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I. Mechanics………………………………………………………………………………………….1

• Vectors—Dots, Cross and triple products, Gradient, divergence and applications.

• Newtonian laws of motion; calculus based approach to kinematics, forces and
dynamics, conservation law of energy; conservation of linear and angular
momentum; Dynamics of rigid body; spin and precession; gyroscope;
Gravitation; planetary motion and satellites; Kepler's laws; centripetal forces
• Special theory of relativity. Mischelson—Morley experiment and Einstein’s
postulates; Lorentz transformation; time dilation and length
contraction;equivalence of mass and energy
II. Fluid Mechanics……………………………………………………………………………..131

• Surface tension; Viscosity; Elasticity; fluid motion and Bernoulli’s theorem

III. Waves and Oscillation…………………………………………………………………….149

• Free oscillation with one and two degrees of freedom; forced and damped
oscillations and phenomenon of resonance. Simple harmonic motion. Traveling
waves and transmission of energy; Phase and Group velocity; standing waves.
Basics of sound waves.
• Reflection, Refraction, Interference, Diffraction and Polarization of waves; interfero-
meter and Newton’s rings; Diffraction Gratings and their resolving power; spectro-
meters. Electromagnetic wave equation; normal and anamolous dispersion;
coherence, lasers and applications
IV. Heat and Thermodynamics…………………………………………………………….265

• Perfect gas and Van der Waals equation; Three Laws of

Thermodynamics, internal energy, temperature, entropy. Thermal properties of
Simple system production and measurement of low temperatures; kinetic
theory of gases; Maxwellian distribution of molecular velocities; Brownian
motion; Transport phenomena. Classical Maxwell-Boltzmann Statistics and its
application; Quantum Bose—Einstein and Fermi—Dirac Statistics
Mechanics
Vectors:
Vector, in physics, a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. It is typically represented
by an arrow whose direction is the same as that of the quantity and whose length is
proportional to the quantity’s magnitude. Although a vector has magnitude and direction, it
does not have position. That is, as long as its length is not changed, a vector is not altered if
it is displaced parallel to itself.
In contrast to vectors, ordinary quantities that have a magnitude but not a direction are called
scalars. For example, displacement, velocity, and acceleration are vector quantities, while
speed (the magnitude of velocity), time, and mass are scalars.
To qualify as a vector, a quantity having magnitude and direction must also obey certain rules
of combination. One of these is vector addition, written symbolically as A + B = C (vectors are
conventionally written as boldface letters). Geometrically, the vector sum can be visualized by
placing the tail of vector B at the head of vector A and drawing vector C—starting from the tail
of A and ending at the head of B—so that it completes the triangle. If A, B, and C are vectors,
it must be possible to perform the same operation and achieve the same result (C) in reverse
order, B + A = C. Quantities such as displacement and velocity have this property
(commutative law), but there are quantities (e.g., finite rotations in space) that do not and
therefore are not vectors.
The other rules of vector manipulation are subtraction, multiplication by a scalar, scalar
multiplication (also known as the dot product or inner product), vector multiplication (also
known as the cross product), and differentiation. There is no operation that corresponds to
dividing by a vector. See vector analysis for a description of all of these rules.
Although vectors are mathematically simple and extremely useful in discussing physics, they
were not developed in their modern form until late in the 19th century, when Josiah Willard
Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside (of the United States and England, respectively) each applied
vector analysis in order to help express the new laws of electromagnetism, proposed by James
Clerk Maxwell.
Dots, Cross Product:
PDF ATTACHED
https://math.dartmouth.edu/archive/m9f07/public_html/m9lect1031.pdf
Triple products

In math, a word triple means three times. We can also say that a triple is a tuple with 3 elements. In this
article, we are going to see the meaning of triple with the help of some examples

Let aa, bb and cc be the three vectors. Then, the vectors (a×b)×c(a×b)×c and a×(b×c)a×(b×c) are
called as triple vector products. The vectors (a×b)×c(a×b)×c is perpendicular to both a×ba×b and cc.
But, $a \times b$ itself is perpendicular to the plane a and b.

