It was this condition that inspectors from specifying
avoided since this will encourage corona discharge. agencies, like UL®, discovered among “testers” that
were “jury-rigged” from on-hand transformers and
n Instrument test jacks should be deep so that other components at job sites to perform high potential
unwanted leakage does not occur between the tests. The inadequacies of such systems led to the highly
terminals. specific language pertaining to output voltage that
now commonly appears in the standards literature.
Accuracy Statements
Megger insulation testers conform by delivering and
Pay close attention to an insulation tester’s accuracy
statement. Do not accept a mere plus/minus percentage
for digital units. The statement must also include plus/
minus a number of digits, as no digital display can fix
its last digit (least significant digit, or l.s.d.) to a single
number. Accuracies specified as “percent of reading”
indicate the same error at all points on the scale.

maintaining the rated test voltage once a minimum load and position of an electron) applied to insulation. That
commensurate with typical insulation values (generally 1 is to say, the act of measuring affects the item being
to 10 MΩ, depending on model and voltage selection) is measured, so that subsequent readings are not being
applied. Test voltage is typically a few volts above rated, taken on precisely the same item.
but should not drop below it, maintaining the integrity
As has been described, the act of applying an insulation
of the test and the repeatability when performing
test polarizes the insulating material. This effectively
scheduled preventive maintenance. If exceptionally
changes its electrical configuration and dielectric
precise reporting data is mandated, some models display
properties. Because insulating material is, by design,
the actual test voltage in addition to the selected
a poor conductor, it can take considerable time for
voltage and this information is included among the data
“relaxation,” or the return to random configuration, to
provided at the conclusion.
occur. Immediately upon termination of a test, the item
under test is not precisely the same piece of equipment
Interference Rejection
that it was before the test. An immediate follow-up
Interference is the electrical noise produced at a
test will be affected, sometimes considerably, by the
variety of frequencies, which can appear in the sample
charge left from the first test. Which measurement is
being tested. It is usually induced currents or voltages
correct? They both are! They each can be expected to
from adjacent equipment and is very common in
give a correct measurement of the condition of the
substations, particularly high voltage substations
insulation at the time of test. Furthermore, industry-
where power frequencies predominate. This electrical
standard discharge procedures are not sufficient for the
noise superimposes an ac signal on the dc test current
institution of a repeat test. Such procedures are aimed
and can cause considerable variations in readings and
at personnel safety, not qualification of the test item.
may prevent the operator getting a reading at all if
Residual charges can remain for hours, or even days,
it is beyond the capabilities of your instrument. As an
that may be below human perception yet enormous to a
example, 4 mA of 50/60 Hz noise is fairly typical of
sensitive meter. Equipment should be left grounded for
the electrical noise that can be encountered in large
several hours, or preferably until the next day, before
substations (400+ kV).
additional testing is done. And then, external factors,
Be aware of the capability of the insulation tester being especially temperature, must not be overlooked.
used to cancel out the effects of this ac noise effectively,
This does not mean that on-the-spot retesting should
resulting in the ability to make measurements
never be performed. For relative information, it may be
in increasingly more difficult conditions. Not all
quite valuable. But it must be kept in perspective. Do
noise is limited to power frequencies, however. To
not expect the readings to agree.
accommodate other frequencies some top of the range
instruments incorporate further software filters that Two different operators may also not observe the same
can eliminate the effects of this noise. It is important degree of detail with respect to procedure. Temperature
that the instrument you use is matched to the level of is one factor. If the equipment is turned on, perhaps to
interference anticipated. check performance, then retested, the second test is not
necessarily comparable to the first. Time of test is also
Rules on Testing and Comparing readily overlooked. One operator may rigidly time the
Comparison of results in order to determine rates of test while another merely waits for stabilization of the
degradation is key to the whole preventive/predictive reading. This can result in measurements being taken
maintenance concept. However, it must be emphasized at different points on the time-resistance curve (as has
that this concept applies to readings taken at discrete been illustrated under the “Spot-Reading” test), and
maintenance intervals. Even then, strict standardization again the two results will not be comparable.
of test procedure and conditions is imperative.
Comparison of “on-the-spot” readings is a whole If this seems like excessive attention to detail, consider
different scenario and fraught with potential error. the standards agencies. Organizations like UL® and
ASTM® do not write procedures that say, in effect,
It is tempting to try to back up tests with additional “hook up a meter and take a reading.” Rather, they
readings. You may make some adjustment to the test specify every variable, including setup, procedure, and
item or setup, or someone else may have difficulty characteristics of the test instrument, before results can
accepting the result and wish to verify it. But an be considered in conformance. Standard maintenance
insulation tester is not like a multimeter! High- procedures deserve no less diligence.
voltage testing behaves very much like the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle (you cannot know both the speed

CAT Rating Instruments designed to a category rating have sufficient
In addition to the obvious performance specifications, clearance between critical parts to prevent an arc from
instrumentation should also be evaluated according to creating the initial breakdown when a transient occurs.
various quality standards. Paramount among these is IEC61010 defines the design requirements in order for
safety. One of the most recognized and respected safety instruments to declare a specific category rating and
standards has been established by the International specifies both the electrical and physical requirements
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in EN61010-1:2001. (called creepage and clearance distances) that make up
This standard defines the requirements that test the circuitry and casework.
instruments must meet in order to be safe from arc
flash and arc blast in specific environments. It is not
enough to simply determine that an instrument is “CAT
rated”, as it is commonly termed. The CAT rating must
be understood, as it rigorously describes where in the
electrical environment a given piece of equipment can
and cannot be safely employed.
Figure 30: Megger MIT models ensure CAT rating applies to all
terminals for safety purposes. Some instruments on the market
today are misleading.
Figure 31: Electrical supply broken down into categories
CAT Rating Guidelines

