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 Table of Content
I. The Glorious Revolution (1688) ………………………………………………………………. 07

• Causes, and Results…………………………………………………………………….. 09

• William III and Mary II (1689-1702) …………………………………………………….. 10
• Queen Anne (1702-1714) ……………………………………………………………….. 13

II. Hanoverian Era (1714-1790) ………………………………………………………………….28

• Jacobite Rebellions (1715 and 1745) ……………………………………………….....29

• Robert Walpole and Whig Oligarchy …………………………………………………...42
• American War of Independence (1776) ………………………………………………...51

III. The Union of England and Scotland …………………………………………………...........72

IV. Union of England and Ireland ………………………………………………….....................81

V. The Old Colonial system ………………………………………………….............................85

VI. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars ……………………………………………...95

• Causes ………………………………………………….................................................98
• Britain and Napoleonic Wars …………………………………………………................107
• Impact on Britain …………………………………………………...................................120

VII. Industrial and Agricultural Revolution …………………………………………….........123

• Causes ………………………………………………….................................................124
• Effects on Political and Social Life of Britain ……………………………………...131
• Party Politics ………………………………………………………………………….140
• The Methodist Movement …………………………………………………………...148
• Socialism ………………………………………………………………………………154
• Liberalism ……………………………………………………………………………...155
• Colonization ……………………………………………………………………………157
• Chartest Movement …………………………………………………………………...161

VIII. Robert Peel and return of Torries ……………………………………………………….170

• Internal policies ………………………………………………………………………..172

• Irish Problem …………………………………………………………………………..176

IX. Victorian Era (1837-1901) …………………………………………………............................191

• Internal Reforms ………………………………………………………………………..192

• Liberals ………………………………………………………………………………198
• Foreign Policy ………………………………………………………………………....201
• Disraeli, Gladstone and Problems in Ireland …………………………………………...206

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 • Great Britain and Free Trade ………………………………………………………...209

X. Edwardian Era (1901-1910) ……………………………………………………………....212

• Domestic and Foreign Policies (1901-1910)

• The Origins of Labor Party …………………………………………...

XI. Britain, World War I and its Aftermath ………………………………….…………...229-30

• Causes ……………………………………………………………………………....233
• Britain and Peace settlement ………………………………………..……………...235
• Effects of War on Britain …………………………………………………..………...246
• League of Nations ………………………………………………………………………...254
• The Great Depression ……………………………………………………..………...270
• Appeasement and Rearmament ………………………………………..………………...27

XII. Britain ,World War II and its Aftermath …………………………………………………...278

• Causes and events ……………………………………………………………………...280

• Churchill, War Conferences …………………………………………….…….….…...289
• Creation of U.N.O ……………………………………………………………….……...307
• Effects of war …………………………………………………………………………....312
• Reforms of Labour Government ………………………………………………..…....316

XIII. Great Britain and Cold War ………………………………………………………..……..325

• Creation of Common Wealth …………………………………………………………...327

• NATO …………………………………………………………………………………....334
• Decolonization of the British Empire …………………………………………………...344
• Internal Policies and EEC ……………………………………………………………...350
• Foreign Policy …………………………………………………………………………...357

XIV. Thatcherism to Cameroun (1979-2012)

…………………………………………………...362

• Internal Policy
……………………………………………………………………………...370
• Society and culture …………………………………………………………………..…...372
• Foreign Policy ……………………………………………………………………………..380
• Falkland War ………………………………………………………………………….…...381
• John Major and his Policies
……………………………………………………………...387
• European Common Market and the Great Britain…………………………………....392
• Formation of EU …………………………………………………………………..……...394
• Tony Blair “New Labour” Economic Crunch, War on Terror and his Policies……..397
• Global Financial Crisis 2008 and the Great Britain………………………………..…406
• Reforms under Cameroun…………………………………………………………….…417

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The Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution,[b] also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King
James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English
Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of
Orange). William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his
ascending of the English throne as William III of England jointly with his wife Mary II of
England, in conjunction with the documentation of the Bill of Rights 1689.