Therefore, (a×b)×c(a×b)×c lies in the plane of a and b. Hence, it can be expressed as a linear
combination of aa and bb.
(a×b)×c=xa+yb(a×b)×c=xa+yb, where xx and yy are scalars.

If A, B, C are three vectors, then

A×(B×C)=(A⋅C)B−(A⋅B)CA×(B×C)=(A⋅C)B−(A⋅B)C

The above gives the vector result. This result is known as triple vector product since it involves three
vectors.

The formulae can be remembered as follows:

A×(B×C)=(AC)B−(AB)CA×(B×C)=(AC)B−(AB)C
Vector Gradient:
The gradient is a fancy word for derivative, or the rate of change of a function. It’s a vector (a
direction to move) that
Points in the direction of greatest increase of a function (intuition on why)
Is zero at a local maximum or local minimum (because there is no single direction of increase)
The term "gradient" is typically used for functions with several inputs and a single output (a
scalar field). Yes, you can say a line has a gradient (its slope), but using "gradient" for single-
variable functions is unnecessarily confusing. Keep it simple.
“Gradient” can refer to gradual changes of color, but we’ll stick to the math definition if that’s
ok with you. You’ll see the meanings are related.
Properties Of The Gradient:
Now that we know the gradient is the derivative of a multi-variable function, let’s derive some
properties.
The regular, plain-old derivative gives us the rate of change of a single variable, usually x. For
example, dF/dx tells us how much the function F changes for a change in x. But if a function
takes multiple variables, such as x and y, it will have multiple derivatives: the value of the
function will change when we “wiggle” x (dF/dx) and when we wiggle y (dF/dy).
We can represent these multiple rates of change in a vector, with one component for each
derivative. Thus, a function that takes 3 variables will have a gradient with 3 components:

• F(x) has one variable and a single derivative: dF/dx

• F(x,y,z) has three variables and three derivatives: (dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz)
The gradient of a multi-variable function has a component for each direction.
And just like the regular derivative, the gradient points in the direction of greatest increase
(here's why: we trade motion in each direction enough to maximize the payoff).
However, now that we have multiple directions to consider (x, y and z), the direction of greatest
increase is no longer simply “forward” or “backward” along the x-axis, like it is with functions
of a single variable.
If we have two variables, then our 2-component gradient can specify any direction on a plane.
Likewise, with 3 variables, the gradient can specify and direction in 3D space to move to
increase our function.
A Twisted Example
I’m a big fan of examples to help solidify an explanation. Suppose we have a magical oven,
with coordinates written on it and a special display screen:

We can type any 3 coordinates (like “3,5,2?) and the display shows us the gradient of the
temperature at that point.
The microwave also comes with a convenient clock. Unfortunately, the clock comes at a price
— the temperature inside the microwave varies drastically from location to location. But this
was well worth it: we really wanted that clock.
With me so far? We type in any coordinate, and the microwave spits out the gradient at that
location.
Be careful not to confuse the coordinates and the gradient. The coordinates are the current
location, measured on the x-y-z axis. The gradient is a direction to move from our current
location, such as move up, down, left or right.
Now suppose we are in need of psychiatric help and put the Pillsbury Dough Boy inside the
oven because we think he would taste good. He’s made of cookie dough, right? We place him
in a random location inside the oven, and our goal is to cook him as fast as possible. The
gradient can help!
The gradient at any location points in the direction of greatest increase of a function. In this
case, our function measures temperature. So, the gradient tells us which direction to move
the doughboy to get him to a location with a higher temperature, to cook him even faster.
Remember that the gradient does not give us the coordinates of where to go; it gives us the
direction to move to increase our temperature.
Thus, we would start at a random point like (3,5,2) and check the gradient. In this case, the
gradient there is (3,4,5). Now, we wouldn’t actually move an entire 3 units to the right, 4 units
back, and 5 units up. The gradient is just a direction, so we’d follow this trajectory for a tiny bit,
and then check the gradient again.
We get to a new point, pretty close to our original, which has its own gradient. This new
gradient is the new best direction to follow. We’d keep repeating this process: move a bit in
the gradient direction, check the gradient, and move a bit in the new gradient direction. Every
time we nudged along and follow the gradient, we’d get to a warmer and warmer location.
Eventually, we’d get to the hottest part of the oven and that’s where we’d stay, about to enjoy
our fresh cookies.