The Importance of a CAT Rating
“CAT rating” is rendered in two parameters: one
indicating system level and the other specifying rated CAT rating is determined by distance downstream of
operating voltage. A designation of “CAT IV 600 V” the transformer servicing the premise. The overhead
means that the unit is safe to operate in any electrical or underground transmission lines constitute the CAT
environment up to and including CAT IV, on cable or IV environment because the energy available from the
apparatus rated up to 600 volts phase to ground. Beware supply is much higher near the transformer. This is the
of products that specify the CAT rating while failing to most dangerous environment and requires the highest
list the voltage level. This is incomplete information and degree of protection. As voltage passes through the fuse
the absence can be costly in terms of safe operation. The panel into the building, the circuit impedance is higher
CAT rating defines the level of transient (spike or surge) and transients are damped, reducing the available
that the instrument has been designed to withstand. energy in the transient. This process of progressive
Transients vary in size and duration depending on the damping, lower energy and reduced hazard continues
source. A transient may be several kV in amplitude but through the remaining categories. Downstream of
its duration is notably short, a typical interval being 50 the service entrance is the CAT III environment. From
µsec (microseconds). Its principle danger is that when the socket or outlet the rating becomes CAT II, and
it rides on top of the sinusoidal voltage it can initiate inside of equipment (photocopiers, televisions, etc)
an arc, which will continue until the end of the cycle. isolated by an internal transformer the environment is
In a CAT IV environment, the available short circuit CAT I. This attenuation is the reason appliances are not
current can exceed 1000 amps. Inside an instrument known to explode, but a multimeter may. The voltage
that happens to be testing the circuit, this can generate measurement range on a multimeter may include the
hundreds of kilowatts of heat in a small space for a few rating for the CAT IV environment, thereby creating an
milliseconds. The rapid expansion of air can cause the incorrect impression that the tester can be used there.
instrument to disintegrate or explode. Fire, burns, and
dangerous flying pieces are the consequence.

Some CAT Rating Basic Statistics machines and synchronous condensers. It does not apply
Do not confuse working or steady state voltage with to fractional horsepower machines. It also recommends
transient voltages. The tester must be able to safely the insulation test voltage (based on winding rating)
withstand transients of several multiples of the rated and minimum acceptable values of insulation resistance
voltage. For example, to be rated as safe on a 300 Vrms for ac and dc rotating machine windings.
phase-to-neutral line in a CAT IV environment, the tester
The following chart provides guidelines for the dc
must be able to withstand an impulse of 4 kV! What is
voltage to be applied during an insulation resistance
the actual risk of such occurrences? Small transients of a
test. Note that voltages up to 10 kV are recommended
few hundred volts occur on most days, but fortunately,
for windings rated at greater than 12 kV.
large transients (5 to 10 kV) do not occur often. But that
does not mean that they can be discounted. Working
*Winding Rated Insulation Resistance Test
with a correctly rated instrument, the chances of a
Voltage (V) Direct Voltage (V)
dangerous breakdown are on the order of one in a
million per hour connected to the supply. But reduce <1000 500
the protection by one category and the chances of an 1000-2500 500-1000
accident increase by a factor of about 30. This means 2501-5000 1000-2500
that of 100 operators using instruments of the wrong
5001-12,000 2500-5000
category on live systems for one hour per day, 200 days
per year, a dangerous situation is likely to occur every 18 >12,000 5000-10,000
months. * Rated line-to-line voltage for three-phase ac
machines, line-to-ground voltage for single-phase
Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating Machinery machines, and rated direct voltage for dc machines or
In March 2000, the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved field windings
a revision of IEEE Std 43-1974 by the Electric Machinery
Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society. This The standard recommends that each phase be isolated
revision is IEEE Std 43-2000, the “IEEE Recommended and tested separately (if feasible) as this approach allows
Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating comparisons to be made between phases. The two
Machinery.” Changes made to the types of insulation phases not being tested should be grounded to the same
used in electric rotating machines have resulted in ground as the stator core or rotor body. When all phases
different insulation resistance characteristics, and are tested simultaneously, only the insulation to ground
therefore, required a substantial revision to the IEEE is tested. Insulation resistance measurements should be
standard. According to the IEEE, the standard is intended made with all external equipment (cables, capacitors,
for: surge arresters, etc.) disconnected and grounded as
these items may influence the resistance reading. A
n Individuals/organizations that manufacture rotating common ground should be used to prevent stray losses
machines. in the ground circuit that could affect the test results.
n Individuals/organizations that are responsible for the The standard calls out both the insulation resistance test
acceptance of new rotating machines. and the polarization index test (PI), and recommends
n Individuals/organizations that test and maintain that both tests be made (if possible). It indicates that
rotating machines. testing history should be used to track changes. If history
is not available, the standard provides minimum values
n Individuals/organizations that operate rotating
for both tests that can be used to estimate the suitability
machines.
of the winding. These are the lowest values at which a
Megger recommends that anyone involved in testing winding is recommended for an overvoltage test or for
and/or maintaining rotating machinery review this operation.
standard in detail. We will provide some of the
The recommended minimum values for PI are based on
highlights.
the thermal class of the insulating materials and apply
IEEE Std 43-2000 recommends a procedure for measuring to all insulating materials regardless of application
insulation resistance of armature and field windings per IEC 60085-01: 1984. The PI test is not applicable to
in rotating machines rated 1 hp, 750 W or greater and noninsulated field windings. Be aware that a very high
applies to synchronous machines, induction machines, dc PI (greater than 8) for varnished cambric, shellac mica-