King James's policies of religious tolerance after 1685 met with increasing opposition by
members of leading political circles, who were troubled by the king's Catholicism and his
close ties with France. The crisis facing the king came to a head in 1688, with the birth of the
King's son, James Francis Edward Stuart, on 10 June (Julian calendar).[a] This changed the
existing line of succession by displacing the heir presumptive, his daughter Mary, a
Protestant and the wife of William of Orange, with young James as heir apparent. The
establishment of a Roman Catholic dynasty in the kingdoms now seemed likely. Some of the
most influential leaders of the Tories united with members of the opposition Whigs and set
out to resolve the crisis by inviting William of Orange to England,[1] which the stadtholder,
who feared an Anglo-French alliance, had indicated as a condition for a military intervention.

After consolidating political and financial support, William crossed the North Sea and English
Channel with a large invasion fleet in November 1688, landing at Torbay. After only two
minor clashes between the two opposing armies in England, and anti-Catholic riots in several
towns, James's regime collapsed, largely because of a lack of resolve shown by the king.
However, this was followed by the protracted Williamite War in Ireland and Dundee's rising in
Scotland.[c] In England's distant American colonies, the revolution led to the collapse of the
Dominion of New England and the overthrow of the Province of Maryland's government.
Following a defeat of his forces at the Battle of Reading on 9 December, James and his wife
fled England; James, however, returned to London for a two-week period that culminated in
his final departure for France on 23 December. By threatening to withdraw his troops,
William in February 1689 convinced a newly chosen Convention Parliament to make him and
his wife joint monarchs.

The Revolution permanently ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in

England. For British Catholics its effects were disastrous both socially and politically:
Catholics were denied the right to vote and sit in the Westminster Parliament for over a
century; they were also denied commissions in the army, and the monarch was forbidden to
be Catholic or to marry a Catholic, this latter prohibition remaining in force until the UK's
Succession to the Crown Act 2013 removed it in 2015. The Revolution led to limited
toleration for Nonconformist Protestants, although it would be some time before they had full
political rights. It has been argued, mainly by Whig historians, that James's overthrow began
modern English parliamentary democracy: the Bill of Rights 1689 has become one of the
most important documents in the political history of Britain and never since has the monarch
held absolute power.

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Internationally, the Revolution was related to the War of the Grand Alliance on mainland
Europe. It has been seen as the last successful invasion of England.[2] It ended all attempts
by England in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century to subdue the Dutch Republic by
military force. However, the resulting economic integration and military co-operation
between the English and Dutch navies shifted the dominance in world trade from the Dutch
Republic to England and later to Great Britain.

The expression "Glorious Revolution" was first used by John Hampden in late 1689,[3] and is
an expression that is still used by the British Parliament.[4] The Glorious Revolution is also
occasionally termed the Bloodless Revolution, albeit inaccurately. The English Civil War (also
known as the Great Rebellion) was still within living memory for most of the major English
participants in the events of 1688, and for them, in comparison to that war (or even the
Monmouth Rebellion of 1685) the deaths in the conflict of 1688 were mercifully few.

Causes:
The Glorious Revolution was a political coup that took place in Great Britain during the mid-
17th century; the main cause of this conflict was growing Protestant concern over King
James II's strict adherence to his Catholic faith. This conflict is also known as the Revolution
of 1688, and it resulted in the solidification of Parliament's power over the monarch and the
Catholic King James II being replaced by his daughter, the Protestant Queen Mary, and her
husband King William III. Although this was a political conflict that resulted in the deposition
of a ruling monarch, it was a relatively peaceful transition in military terms, resulting in little
bloodshed.

Although the Glorious Revolution ended with King James II being replaced by a monarch of
his own bloodline and his removal from power didn't result from a violent military conflict, the
revolution does represent a foreign invasion of sorts. King William III, Mary's husband and
King James II's son-in-law, was a member of the Dutch aristocracy and was known as William
of Orange before he took the throne in England. Although the revolution may be referred to
as the Bloodless Revolution, Ireland and Scotland responded with force, which led to further
revolutionary conflict and much more bloodshed in those two areas

Results:
A result of the Glorious Revolution in England was that the government changed from an
absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. An absolute monarchy gives the king the
power to do anything without constraints from laws or parliament, whereas a constitutional
monarchy limits the king's power through parliament.