The Gradient
The gradient is a vector operation which operates on a scalar function to produce a
vector whose magnitude is the maximum rate of change of the function at the point
of the gradient and which is pointed in the direction of that maximum rate of change.
In rectangular coordinates the gradient of function f(x,y,z) is:

If S is a surface of constant value for the function f(x,y,z) then the gradient on the
surface defines a vector which is normal to the surface.

The divergence of the gradient is called the LaPlacian. It is widely used in physics.
Gradient, Various Coordinates
Compared to the gradient in rectangular coordinates:

In cylindrical polar coordinates:

and in spherical polar coordinates:

Divergence, Various Coordinates

Compared to the divergence in rectangular coordinates:

In cylindrical polar coordinates:

and in spherical polar coordinates:

Vector Applications:
The Resultant of two Concurrent Forces

Introduction
Vectors can be used by air-traffic controllers when tracking planes, by meteorologists
when describing wind conditions, and by computer programmers when they are
designing virtual worlds. In this section, we will present three applications of vectors
which are commonly used in the study of physics: work, torque, and magnetic force.

Work
In physics, the term work is used to describe energy that is added to or removed from
an object or system when a force is applied to it. From experiment, it has been
determined that work is maximized when the applied force is parallel to the motion of
the object and that no work is done when the force is applied perpendicular to the
motion. Therefore, the work done by a force can be described by the dot product of
the force vector and the displacement vector. For example, several forces act on the
skier in the diagram below.

Sven’s weight pulls downward toward the center of the earth, the snow support’s Sven
by pushing upward on his skis perpendicular to the slope, and the friction between
Sven’s skis and the snow points in the opposite direction from his motion. The work
done by each of these forces can be determined using the dot product of the force and
the displacement vector △x−→−,W=F→×△x−→−=F(△x) cos θ.
Wfriction=Ffriction−→−−−−×△x−→−=(Ffriction)(△x) cos 180∘=−Ffriction△x
Wsupport=Fsupport−→−−−×△x−→−=(Fsupport)(△x) cos 90∘=0
Wweight=Fweight−→−−−×△x−→−=(Fweight)(△x) cos θ=(Fweight)(△x) sin ϕ
Example: Xiao turns a crank to lower a bucket of water into a well. Determine the total
work done on the bucket if the weight of the bucket is 15 N and the tension force in
the rope is 13 N. The bucket rises a distance of 4.5 m while he is cranking.
Solution: The work done by a force acting on an object is described by the dot product
of the force vector and the displacement vector: W=F→×△x−→−=F(△x) cos θ. In
this case, the rope does negative work on the bucket because the motion and the force
are in opposite directions. If the force is measured in newtons and the displacement
in meters, the work is measured in Joules.
Wrope=Frope−→−−×△x−→−=Frope(△x) cos θ=(13N)(4.5m) cos 180∘=−58.5J
The weight force does positive work on the bucket because the motion and the force
are in the same direction.

Wweight=Fweight−→−−−×△x−→−=Fweight(△x) cos θ=(15N)(4.5m) cos 0∘=67.5J

The total work is the sum of the two individual amounts of work.

Wtotal=Wrope+Wweight=−58.5+67.5J=9.0J
A total of 9.0 J of work is done on the bucket as the bucket moves downward into the
well.