folium, or asphaltic stator windings may indicate that the Effects of Temperature
insulation has been thermally aged and may be at risk of Temperature variations can have a significant effect
failure. Physical inspection can be used to confirm if the on insulation resistance readings. Resistance drops
insulation is dry and brittle. markedly with an increase in temperature for the same
piece of apparatus. Each type of insulating material
Thermal Class Rating Minimum PI Value has a different degree of resistance change with
Class A 1.5 temperature. Temperature correction factor tables
Class B 2.0 have been developed for various types of electrical
apparatus and can be acquired from the manufacturer.
Class F 2.0
Failing that, it is recommended that you develop
Class H 2.0 your own correction factor tables by recording two
resistance values for the same piece of equipment
The recommended minimum insulation resistance at two different temperatures. A graph may then be
after one minute at 40o C can be determined from the plotted of resistance (on a logarithmic scale) against
following chart. The minimum resistance of one phase of temperature (on a linear scale). The graph is a straight
a three-phase armature winding tested with the other line and may be extrapolated to any temperature so
two grounded should be approximately twice that of the that correction factors may be read directly.
entire winding. If each phase is tested separately (with
guard circuits being used on the phases not under test), In lieu of detailed data, the “rule-of-thumb” is that
the observed minimum resistance should be three times for every 10º C increase in temperature, halve the
the entire winding. resistance; or for every 10º C decrease in temperature,
double the resistance. For example, a 100 GΩ resistance
at 20º C becomes 25 GΩ at 40º C.
Minimum Test Specimen
Insulation Why is temperature correction important? Consider the
Resistance (MΩ) example in the following table of a motor tested at
various times of the year at differing temperatures (all
kV* + 1 For most windings made before
within a 15º band). The temperature adjustments were
about 1970, all field windings, and
made using the rule-of-thumb correction.
others not described below.
100 For most dc armature and ac
windings built after about 1970 Date Insulation Temperature Temp. Adjusted
(form-wound coils). Resistance ºF Insulation
(MΩ) Resistance (MΩ)
5 For most machines with
random-wound stator coils and Jan-01 15,000 68 14,990
form-wound coils rated below 1 kV. Jun-01 9,000 80 14,276
* kV is the rated machine terminal-to-terminal voltage Jan-02 14,500 68 14,490

in rms kV. Jun-02 8,500 82 14,562
Jan-03 14,300 68 14,290
The rating of the machine determines whether the
motor windings must achieve the minimum value for Jun-03 8,700 81 14,341
either the insulation resistance test or PI test, or must Jan-04 14,500 68 14,490
achieve the minimum for both tests. Jun-04 8,900 81 14,671
Jan-05 14,200 69 14,748
Machine Rating Evaluation Criteria
Jun-05 8,900 80 14,117
Jan-06 13,600 68 13,591
10,000 kVA or less Should have EITHER a value of the
PI test or a value of the insulation Jun-06 8,900 78 13,071
resistance test (at 40º C) above the Jan-07 13,500 66 12,491
minimum recommended values. Jun-07 7,500 80 11,896
Above 10,000 kVA Should have BOTH a value of the Jan-08 11,300 68 11,292
PI test or a value of the insulation Jun-08 6,500 80 10,310
resistance test (at 40º C) above the
Jan-09 8,000 67 7,693
minimum recommended values.

The readings taken create confusion if they are not Effects of Humidity
corrected for temperature. When plotted, they produce a Humidity (moisture content) has an effect upon
chart that is of limited use in determining a trend. insulation resistance, but it cannot be quantified as
If the same data is corrected for temperature and plotted, neatly as can temperature effect because different types
the graph begins to provide a valuable picture of the of insulation will absorb moisture to varying degrees,
deterioration of the insulation. as will varying ages and conditions of the same type.
Temperature correction is particularly important when The best that can be said is that humidity is a factor that
testing with higher voltages and at higher levels of should not be overlooked when evaluating test results.
sensitivity. Unlike temperature, humidity’s effect is not a constant
gradient and as long as the temperature remains above
the dew point, humidity will not appreciably affect
insulation readings.
Increasing humidity in the surrounding (ambient) air
can affect insulation resistance to varying degrees. If
equipment operates regularly above the dew-point
temperature (the temperature at which the moisture
vapor in air condenses as a liquid), the test reading
will not be affected much by the humidity. Even if the
equipment to be tested is idle, the same is true — so
long as its temperature is kept above the dew point (and
the insulation surfaces are free of contaminants, such as
certain lints and acids or salts, which have the property
of absorbing moisture).
In electrical equipment, we’re concerned primarily with
Figure 32: Insulation Resistance Graph Not Corrected for
Temperature
the conditions on the exposed surfaces where moisture
condenses and affects the overall resistance of the
insulation. Studies show, however, that dew will form
in the cracks and crevices of insulation before it is visibly
evident on the surface. Dew-point measurements will
provide a clue as to whether such invisible conditions
might exist, altering the test results.
Humidity effects require greater attention as test
voltages increase because the higher voltages can
promote ionization much more readily than at low
voltages. As a result, humidity that doesn’t produce a
noticeable effect at 1 kV may produce perplexingly low
readings at 5 kV. This is not necessarily a problem. The
difference in response at two different voltages can be
used to detect moisture and tests carried out guarded
and unguarded can be used to detect surface moisture or
internal moisture.
Figure 33: Insulation Resistance Graph Corrected for Ingress Protection