The Glorious Revolution occurred in England in 1688 and is also known as the English
Revolution, the Bloodless Revolution or the Revolution of 1688. It was a coup that overthrew
King James II without any bloodshed and placed King William III and his wife Mary in power.

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The 1689 English Bill of Rights came from the revolution and established a democratic form
of government.

William III and Mary II (1689-1702)

In 1689 Parliament declared that James had abdicated by deserting his kingdom. William
(reigned 1689-1702) and Mary (reigned 1689-94) were offered the throne as joint monarchs.

They accepted a Declaration of Rights (later a Bill), drawn up by a Convention of Parliament,

which limited the Sovereign's power, reaffirmed Parliament's claim to control taxation and
legislation, and provided guarantees against the abuses of power which James II and the
other Stuart Kings had committed.

The exclusion of James II and his heirs was extended to exclude all Catholics from the
throne, since 'it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and
welfare of this protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince'. The Sovereign was
required in his coronation oath to swear to maintain the Protestant religion.

The Bill was designed to ensure Parliament could function free from royal interference. The
Sovereign was forbidden from suspending or dispensing with laws passed by Parliament, or
imposing taxes without Parliamentary consent.

The Sovereign was not allowed to interfere with elections or freedom of speech, and
proceedings in Parliament were not to be questioned in the courts or in any body outside
Parliament itself. (This was the basis of modern parliamentary privilege.)

The Sovereign was required to summon Parliament frequently (the Triennial Act of 1694
reinforced this by requiring the regular summoning of Parliaments).

Parliament tightened control over the King's expenditure; the financial settlement reached
with William and Mary deliberately made them dependent upon Parliament, as one Member
of Parliament said, 'when princes have not needed money they have not needed us'.

Finally, the King was forbidden to maintain a standing army in time of peace without
Parliament's consent.

The Bill of Rights added further defences of individual rights. The King was forbidden to
establish his own courts or to act as a judge himself, and the courts were forbidden to
impose excessive bail or fines, or cruel and unusual punishments.

However, the Sovereign could still summon and dissolve Parliament, appoint and dismiss
Ministers, veto legislation and declare war.

The so-called 'Glorious Revolution' has been much debated over the degree to which it was
conservative or radical in character. The result was a permanent shift in power; although the

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monarchy remained of central importance, Parliament had become a permanent feature of
political life.

The Toleration Act of 1689 gave all non-conformists except Roman Catholics freedom of
worship, thus rewarding Protestant dissenters for their refusal to side with James II.

After 1688 there was a rapid development of party, as parliamentary sessions lengthened
and the Triennial Act ensured frequent general elections.

Although the Tories had fully supported the Revolution, it was the Whigs (traditional critics of
the monarchy) who supported William and consolidated their position.

Recognising the advisability of selecting a Ministry from the political party with the majority in
the House of Commons, William appointed a Ministry in 1696 which was drawn from the
Whigs.

Known as the Junto, it was regarded with suspicion by Members of Parliament as it met
separately, but it may be regarded as the forerunner of the modern Cabinet of Ministers.

In 1697, Parliament decided to give an annual grant of £700,000 to the King for life, as a
contribution to the expenses of civil government, which included judges' and ambassadors'
salaries, as well as the Royal Household's expenses.

The Bill of Rights had established the succession with the heirs of Mary II, Anne and William
III in that order, but by 1700 Mary had died childless, Anne's only surviving child (out of 17
children), the Duke of Gloucester, had died at the age of 11 and William was dying. The
succession had to be decided.

The Act of Settlement of 1701 was designed to secure the Protestant succession to the
throne, and to strengthen the guarantees for ensuring parliamentary system of government.

Mary had died of smallpox in 1694, aged 32, and without children. According to the Act,
succession to the throne therefore went to Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover and James
I's granddaughter, and her Protestant heirs.