Magnetic Force
The force that a magnetic field exerts on a charged particle is strongest when the
particle moves perpendicular to the field and the magnetic force on the particle is equal
to zero when it moves parallel to the field. Therefore the magnetic force can be
described using the cross-product of the field strength vector and the particle’s velocity
vector: F→=qv→×B→where F→ is the force on the particle, q is the charge of the
particle, v→ is the velocity of the particle, and B→ is the vector representing the
magnetic field. If the velocity is measured in m/s and if the magnetic field is measured
in tesla, the force will be measured in newtons, the metric base-unit of force.
Example: In a cathode-ray-tube EKG monitor, the heart-beat trace on the screen is
drawn by a beam of electrons that move from the back of the tube toward the screen.
When the electrons hit the screen, the collision transfers energy from the electrons to
the phosphor on the inner surface of the screen, which then glows. The point where
the electrons hit the screen can be changed by changing the magnetic field inside the
tube. A sensor connected to the patient translates the electrical pulses across the
heart into the strength of the magnetic field inside the EKG’s cathode ray tube, which
then changes the path of the electrons. The force which the magnetic field exerts on
the electrons is determined both by the strength of the magnetic field and on the
velocity of the electrons. If the electrons move at 25,000 m/s northward through a 5.2
millitesla magnetic field which points west to east across the tube, what is the
magnitude and direction of the force exerted on the electron. The electron has a
charge of qelectron=−1.6×10−19C.
Torque
When you lift a baseball off a table-top, you are exerting a force that moves the object
as a whole. When you apply a force to a doorknob, you cause the door to rotate on its
hinges. Scientists use the term torque to describe the force-like property that affects
the rotation of an object. The torque can be described using the cross-product of the
force vector and the lever arm, a vector pointing radially outward from the axis of
rotation to the point where the force is applied to the object: τ→=r→×F→, where τ→ is
the torque, r→ is the lever arm, and F→ is the applied force.
Practice Problems
1. The work done by a force on an object is given by the dot product of the force vector
and the displacement vector representing the motion of the object. The diagram below
shows Sanjay pulling a large crate across the floor. The four forces which act on the
crate during this process are shown in the diagram below. Which of the four forces

exert non-zero force on the crate?

2. Le’andra is pulling her toy duck (mass 0.75 kg) at a constant speed of 3.0 m/s. The
string she uses to pull the duck makes an angle of 42oabove the horizontal and
Le’andra keeps a constant tension in the string of 2.0 N. What is the amount of work
done by the tension force when the duck is pulled forward a distance of 2.8

m?

3. Beuford has once again taken Brynna to the park to play on the slide. If Brynna has a
weight of 25 kg and if the slide has a 30o incline above the horizontal, what work is
done by her weight as she slides down the 3.5 m incline? Remember that the weight
force in newtons is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of gravity,

9.8 m/s2.

4. The scientists at Fermi Lab in Chicago, IL use magnetic fields to direct beams of
protons during their explorations of the submicroscopic structure of atoms and quarks.
Both magnetic field strength and the velocity of the protons are vector quantities.
Determine the force on a proton moving northward at 4.2 × 106 m/s through a magnetic
 field of 2.5 T oriented from east to west. (Note: protons are very tiny and are therefore
able to move VERY fast.)

5. Vector B→ represents the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field in a certain
region. Vector v→ represents the velocity of a charged particle, q = 3.2 × 10-15 C,
which moves through the magnetic field. The lengths of the vectors are such that the
velocity vector is measured in m/s and the magnetic field vector is measured in tesla.
What is the force experienced by the charged particle as it moves through the magnetic
field?
6. If two children, Rudolfo (weight = 210 N) and Jennifer (175 N), sit on either end of a
see-saw as shown below. Rudolfo is 1.0 m from the pivot and Jennifer is 1.4 m from
the pivot. What torques are exerted by the children on the see-

saw?

7. Exercise scientists and physical therapists use torque to analyze various exercises
such as the triceps exercise shown in the diagram below. Here, the triceps muscle
exerts a force on the elbow-end of the forearm, affecting the rotation of the

forearm. If the triceps exerts a force of 17N,

what torque is applied to the forearm?
Note:
For Further Details:
Enclosed PDF VECTOR BOOK

Newtonian laws of motion:

The motion of an aircraft through the air can be explained and described by physical principals
discovered over 300 years ago by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton worked in many areas of
mathematics and physics. He developed the theories of gravitation in 1666, when he was only
23 years old. Some twenty years later, in 1686, he presented his three laws of motion in the
"Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis." The laws are shown above, and the
application of these laws to aerodynamics are given on separate slides.
Newton's first law states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight
line unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force. This is normally
taken as the definition of inertia. The key point here is that if there is no net force acting on an
object (if all the external forces cancel each other out) then the object will maintain a constant
velocity. If that velocity is zero, then the object remains at rest. If an external force is applied,
the velocity will change because of the force.
The second law explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an
external force. The law defines a force to be equal to change in momentum (mass times
velocity) per change in time. Newton also developed the calculus of mathematics, and the
"changes" expressed in the second law are most accurately defined in differential forms.
(Calculus can also be used to determine the velocity and location variations experienced by
an object subjected to an external force.) For an object with a constant mass m, the second
law states that the force F is the product of an object's mass and its acceleration a:
F=m*a
For an external applied force, the change in velocity depends on the mass of the object. A
force will cause a change in velocity; and likewise, a change in velocity will generate a force.
The equation works both ways.
The third law states that for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite
reaction. In other words, if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts an
equal force on object A. Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects. The third law
can be used to explain the generation of lift by a wing and the production of thrust by a jet
engine.
Newton’s laws of motion, relations between the forces acting on a body and the motion of the
body, first formulated by English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton.
Whether we are aware of them or not, Newton’s laws of motion are at play in nearly every
physical action of our daily lives.
Newton’s first law states that, if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight
line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted
upon by a force. This postulate is known as the law of inertia. The law of inertia was first
formulated by Galileo Galilei for horizontal motion on Earth and was later generalized by René
Descartes. Before Galileo it had been thought that all horizontal motion required a direct
cause, but Galileo deduced from his experiments that a body in motion would remain in motion
unless a force (such as friction) caused it to come to rest.
Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can produce on
the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal
in both magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it. The momentum of a body is equal
to the product of its mass and its velocity. Momentum, like velocity, is a vector quantity, having
both magnitude and direction. A force applied to a body can change the magnitude of the
momentum, or its direction, or both. Newton’s second law is one of the most important in all
of physics. For a body whose mass m is constant, it can be written in the form F = ma, where
F (force) and a (acceleration) are both vector quantities. If a body has a net force acting on it,
it is accelerated in accordance with the equation. Conversely, if a body is not accelerated,
there is no net force acting on it.
Newton’s third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another that
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The third law is also known as the law of
action and reaction. This law is important in analyzing problems of static equilibrium, where all
forces are balanced, but it also applies to bodies in uniform or accelerated motion. The forces
it describes are real ones, not mere bookkeeping devices. For example, a book resting on a
table applies a downward force equal to its weight on the table. According to the third law, the
table applies an equal and opposite force to the book. This force occurs because the weight
of the book causes the table to deform slightly so that it pushes back on the book like a coiled
spring.
Newton’s laws first appeared in his masterpiece, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (1687), commonly known as the Principia. In 1543 Nicolaus Copernicus
suggested that the Sun, rather than Earth, might be at the centre of the universe. In the
intervening years Galileo, Johannes Kepler, and Descartes laid the foundations of a new
science that would both replace the Aristotelian worldview, inherited from the ancient Greeks,
and explain the workings of a heliocentric universe. In the Principia Newton created that new
science. He developed his three laws in order to explain why the orbits of the planets are
ellipses rather than circles, at which he succeeded, but it turned out that he explained much
more. The series of events from Copernicus to Newton is known collectively as the scientific
revolution.
In the 20th century Newton’s laws were replaced by quantum mechanics and relativity as the
most fundamental laws of physics. Nevertheless, Newton’s laws continue to give an accurate
account of nature, except for very small bodies such as electrons or for bodies moving close
to the speed of light. Quantum mechanics and relativity reduce to Newton’s laws for larger
bodies or for bodies moving more slowly.