Temperature Somewhere in the fine print of most test equipment
product bulletins is an IP rating, a number that gives
the operator vital information. In fact, the IP rating lets
the operator know whether a piece of test equipment is
suited for his/her application and test environment.
“IP” stands for “ingress protection.” That is the degree
to which the instrument can withstand invasion by
foreign matter. The IP rating system has been established

by the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), The following charts provide a guide to various IP ratings
in their Standard 529, and is used as a guide to help and what they mean to the operator:
the operator protect the life of the instrument. It also
can help the operator make a more informed purchase Protection Against Access to Hazardous Parts
decision by ensuring that the piece of test equipment is (First Digit)
designed to work in the environment(s) that he/she faces. Number Description
The IP rating is comprised of two digits, each signifying 0 Non-protected
a separate characteristic. The designation indicates how Protected against access with
1
well the item is sealed against invasion by foreign matter, back of hand (50 mm)
both moisture and dust (the higher the number(s), Protected against access with
the better the degree of protection). What would a 2
jointed finger (12 x 80 mm)
typical rating of IP54 tell a buyer about the application
Protected against access with a
capabilities of a model? If you want to sound thoroughly 3
tool (2.5 mm)
knowledgeable, that’s IP five-four, not fifty-four. Each
digit relates to a separate rating, not to each other. Protected against access with a
4, 5, 6
wire (1.0 mm)
The first digit refers to particulate ingress, reflecting
the degree to which solid objects can penetrate the
Protection Against Ingress of Solid Foreign Objects
enclosure. A level of “5” indicates “dust protected” as
(First Digit)
well as protected from invasion with a wire down to 1.0
mm. There is only one higher category: “dust tight.” The Number Description
second digit refers to moisture. A rating of “4” means 0 Non-protected
resistance to “splashing water, any direction.” The higher 1 Objects equal or greater than 50 mm
ratings of 5 through 8 indicate “jetting water” and
2 Objects equal or greater than 12.5 mm
“temporary” or “continuous” immersion.
3 Objects equal or greater than 2.5 mm
So what? Well, suppose an instrument under
4 Objects equal or greater than 1 mm
consideration was rated only to IP43. What would
5 Dust protected
that tell the operator about its usability? Could it be
thoroughly utilized in a quarry or cement plant? Hardly! 6 Dust tight
The particulate rating 4 indicates “objects equal or
greater than 1 mm.” That’s a boulder in comparison to Protection against Ingress of Liquids (Second Digit)
particles typically produced by industrial processes. Flying
Number Description
dust could put the unit out of commission.
0 Non-protected
Suppose the unit is rated at IP42. A moisture rating of
1 Water dripping vertically
2 indicates dripping water. Therefore, it would not be
resistant to flying spray. Acquiring an instrument for an 2 Water dripping, enclosure tilted
environment that exceeds its IP capabilities likely means up to 15º
that the operator will need another very soon. What 3 Spraying water, up to 60° angle
about a rating of IP40? A moisture rating of 0 means that from vertical
the unit is not protected against any liquid ingress. 4 Splashing water, any direction
5 Jetting water, any direction
6 Powerful jetting water, any
direction
7 Temporary immersion in water
8 Continuous immersion in water

High Potential Testing resistance to increase, and the voltage to increase which
There is no truly singular definition of the “high in turn causes breakdown and so on. This continuing
potential” test. It is commonly used, but its definition is cycle does not allow the measurement of resistance
situational, in the “eye of the beholder” it might be said. and indeed could open pinholes or enlarge burn tracks.
Basically, a high potential test is an electrical stress test Rather than cause further damage, most insulation
conducted at a voltage two or more times rated voltage testers will shut down.
and sometimes known as a Withstand or Proof Test. However, if you want to find the location of the
Since the test is conducted at a voltage considerably breakdown this may be extremely inconvenient. For this
higher than the rated voltage of the equipment being reason some instruments offer an operator selectable
tested, it is known as an overvoltage test unlike the high “burn” mode; the automatic shutdown is overridden and
voltage insulation test, which is generally applied at a a low current arc is maintained. It must be understood,
voltage below the rated voltage of the equipment. The however, that the instrument’s short circuit limitation
act of overvoltage testing creates abnormal stresses in is still in effect. The tester will not provide a “dead”
the test sample and can contribute to the acceleration short. The function enables the operator to localize or
of aging in insulation. Indeed, some standards require identify the fault by looking for a spark or wisp of smoke
the voltage to be increased until the test sample breaks or perhaps by use of an ionization detector. Pinholes
down. in windings can be identified, covered with insulating
varnish, and the equipment returned to service. In cable
If an overvoltage test is to be applied, it is normal
maintenance, a high potential tester with much higher
practice to apply an undervoltage PI test beforehand to
currents than insulation testers is used to “break down”
pre-qualify the insulation.
a high-resistance fault, converting it to an “open”
High potential tests may be carried out with ac or dc that is much more easily recognized by arc reflection
voltages, as appropriate. Samples with considerable techniques.
capacitance will appear as a short circuit to an ac test,
requiring a test set with very large power capabilities to Drying Out Electrical Equipment
overcome the capacitive charging currents. In situations Electricity and water do not form a happy partnership
such as this, it is quite normal to apply a dc test with the and so it is often necessary to “dry out” insulation. This
equivalent peak. may be done to remove surface moisture or perhaps
to drive moisture from the internals of the insulation.
Current (nA) Readings vs. Resistance (MΩ) Readings Indeed some pieces of equipment have in-built heater
Insulation testers measure current and then convert coils which can be used for this purpose. However,
it into a resistance reading. Why do we do this? Well, several other methods are also available for drying
predominantly, it’s tradition. Good insulation produces electrical equipment.
a high reading while poor insulation produces a
low reading. Also, good insulation is predominantly The most satisfactory solution to the problem
resistive. If we double the test voltage, we double the involves placing the windings in an oven with suitable
current flowing but the resistance remains constant. temperature control and proper air circulation. Banks
However, sometimes it is easier to diagnose problems by of infrared lamps may be used when this is not possible,
considering the actual currents that flow. or a suitable housing may be built around the machine,
using steam coils or electric resistance type units for a
The choice is yours because many modern insulation source of heat. Openings must be provided for the free
testers are capable of presenting their measurements in circulation of air as otherwise the expulsion of moisture
either unit. would simply result in an increasing humidity inside the
drying chamber. Blowers may be used to increase the air
Burn Capability movement.
Full-function insulation testers above 1 kV often include a
Vacuum drying has also been effectively used to
“burn” mode. It is a feature that may never be used; yet
expedite the return of equipment to service, but this
it does have a viable function within a narrow range of
method requires extra precautions and should only be
application.
undertaken by experienced personnel.
Insulation testers will generate high voltages into
Another method often used is to circulate low-voltage
significant resistances. However, if a breakdown occurs
current through the windings. This method should not
within the insulation, the resistance drops, the current
be used, however, until the insulation resistance has
increases, and the voltage drops. If left to its own devices
reached a value of at least 100 MΩ. The current should
this would cause the breakdown arc to extinguish, the