The Act also laid down the conditions under which alone the Crown could be held. No
Roman Catholic, nor anyone married to a Roman Catholic, could hold the English Crown.
The Sovereign now had to swear to maintain the Church of England (and after 1707, the
Church of Scotland).

The Act of Settlement not only addressed the dynastic and religious aspects of succession, it
also further restricted the powers and prerogatives of the Crown.

Under the Act, parliamentary consent had to be given for the Sovereign to engage in war or
leave the country, and judges were to hold office on good conduct and not at royal pleasure
- thus establishing judicial independence.

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The Act of Settlement reinforced the Bill of Rights, in that it strengthened the principle that
government was undertaken by the Sovereign and his or her constitutional advisers (i.e. his
or her Ministers), not by the Sovereign and any personal advisers whom he or she happened
to choose.

One of William's main reasons for accepting the throne was to reinforce the struggle against
Louis XIV. William's foreign policy was dominated by the priority to contain French
expansionism. England and the Dutch joined the coalition against France during the Nine
Years War.

Although Louis was forced to recognise William as King under the Treaty of Ryswick (1697),
William's policy of intervention in Europe was costly in terms of finance and his popularity.

The Bank of England, established in 1694 to raise money for the war by borrowing, did not
loosen the King's financial reliance on Parliament as the national debt depended on
parliamentary guarantees.

William's Dutch advisers were resented, and in 1699 his Dutch Blue Guards were forced to
leave the country.

Never of robust health, William died as a result of complications from a fall whilst riding at
Hampton Court in 1702.

Queen Anne (1702-1714)

Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714)[n 1] became Queen of England, Scotland and
Ireland on 8 March 1702. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, two of her realms, the
kingdoms of England and Scotland, united as a single sovereign state known as Great
Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death.

Anne was born in the reign of her uncle Charles II, who had no legitimate children. Her
father, James, was first in line to the throne. His suspected Roman Catholicism was
unpopular in England, and on Charles's instructions Anne was raised as an Anglican. Three
years after he succeeded Charles, James was deposed in the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688.
Anne's Dutch Protestant brother-in-law and Cousin William III became joint monarch with his
wife, Anne's elder sister Mary II. Although the sisters had been close, disagreements over
Anne's finances, status and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Mary's accession and
they became estranged. William and Mary had no children. After Mary's death in 1694,
William continued as sole monarch until he was succeeded by Anne upon his death in 1702.

As queen, Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians, who were more likely to share her
Anglican religious views than their opponents, the Whigs. The Whigs grew more powerful
during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession, until in 1710 Anne dismissed many
of them from office. Her close friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough,
turned sour as the result of political differences.

Anne was plagued by ill health throughout her life. From her thirties onwards, she grew
increasingly lame and obese. Despite seventeen pregnancies by her husband, Prince

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George of Denmark, she died without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the
House of Stuart. Under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701, she was succeeded by her
second cousin George I of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts
through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, a daughter of James VI and I.

Early life:
Anne was born at 11:39 p.m. on 6 February 1665 at St James's Palace, London, the fourth
child and second daughter of James, Duke of York (afterwards James II and VII), and his first
wife, Anne Hyde.[1] Her father was the younger brother of King Charles II, who ruled the
three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, and her mother was the daughter of Lord
Chancellor Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. At her Anglican baptism in the Chapel Royal
at St James's, her older sister, Mary, was one of her godparents, along with the Duchess of
Monmouth and the Archbishop of Canterbury, Gilbert Sheldon.[2] The Duke and Duchess of
York had eight children, but Anne and Mary were the only ones to survive into adulthood.[3]

As a child, Anne suffered from an eye condition, which manifested as excessive watering
known as "defluxion". For medical treatment, she was sent to France, where she lived with
her paternal grandmother, Queen Henrietta Maria, at the Château de Colombes near
Paris.[4] Following her grandmother's death in 1669, Anne lived with an aunt, Henrietta Anne,
Duchess of Orléans. On the sudden death of her aunt in 1670, Anne returned to England.
Her mother died the following year.[5]