Calculus Based Approach to Kinematics:

Calculus is an advanced math topic, but it makes deriving two of the three equations of motion
much simpler. By definition, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity with respect to time.
Take the operation in that definition and reverse it. Instead of differentiating velocity to find
acceleration, integrate acceleration to find velocity. This gives us the velocity-time equation. If
we assume acceleration is constant, we get the so-called first equation of motion

constant acceleration
Calculus is an advanced math topic, but it makes deriving two of the three equations of motion
much simpler. By definition, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity with respect to time.
Take the operation in that definition and reverse it. Instead of differentiating velocity to find
acceleration, integrate acceleration to find velocity. This gives us the velocity-time equation. If
we assume acceleration is constant, we get the so-called first equation of motion [1].
dv
a = dt

dv = a dt

v t
⌠ ⌠
⌡
dv = ⌡
a dt

v0 0

v − v = at
0

v = v + at [1]
0

Again by definition, velocity is the first derivative of position with respect to time. Reverse the
operation in the definition. Instead of differentiating position to find velocity, integrate velocity
to find position. This gives us the position-time equation for constant acceleration, also known
as the second equation of motion [2].
ds
v = dt
 ds = v dt

ds = (v + at) dt0

s t
⌠ ⌠
⌡
ds = ⌡
(v0 + at) dt

s0 0

s − s = v t + ½at
0 0
2

s = s + v t + ½at [2]
0 0
2

Unlike the first and second equations of motion, there is no obvious way to derive the third
equation of motion (the one that relates velocity to position) using calculus. We can't just
reverse engineer from the definitions. We need to play a rather sophisticated trick.
The first equation of motion relates velocity to time. We essentially derived it from this
derivative…
dv
=a
dt

The second equation of motion relates position to time. It came from this derivative …

ds
=v
dt
The third equation of motion relates velocity to position. By logical extension, it should come
from a derivative that looks like this…
dv
=?
ds
But what does this equal? Well nothing by definition, but like all quantities it does equal itself.
It also equals itself multiplied by 1. We'll use a special version of 1 (dtdt) and a special version
of algebra (algebra with infinitesimals). Look what happens when we do this. We get a
derivative equal to acceleration (dvdt) and another equal to the inverse of velocity (dtds).
dv dv
= 1
ds ds
dv dv dt
=
ds ds dt
dv dv dt
=
ds dt ds
dv 1
=a
ds v
Next step, separation of variables. Get things that are similar together and integrate them.
Here's what we get when acceleration is constant…
dv 1
ds
= a
v

v dv = a ds

v s
⌠ ⌠
⌡
v dv = ⌡
a ds

v0 s0

½(v − v ) = a(s − s )
2
02 0

v 2 = v + 2a(s − s ) [3]
02 0

Certainly a clever solution, and it wasn't all that more difficult than the first two derivations.
However, it really only worked because acceleration was constant — constant in time and
constant in space. If acceleration varied in any way, this method would be uncomfortably
difficult. We'd be back to using algebra just to save our sanity. Not that there's anything wrong
with that. Algebra works and sanity is worth saving.
v = v + at 0 [1]
 +
s = s + v t + ½at [2]
0 0
2

=
v = v + 2a(s − s ) [3]
2
0
2
0

constant jerk
The method shown above works even when acceleration isn't constant. Let's apply it to a
situation with an unusual name — constant jerk. (No lie, that's what it's called.) Jerk is the rate
of change of acceleration with time.
da
j=
dt
This makes jerk the first derivative of acceleration, the second derivative of velocity, and the
third derivative of displacement.
da d v d s 2 3

j= = =
dt dt dt 2 3

The SI unit of jerk is the meter per second cubed .

⎡ m/s ⎤ 2

m/s = 3
⎣ s ⎦

An alternate unit is the g per second .