be limited to only a fraction of nameplate amperes, Figure 34 shows a typical drying-out curve for a dc motor
and a careful check must be maintained on maximum armature, which shows how insulation resistance
temperatures on the insulated parts. Maximum drying changes. During the first part of the run, the resistance
temperatures on windings should not exceed 194º F (90º decreases because of the higher temperature. Then it
C) as measured by a thermometer. This will prevent not rises at a constant temperature as drying proceeds.
only the rapid thermal deterioration of the insulation Finally, it rises to a high value, as room temperature
but damage from the high vapor pressures that would (20° C) is reached.
be obtained if steam were produced.
There is a significant caveat when testing wet insulation
If drying is required, records help determine when with an insulation tester; wet equipment is susceptible
the insulation is moisture free. As an example of the to voltage breakdown. If windings have absorbed a lot
importance of past readings, consider a motor that’s of moisture even low voltages can puncture insulation.
been flooded. After a cleanup, a spot reading with the Therefore, the operator should be very careful before
Megger tester shows 15 MΩ. If past records showed the applying high voltages. More advanced Megger
insulation resistance to run from 10 to 20 MΩ, the motor insulation testers allow the test voltage to be set at
would be in good shape. If, on the other hand, past anything from a low of 25 volts to a high of 5000 volts in
records showed the normal resistance values to run from 25-volt increments.
100 to 150 MΩ, the operator would know that moisture
was still present in the motor windings. Test Item Discharge
During drying operations, when insulation resistance Perhaps you were taught to discharge a capacitor and
values are used as an indicator of the suitability of then to store the capacitor with the terminals shorted
windings for service or for application of test potential, together. Did you ever wonder why, since you have
the drying must be continued for a sufficient time discharged the capacitor and maybe had checked that
to make sure that the values are reliable. Often the there was no voltage across the terminals, you needed to
resistance curve will take one or more sharp dips before short the terminals?
leveling off or continuing to increase in a positive The reason is the dielectric absorption current. If the
direction. This is due to moisture working out of the terminals are left unshorted, the energy stored by
windings. When the machine is completely dried out, dielectric absorption will slowly release with negative
further work is required to remove any remaining dust. charge migrating to one terminal and positive charge to
This may be done through the use of dry compressed air the positive terminal. Over a period of time this charge
at pressure not exceeding 40 psi. can build up to a dangerous level, as high as the original
test voltage, and with a considerable amount of energy
to back it up. This energy can kill.
At the end of an insulation test the test sample
closely resembles a charged capacitor; there remains
a considerable amount of energy stored within the
insulation dielectric.
There is an important “rule of thumb” on charging
and discharging items under test. This rule suggests
that the operator discharge the item under test for five
times as long as it was tested. If the operator performs
a 10-minute PI test, he/she should allow the unit to
discharge for 50 minutes.
A good quality instrument will automatically discharge
the test sample as soon as a test is completed or
interrupted. Some lower quality instruments have a
separate discharge selection knob, or switch, which adds
a step to a test. If this step is forgotten, the test item can
be deadly for the next person who handles it.
Figure 34: Typical Drying-out Resistance Graph