As was traditional in the royal family, Anne and her sister were brought up separated from
their father in their own establishment at Richmond, London.[6] On the instructions of
Charles II, they were raised as Protestants.[7] Placed in the care of Colonel Edward and Lady
Frances Villiers,[8] their education was focused on the teachings of the Anglican church.[9]
Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was appointed as Anne's preceptor.[10]

Around 1671, Anne first made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who later became her
close friend and one of her most influential advisors.[11] Jennings married John Churchill
(the future Duke of Marlborough) in about 1678. His sister, Arabella Churchill, was the Duke
of York's mistress, and he was to be Anne's most important general.[12]

In 1673, the Duke of York's conversion to Roman Catholicism became public, and he married
a Catholic princess, Mary of Modena, who was only six and a half years older than Anne.
Charles II had no legitimate children, and so the Duke of York was next in the line of
succession, followed by his two surviving daughters from his first marriage, Mary and Anne.
Over the next ten years, the new Duchess of York had ten children, but all were either
stillborn or died in infancy, leaving Mary and Anne second and third in the line of succession
after their father.[13] There is every indication that, throughout Anne's early life, she and her
stepmother got on well together,[14] and the Duke of York was a conscientious and loving
father.

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Marriage:
Anne, circa 1684, painted by Willem Wissing and Jan van der Vaardt

In November 1677, Anne's elder sister, Mary, married their Dutch first cousin, William of
Orange, at St James's Palace, but Anne could not attend the wedding because she was
confined to her room with smallpox.[16] By the time she recovered, Mary had already left for
her new life in the Netherlands. Lady Frances Villiers contracted the disease, and died.
Anne's aunt Lady Henrietta Hyde (the wife of Laurence Hyde) was appointed as her new
governess.[17] A year later, Anne and her stepmother visited Mary in Holland for two
weeks.[18]

Anne's father and stepmother retired to Brussels in March 1679 in the wake of anti-Catholic
hysteria fed by the Popish Plot, and Anne visited them from the end of August.[18] In
October, they returned to Britain, the Duke and Duchess to Scotland and Anne to
England.[19] She joined her father and stepmother at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh from
July 1681 until May 1682.[20] It was her last journey outside England.[21]

Anne's second cousin George of Hanover (her eventual successor) visited London for three
months from December 1680, sparking rumours of a potential marriage between them.[22]
Historian Edward Gregg dismissed the rumours as ungrounded, as her father was essentially
exiled from court, and the Hanoverians planned to marry George to his first cousin Sophia
Dorothea of Celle as part of a scheme to unite the Hanoverian inheritance. Other rumours
claimed she was courted by Lord Mulgrave (later made Duke of Buckingham), although he
denied it. Nevertheless, as a result of the gossip, he was temporarily dismissed from
court.[24]

With George of Hanover out of contention as a potential suitor for Anne, King Charles looked
elsewhere for an eligible prince who would be welcomed as a groom by his Protestant
subjects but also acceptable to his Catholic ally, Louis XIV of France.[25] The Danes were
Protestant allies of the French, and Louis XIV was keen on an Anglo-Danish alliance to
contain the power of the Dutch. A marriage treaty between Anne and Prince George of
Denmark, younger brother of King Christian V, was negotiated by Anne's uncle Laurence
Hyde, who had been made Earl of Rochester, and the English Secretary of State for the
Northern Department, Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland.[26] Anne's father consented
to the marriage eagerly because it diminished the influence of his other son-in-law, William of
Orange, who was naturally unhappy at the match.

Bishop Compton officiated at the wedding of Anne and George of Denmark on 28 July 1683
in the Chapel Royal.[28] Though it was an arranged marriage, they were faithful and devoted
partners.[29] They were given a set of buildings in the Palace of Whitehall known as the
Cockpit as their London residence,[30] and Sarah Churchill was appointed one of Anne's
ladies of the bedchamber.[31] Within months of the marriage, Anne was pregnant, but the
baby was stillborn in May. Anne recovered at the spa town of Tunbridge Wells,[32] and over
the next two years, gave birth to two daughters in quick succession: Mary and Anne Sophia.

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