⎡g 9.80665 m/s ⎤ 2

= = 9.80665 m/s 3

⎣s s ⎦
Jerk is not just some wise ass physicists response to the question, "Oh yeah, so what do you
call the third derivative of displacement?" Jerk is a meaningful quantity.
The human body comes equipped with sensors to sense acceleration and jerk. Located deep
inside the ear, integrated into our skulls, lies a series of chambers called the labyrinth. Part of
this labyrinth is dedicated to our sense of hearing (the cochlea) and part to our sense of
balance (the vestibular system). The vestibular system comes equipped with sensors that
detect angular acceleration (the semicircular canals) and sensors that detect linear
acceleration (the otoliths). We have two otoliths in each ear — one for detecting acceleration
in the horizontal plane (the utricle) and one for detecting acceleration in the vertical place
(the saccule). Otoliths are our own built in accelerometers.
The word otolith comes from the Greek οτο (oto, ear) and λιθος (lithos, stone). Each of our four
otoliths consists of a hard bone-like plate attached to a mat of sensory fibers. When the head
accelerates, the plate shifts to one side, bending the sensory fibers. This sends a signal to the
brain saying "we're accelerating." Since gravity also tugs on the plates, the signal may also
mean "this way is down." The brain is quite good at figuring out the difference between the
two interpretations. So good, that we tend to ignore it. (Sight, sound, smell, taste, touch —
where's balance in this list?) We ignore it until something changes in an unusual, unexpected,
or extreme way.
I've never been in orbit or lived on another planet. Gravity always pulls me down in the same
way. Standing, walking, sitting, lying — it's all quite sedate. Now let's hop in a roller coaster or
engage in a similarly thrilling activity like downhill skiing, Formula One racing, or cycling in
Manhattan traffic. Acceleration is directed first one way, then another. You may even
experience brief periods of weightlessness or inversion. These kinds of sensations generate
intense mental activity, which is why we like doing them. They also sharpen us up and keep
us focused during possibly life ending moments, which is why we evolved this sense in the
first place. Your ability to sense jerk is vital to your health and well being. Jerk is both exciting
and necessary.
Constant jerk is easy to deal with mathematically. As a learning exercise, let's derive the
equations of motion for constant jerk. You are welcome to try more complicated jerk
problemsif you wish.
Jerk is the derivative of acceleration. Undo that process. Integrate jerk to get acceleration.
That's the first time I've ever said that. I propose we call this the zeroeth equation of motion for
constant jerk. The reason why will be apparent after we finish the next derivation .
da
j=
dt

da = j dt

a t

⌠ ⌠
da = j dt
⌡ ⌡
a0 0

a − a = jt
0

a= a + jt [0]
0

Acceleration is the derivative of velocity. Integrate acceleration to get velocity. We've done this
process before. We called the result the velocity-time relationship or the first equation of
motion when acceleration was constant. We should give it a similar name. This is the first
equation of motion for constant jerk.
dv
a= dt

dv = a dt

dv = (a + jt) dt
0

v t

⌠ ⌠
dv = (a + jt) dt
⌡ ⌡
0

v0 0

v − v = a t + ½jt
0 0 2

v= v + a t + ½jt [1]
0 0
2

Velocity is the derivative of displacement. Integrate velocity to get displacement. We've done
this before too. The resulting displacement-time relationship will be our second equation of
motion for constant jerk.
ds
v= dt

ds = v dt

ds = (v + a t + ½jt ) dt
0 0
2

s t
⌠ ⌠
ds = (v + a t + ½jt ) dt 2
⌡ ⌡
0 0

s0 0

s − s = v t + ½a t + ⅙jt
0 0 0
2 3

s= s + v t + ½a t + ⅙jt [2]
0 0 0
2 3

Please notice something about these equations. When jerk is zero, they all revert back to the
equations of motion for constant acceleration. Zero jerk means constant acceleration, so all is
right with the world we've created. (I never said constant acceleration was realistic. Constant
jerk is equally mythical. In hypertextbook world, however, all things are possible.)
Where do we go next? Should we try to remold the velocity-displacement relationship (the
third equation of motion) in our new realm of constant jerk?
v = v + a t + ½jt
0 0
2 [1]
+
s = s + v t + ½a t + ⅙jt [2]
0 0 0 2
3

=
v = f(s) [3]
How about an acceleration-displacement relationship (the fourth equation of motion)?
a = a0 + jt [1]
+
s = s + v t + ½a t + ⅙jt [2]
0 0 0 2
3