Megger insulation testers also detect the voltage across with a spirit level on the scale and adjustable feet. The
the test sample during the discharge phase and will movements were also fairly insensitive with maximum
show this voltage until it has fallen to a safe level. At this resistance capabilities that could be measured in high
point, the item is safe to handle. megohms or low gigohms.
However, all we have discharged at this point is the Alternative power sources were developed. The old
stored capacitive charge. As explained at the start of this generator was big and heavy as anyone who has tried
booklet, any capacitance is charged relatively quickly to hand crank one of these old instruments will attest;
at the start of a test. Similarly, the capacitive charge is you certainly wouldn’t want to do a PI test while hand
discharged relatively quickly at the end of a test. But the cranking, but if you lacked a mains supply there was no
dielectric absorption current takes much longer to go in alternative.
and also takes much longer to come out.
Technology advances meant that “electronic movements”
Thus while the sample is immediately safe to handle, if could be used which were more rugged and more
the terminals are not shorted they will gradually acquire accurate. New low-voltage generators were developed
charge and become dangerous once again. So, unless which made hand cranking much easier and then
the equipment is going back into service, ensure that the ultimately battery technology enabled pure battery
terminals are shorted and grounded. power to be employed. This resulted in the long term,
very stable power supplies that we see today.
Charging Time for Large Equipment
The use of electronics has resulted in lighter, more
One question we are often asked is, “How long will it rugged, more accurate instruments that respond more
take to charge a particular piece of equipment?” The quickly. They can provide more information, which results
answer is, “We don’t know!” in us seeing transient events that were previously totally
Why not? Well, the answer depends on the actual hidden by the relative instability of the power supply and
configuration of the particular piece of equipment the inertia of the movement.
concerned. For example, the Megger S1-5010 specifies Which is better? The decision is yours.
a charging rate of “less than 5 seconds per microfarad
with 2 mA short circuit current” and “2.5 seconds per Test Lead Design
microfarad with 5 mA short circuit current.” Thus, if you The design of the test lead sets is intended to facilitate
know the capacitance of the test sample you can work connection to a variety of de-energized systems for the
out the charging time; it doesn’t matter if it is a motor, a purpose of making insulation resistance measurements.
cable, or just a slab of insulating material. In all cases it is the responsibility of the user to employ
safe working practices and verify that the system is safe
Motor Driven Insulation Testers
before connection. Even electrically isolated systems may
Another question we are frequently asked is “What exhibit significant capacitance which will become highly
happened to the old wooden box motor driven charged during the application of the insulation test.
insulation testers?” Some people seemed to think that This charge can be lethal and connections, including the
they set the standard for insulation testing and still do. leads and clips, should never be touched during the test.
These motor driven wooden boxes, with an external The system must be safely discharged before touching
motor, were produced between 1910 and 1972 and used connections.
the original Evershed patented “Cross Coils Ohmmeter.” Test leads are a key component of any precision
This was a large heavy movement that, as the name instrument and that safety, long life, and the ability
suggests, had two coils set at an angle to each other. This to provide reliable connections to the wide variety of
was the first “true ohmmeter.” The construction of the test pieces found in real applications are of utmost
movement had benefits and drawbacks. importance.
The main benefit was, because of the weight of Careful design ensures repeatable connections, which
the movement, it had considerable inertia and are practical and safe to use. Only the best materials and
was, therefore, quite insensitive to interference or most appropriate materials should be used to provide
transient events. This resulted in a very smooth motion. the essential blend of performance and safety. As an
Unfortunately, the sheer weight of the movement made example the careful specification of the cable ensures
it fairly delicate and so the instruments needed to be it remains flexible in all conditions and has extremely
handled with care. Furthermore, the instruments needed good insulation properties which will not affect the
to be leveled before use and were, therefore, supplied measurements made.

Using a double-insulated silicon cable will ensure reliable Things to Consider for Safe Operation
and safe measurements. Testing with poor or electrically In electrical test environments, safe working practices
leaky leads can provide misleading measurements and are essential to ensure the safety of operators. Insulation
may result in perfectly good insulation being diagnosed testing in high-voltage, high-energy environments poses
faulty, wasting both time and money on unnecessary a number of unique hazards listed below:
repairs. This is especially so when using long test leads.
1. Maintaining practicality with a fully insulated clip
Significant Safety Enhancements If a clip’s added insulation impedes the operation
The international standard IEC 61010-031 details the and ability to make reliable connection to the wide
safety requirements for hand-held probe assemblies variety of bus bars, wires and terminals that are
for electrical measurement and test. A number of needed, the design is useless and the operator may
amendments were made to the standard, in particular: be tempted to remove the additional insulation to
prevention of hazard from arc flash and short circuits. make connection.
Two hazards are considered: (1) the dangers of a probe 2. Protection from charged capacitance of long cables
tip or crocodile clip temporarily bridging two high Locked high-voltage plugs at the instrument end
energy conductors, and (2) the dangers of a contact reduce the likelihood of a plug losing connection
being broken while current is flowing. or pulling out which could result in the load
These hazards are particularly applicable to many of inadvertently remaining lethally charged at the end
the environments in which 5kV and 10kV insulation of a test and the instrument to incorrectly report
resistance testers are used. Should a probe or clip that no voltage was present. The lock facility is
momentarily short out two high energy conductors simple to use and prevents “plug end” disconnection
during connection, an extremely high current will flow and helps ensure the integrity of load discharge after
heating the metal and melting insulation. This itself may a test.
cause serious burns to the operator or bystander near the
clip or probe. Additionally, should the contact be broken 3. Protection from high voltage in CATIV 600V environment
while current is flowing, arcing may occur leading to an As a connection is made to more upstream supply
extremely serious situation known as arc-flash. systems, (Overvoltage Category IV relates to
incoming supplies of industrial premises), increased
The standard describes the danger of arcing as follows: protection is required from overvoltages. These
“The arcing will ionize the air in the vicinity of the arc, are transients that naturally occur on the supply,
permitting continued current flow in the vicinity of the which are typically caused by switching actions or
probe tip or crocodile clip. If there is sufficient available distant lightning strikes and present the connected
energy, then the ionization of the air will continue to equipment, test leads, clips etc with impulses of
spread and the flow of current through the air continues many thousands of volts. Such equipment must
to increase. The result is an arc flash, which is similar provide protection to the operator during the
to an explosion, and can cause injury or death to an process of connection. A clip rated for use on a 600V
operator or a bystander.” supply in overvoltage category CATIV must be able
IEC 61010-031:2008 requires probe tips and crocodile to withstand such impulses up to 8kV.
clips to be constructed to mitigate the risk of arc flash Clips that are molded from a high dielectric strength-
and short circuits, and this requirement applies to all insulating polymer with carefully defined dimensions
crocodile clips or clamps that are rated to Installation ensure electrical creepage and clearance distances
Category III or IV (CATIII or CATIV). The outer surfaces of are maintained even under adverse conditions.
crocodile clips must not, therefore, be conductive and
no metal parts should be accessible (as defined by the 4. Protection from instrument output (5 kV or 10 kV)
standard) with the clip closed. Many people fear the electrical output from their
insulation tester may be 5 or 10kV. However, in
During design phase, detailed measurement and test
reality the current available from the instrument is
procedures are used to assess the electrical creepage and
generally limited to a few milliamperes and in itself
clearance paths, to assure compliance with the standard.
presents a relatively low hazard.
Accessibility of conductive metalwork is assessed using an
IEC standard test finger. The danger here is not so much the output of the
instrument but more the working environment. If

the connected load is capacitive, this can provide To ensure maximum safety for users, products
very significant energy when charged to high should meet the stringent requirements of
voltage by the instrument, and can be lethal if the international standard IEC61010 (Safety of
touched. Additionally, when testing insulation in Electrical Equipment for Measurement, Control
many HV environments, it is not uncommon to have and Laboratory use).
to climb ladders to reach connections on equipment
Insulation testers are not only designed to
such as transformers, with associated risks of
measure insulation resistance on de-energized
working at height. In such situations, an otherwise
systems but also to undertake voltage
harmless electrical impulse may cause the user to
measurements on energized systems up to 600
react automatically, with a potentially serious injury
V ac. (phase to earth). In both these situations
from a fall. Fully insulated clips help minimize the
it is necessary to ensure the instrument can
risk.
handle not only the applied voltage but also
any transients which may occur elsewhere on
Safety Warnings
the system and be propagated down to the
The circuit under test must be switched off, de- connected instrument. In external locations
energized, isolated and checked to be safe before involving power distribution systems such
insulation test connections are made. Make sure the transients can be significant, carrying a very
circuit is not reenergized while the instrument is large amount of energy and providing a
connected. Circuit connections must not be touched significant danger to the user. Even during an
during an insulation test. insulation test when the connected circuit is
After completing a test, capacitive circuits must be de-energized, a switching operation elsewhere
completely discharged before disconnecting the test on the network or a distant lightning strike
leads. Capacitive charges can be lethal. can induce a large transient voltage in the un-
energized system which the instrument must
Tested items should be firmly shorted out with a shorting safely survive to protect the user.
link, after discharge, until required for use. This is to
guard against any stored dielectric absorption charge Fire Retardant Safety
subsequently being released, thereby raising the voltage
IEC61010 categorizes such transients into
to potentially dangerous levels.
different severities depending upon the location
Test leads, including crocodile clips, must be in good and supply voltage within the distribution
condition, clean, dry, and free of broken or cracked system. Increasingly severe transients are
insulation. The lead set should not be used if any part of encountered as we move upstream along the
it is damaged. distribution system. Instruments for connection
to external systems must be rated to Category
Instrument Case Design IV, (CATIV). Instruments rated to CATIV 600 V,
5-kV and 10-kV insulation testers are used in a multitude for example, must be able to safely withstand
of environments from motor testing in a workshop to transients of 8,000 V.
testing of power lines and switchgear in high voltage
Should a fault develop when connected to such
switchyards. The nature of the work undertaken requires
a system and the transient cause flashover within
ultimate portability and ruggedness. Unlike the majority
the instrument, the local ionization of the air
of equipment found in switchyards where durability
may create an effective short circuit across what
and safety comes from sturdy metal cases bonded to
could potentially be a very high-energy supply,
earth, insulation testers must be small and lightweight,
presenting a significant danger to the user. As
enabling work to be undertaken in all locations and
a result, IEC61010-2-030 requires instruments to
altitudes. To achieve this, instrument manufacturers
remain safe when such transients occur.
typically adopt injection molded plastic, typically ABS or
similar material, providing a lightweight and durable In addition, Part 1 of IEC61010 requires that
enclosure. there will be no spread of fire outside the
equipment in the event of a single fault
occurring within the instrument, for example

a faulty battery. There are two routes to check
compliance: first, perform “single-fault” testing within
the instrument, and second, simply fit a fire retardant
case. The safest instruments include both routes of
compliance.
Unfortunately, while the injection-molded materials
suitable for case manufacture are ideal for their
lightweight and durability properties, they are generally
not fire retardant and will not provide adequate
protection in the event of a fault. Materials with fire
retardant additives are available but suffer from reduced
durability, so will not withstand the rigors of everyday
use as well. This conundrum creates a serious challenge
for instrument manufacturers.
Megger has adopted a unique design approach by
forming a dual case design where the inner layer
provides essential fire protection leaving the outer case
uncompromised in its ruggedness and durability.