=
a = f(s) [4]
I don't even know if these can be worked out algebraically. I doubt it. Look at that scary cubic
equation for displacement. That can't be our friend. At the moment, I can't be bothered. I don't
know if working this out would tell me anything interesting. I do know I've never needed a third
or fourth equation of motion for constant jerk — not yet. I leave this problem to the
mathematicians of the world.
This is the kind of problem that distinguishes physicists from mathematicians. A mathematician
wouldn't necessarily care about the physical significance and just might thank the physicist for
an interesting challenge. A physicist wouldn't necessarily care about the answer unless it
turned out to be useful, in which case the physicist would certainly thank the mathematician
for being so curious.
constant nothing
This page in this book isn't about motion with constant acceleration, or constant jerk, or
constant snap, crackle or pop. It's about the general method for determining the quantities of
motion (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) with respect to time and each other for any
kind of motion. The procedure for doing so is either differentiation (finding the derivative)…
• The derivative of displacement with time is velocity
(v = ds/dt).
• The derivative of velocity with time is acceleration
(a = dv/dt).

or integration (finding the integral)…

• The integral of acceleration over time is velocity

(v = ∫a dt).
• The integral of velocity over time is displacement
(s = ∫v dt).
Here's the way it works. Some characteristic of the motion of an object is described by a
function. Can you find the derivative of that function? That gives you another characteristic of
the motion (or maybe it gives you something only a mathematician would love). Can you find
its integral? That gives you a different characteristic (or maybe a load of nonsense that only a
mathematician would love). Repeat either operation as many times as necessary (probably no
more than twice). Then apply the techniques and concepts you learned in calculus and related
branches of mathematics to extract more meaning — range, domain, limit, asymptote,
minimum, maximum, extremum, concavity, inflection, analytical, numerical, exact,
approximate, and so on. I've added some important notes on this to the summary for this topic.
Forces and Dynamics:
Dynamics, branch of physical science and subdivision of mechanics that is concerned with
the motion of material objects in relation to the physical factors that affect them: force, mass,
momentum, energy.
A brief treatment of dynamics follows. For full treatment, see mechanics.
Dynamics can be subdivided into kinematics, which describes motion, without regard to its
causes, in terms of position, velocity, and acceleration; and kinetics, which is concerned with
the effect of forces and torques on the motion of bodies having mass. The foundations of
dynamics were laid at the end of the 16th century by Galileo Galilei who, by experimenting
with a smooth ball rolling down an inclined plane, derived the law of motion for falling bodies;
he was also the first to recognize that force is the cause of changes in the velocity of a body,
a fact formulated by Isaac Newton in the 17th century in his second law of motion. This law
states that the force acting on a body is equal to the rate of change of the body’s momentum.
Principles
Generally speaking, researchers involved in dynamics study how a physical system might
develop or alter over time and study the causes of those changes. In addition, Newton
established the fundamental physical laws which govern dynamics in physics. By studying his
system of mechanics, dynamics can be understood. In particular, dynamics is mostly related
to Newton's second law of motion. However, all three laws of motion are taken into account
because these are interrelated in any given observation or experiment.
Linear and rotational dynamics
The study of dynamics falls under two categories: linear and rotational. Linear dynamics
pertains to objects moving in a line and involves such quantities as force, mass/inertia,
displacement (in units of distance), velocity (distance per unit time), acceleration (distance per
unit of time squared) and momentum (mass times unit of velocity). Rotational dynamics
pertains to objects that are rotating or moving in a curved path and involves such quantities
as torque, moment of inertia/rotational inertia, angular displacement (in radians or less often,
degrees), angular velocity (radians per unit time), angular acceleration (radians per unit of
time squared) and angular momentum (moment of inertia times unit of angular velocity). Very
often, objects exhibit linear and rotational motion.
For classical electromagnetism, Maxwell's equations describe the kinematics. The dynamics
of classical systems involving both mechanics and electromagnetism are described by the
combination of Newton's laws, Maxwell's equations, and the Lorentz force.
Force
From Newton, force can be defined as an exertion or pressure which can cause an object to
accelerate. The concept of force is used to describe an influence which causes a free body
(object) to accelerate. It can be a push or a pull, which causes an object to change direction,
have new velocity, or to deform temporarily or permanently. Generally speaking, force causes
an object's state of motion to change.
For Complete CSS Physics Notes:
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For Complete CSS Physics Notes:
Call At:
03084293988,
03314019933