Megger Insulation Testers S1-552/2, S1-554/2, S1-1052/2, S1-1054/2
Megger 5-kV and 10-kV insulation testers are designed The S1 Series consists of two 5-kV models
for industrial and utility applications. All Megger (S1-552/2, S1-554/2) and two 10-kV models
insulation testers are robust and reliable for high (S1-1052/2, S1-1054/2).
performance use. They offer CAT IV 600 V safety
The S1 units are specially designed for utilities,
rating on all terminals and are housed in a rugged
particularly in transmission and generation applications
polypropylene case with full protection to IP65 when
where higher electrical noise and long cable runs are
being transported. A unique dual case design on all units
encountered.
allows for fire-retardant protection while maintaining
ruggedness. All S1 models are equipped with high output power
rated at 5 mA to deal with capacitive loads. In addition,
The 10 kV instruments offer full compliance with the IEEE
the S1-554/2 and S1-1054/2 units have increased
43-2000 standard “Recommended Practice for Testing
electrical noise immunity to handle the most challenging
Insulation Resistance of Rotating Machinery”. This allows
substation environments.
the user to effectively test any existing engine.
The S1 units have four diagnostic tests, including PI and
MIT515, MIT525, MIT1025 SV and can store and download results through their USB
The NEW MIT Series is comprised of three instruments: ports.
two 5-kV models and one 10-kV unit. The series is Some of the S1 Series features are:
designed for industrial and power distribution. The
n Line supply or battery operated
MIT515 (5-kV model) can be used to perform both simple
go-no-go insulation tests and basic diagnostic insulation n 5mA output current provides fast charging and
tests such as polarization index (PI). Two new advanced testing of capacitive loads
models, MIT525 (5-kV model) and MIT1025 (10-kV
n Measurement range to 15 TΩ (5-kV models) and
model), offer memory and diagnostic insulation testing.
The MIT1025 is suited to more rigorous testing of higher 35 TΩ (10-kV models)
voltage equipment. n RS232 or USB download of results
The MIT units have a fully specified guard terminal/ n On board memory for results storage
circuit to allow accurate results in a wide range of test
situations. Tests can be performed from battery or from
ac power and benefit from a long battery life and a rapid
recharge time. To assist with storing and trending results,
both the MIT525 and MIT1025 include memory and S1-554/2
download to PC via USB, as well as additional diagnostic
tests such as step voltage (SV) and ramp test.
Some of the features of the MIT Series are:
n Intuitive operation with rotary switch dial
n Line supply or battery operation
n Easy battery replacement
n Ramp test
MIT515 S1-1054/2
MIT1025

Models MJ15 and BM15 Test Leads
5-kV Insulation Testers Megger provides a full line of test lead sets that are
n Pass/fail overlays for rapid go/no go testing designed to provide safety isolation in compliance with
IEC 16010-031:2008. They provide double insulation
n Insulation resistance to 20 GΩ where practical. However, at higher voltages where
n Voltage range to 600 V indicates auto discharge the large physical dimensions would render this
impractical for a usable clip, single insulation is provided.
The BM15 and MJ15 are compact 5-kV insulation testers Safe working practices must be used, and clips and
that are simple to use and provide a quick, accurate connections must not be touched while energized.
reading of insulation resistance. Both instruments offer
four test voltages (500 V, 1 kV, 2.5 kV, 5 kV), analog More information on Megger test leads can be found on
scales, and measurement sensitivity to 20 GΩ. our website www.megger.com under the 5 kV and 10 kV
Insulation Testers’ product group.
The BM15 is powered by 8 “AA” or rechargeable alkaline
batteries while the MJ15 includes a hand-crank generator
in addition to battery power.

Your “One Stop” source for all your electrical test equipment needs
n Battery Test Equipment Megger is a world leading manufacturer and supplier

of test and measurement instruments used within
n Cable Fault Locating Equipment
the electrical power, building wiring and
n Circuit Breaker Test Equipment telecommunication industries.
n Data Communications Test Equipment
With research, engineering and manufacturing
n Fiber Optic test Equipment facilities in the USA, England and Sweden, combined
n Ground Resistance test Equipment with sales and technical support in most countries,
Megger is uniquely placed to meet the needs of its
n Insulation Power Factor (C&DF) Test Equipment customers worldwide.
n Insulation Resistance Test Equipment
n
For more information about Megger and its
Line Testing Equipment
diversified line of test and measurement instruments:
n Low Resistance Ohmmeters
Call: 1-866-254-0962
n Motor & Phase Rotation Test Equipment
n
Email: vfmarcom@megger.com
Multimeters
n Oil Test Equipment Or go to our website: www.megger.com
n Portable Appliance & Tool Testers
n Power Quality Instruments
n Recloser Test Equipment
n Relay Test Equipment
n TDR Test Equipment
n Transformer Test Equipment
n Watthour Meter Test Equipment
n STATES® Terminal Blocks & Test Switches
n Professional Hands-On Technical and Safety
Training Programs
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A Guide To Diagnostic

Insulation Testing Above 1 kV

The word “Megger” is a registered trademark

test or for operation.

Introduction.........................................................................2 Ramped Voltage Test...................................................18

Components of Test Current.........................................4 CAT Rating....................................................................24

Capacitive Charging Current......................................4 CAT Rating Guidelines..............................................24

Absorption or Polarization Current...........................4 The Importance of a CAT Rating.............................24

Surface Leakage Current............................................5 Some CAT Rating Basic Statistics..............................25

Conduction Current....................................................5 Testing Insulation Resistance of

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kV 1

2 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 3

4 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

Figure 1: Alignment of Polarized Molecules

The three currents are generally considered together as

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 5

Connecting your Insulation Tester

Figure 5: Connection to a Circuit Breaker

Figure 3: Simplistic Connection to a Cable

Figure 6: Connection to a Power Transformer

6 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 7

Figure 9: Good Load Curve

8 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 9

How the Guard Terminal Works

Guard Terminal Performance

10 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

Instrument Reading Delivered Added Reading Delivered

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 11

12 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

Evaluation and Interpretation of Results

Interpretation of the Infinity Reading

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 13

Spot Reading Test

14 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 15

16 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 17

This test is recommended by the US Bureau of

18 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

Figure 25: Asphalt-mica insulation with localized weakness

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 19

20 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

D Value (in mA V-1F-1) Insulation Condition

Different Problems/Different Tests

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 21

Additional information on the design and the Delivery of Stated Voltage

22 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 23

CAT Rating Guidelines

24 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 25

* kV is the rated machine terminal-to-terminal voltage Jan-02 14,500 68 14,490

26 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv

Figure 33: Insulation Resistance Graph Corrected for Ingress Protection

A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv 27

28 A Guide to Diagnostic Insulation Testing Above 1 kv