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 Table of Content:
Section-I
I. Introduction

Basicconcepts used in understanding crime, criminality and criminal…………………….….7

II. Understanding Criminology

Definition, meaning and scope of criminology, Criminology and criminal law, Crime as social problem,
Crime and social organization, related concepts: Deviance, Sin and Vice…………………………..10

III. Crime and Criminals

Occasional criminals, Habitual criminals, Professional criminals, White-collar crime, Organized crime,
corporate crimes………………………… ……………………………..................….28

IV. CrimeandCriminality: Theoretical Perspectives…………………………….36

Early explanation of criminal behavior

• Classical School
• Positivist School (Biological and Psychological Explanations)
• Positivist School (Sociological Explanation)
• Social Disorganization theory
• Strain theory
• Social Control theory
• Learning theory
• Labeling Theory
• Islamic perspective

Section-II
V. Juvenile Delinquency

Meaning, definitions (Behavioral Vs Legal), Juvenile delinquent Vs status offender, Official statistics
of juvenile delinquency……………………………………………………………..…….45

VI. Juvenile Justice System

• Role of police……………………………………………….……….52

Juvenile court process:…

• pretrial, trial and sentencing………………………………………………………………….53

• Role of prosecutor, defense counsel, juvenile judge, juvenile probation officer……………55
• Juvenile correctional institutions,probation and non-punitive alternatives………………….73

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VII. The Criminal Justice System:

• Police and its role………………………………………………………………………...…86

• Trial and Conviction of Offenders
• Agencies: formal and informal……………………………………………………………….90
• Criminal courts: procedures and problems………………………………………………….92
• Role of prosecutors……………………………………………………………………………93
• Prisons, Probation and Parole……………………………………………………………….108

VIII. Punitive and Reformative Treatment of Criminals………………………………………113

• Corporal punishment, Imprisonment, Rehabilitation of criminals.

Section-III
IX. Criminal Investigation

Principles of criminal investigation, Manual of preliminary investigation, Intelligence operations, Data

base investigation, Electronic investigation, Forensic Investigation…………………………….….116

X. Techniques of Investigations

Gathering information from persons, Interviewing and interrogation techniques, Criminal

investigation analysis…..…………………………………………………………………………..120

XI. Legal and Ethical Guidelines for Investigators

Stop and frisk operations, Arrest procedures, Search and seizure…………………………………..152

XII. International Policing Criminal Justice Monitoring Organizations

UNAFEI, INTERPOL, EUROPOL, UNODC, UNICEF, IPA, etc…………………………………..162

Section-IV
XIII. Modern Concepts in Contemporary Criminology

• Terrorism, Radicalism and War on Terror…………………………………………………175

• Media’s representation of Crime and the Criminal Justice System………………………….176
• Modern Law Enforcement and Crime Prevention…………………………………………179
• Intelligence-led Policing…………………………………………………………….………183
• Community Policing…………………………………………………………...……………186
• Private Public Partnership……………………………………………….…………………189
• Gender and Crime in Urban and Rural Pakistan……………………………………………..190
• Crime and Urbanization, Organized Crime and White-Collar Crime………………………..193
• Human Rights Abuses and Protection, especially Children, Women and Minorities and the role
of civil society and NGOs……………………………………………………………….…201
• Money-laundering……………………………………………………………………….…201
• Cyber Crime.. ………………………………………………………………………...…205
• Role of NAB, FIA, ANF………………………………………………………………...211

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Introduction
Basic concepts used in understanding
What is Crime:

A crime is an act that breaks a law that relates to how to behave in society. The harm caused by the act
is seen to be against society as a whole, not just a specific person.

More specifically, a crime is an act (something you do) or omission (something you don’t do) that is
against the law and punishable upon conviction. Crime includes:

• Criminal Code offences against a person or property;

• drug offences; and
• some motor vehicle offences.

Crime Against a Person

A crime against a person includes force or threat of force against someone, for example:

• deliberately and violently hurting another person;

• threatening to hurt or attempting to hurt another person;
• murder, attempted murder, sexual assault, robbery and kidnapping; and
• some traffic accidents that result in death.

Crime Against Property

A crime against property includes unlawfully taking or attempting to take someone’s property from
them or willfully damaging another person’s property. Property crimes may or may not involve violence
against a person. Some examples include:

• theft, for example, stealing someone’s car or stealing something from a vehicle;
• having stolen property or being dishonest with someone to gain something illegally (fraud);
• breaking and entering into someone’s home or breaking someone’s windows.

Other Types of Crime

Other crimes under the Criminal Code of Canada that do not fall under the above two categories (crime
against a person or property) include:

drug offences;

• motor vehicle offences (for example, impaired driving that results in death);
• arson (setting fires on purpose);
• gaming and betting; and
• weapons possession.

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Major Offences

Major offences, called ‘crimes’ are tried on indictment in the Supreme Court before a judge and jury of
twelve citizens. The judge instructs the jury as to the applicable law and the jury decides all issues of
fact and then applies those facts to the law in order to reach a verdict. Tasmania, along with Queensland,
Western Australia and the Northern Territory, has an Act codifying the criminal law. This means that
we have an Act that sets out all the crimes in our jurisdiction; there is one central source, with a few
other Acts that define crimes. The relevant Act in Tasmania is the Criminal Code Act 1924 (Tas) (the
Criminal Code). The other three States, and the Australian Capital Territory, rely on the common law,
updated in parts by state legislation, to determine what is a crime.

Most Tasmanian crimes are set out in the Criminal Code, but there are a few contained elsewhere, such
as dangerous driving, and more serious drug offences, for example, trafficking that are tried on
indictment. Alleged breaches of more serious Commonwealth laws are tried in the same way.

Lesser Offences:

Lesser offences, not strictly ‘crimes’, are contained in numerous pieces of legislation - Police Offences
Act 1935 (Tas), Traffic Act 1925 (Tas), Road Safety (Alcohol and Drugs) Act 1970 (Tas), to name a
few. Offences are also set out in regulations made under many Acts such as the numerous regulations
under the Traffic Act.

Alleged breaches of such Acts, and the regulations made under them, are decided summarily by a
magistrate.

Proceedings are commenced by complaint (Justices Act 1959 (Tas), s27). A complaint is a document
usually issued by the police to a justice of a court, containing an allegation that a person has committed
an offence of a minor nature. A justice is usually a magistrate in the case of lesser offences. The person
against who the complaint is made will also be given a copy of the complaint. A person can be brought
before the court in several ways. If they are in custody, they may be bailed by the police or a magistrate
to appear in court at a later date. They can also be brought before the court by way of a summons. A
summons is a document issued by the court to a person, usually by mail, detailing the date, time, place
and reason a person must be in court, If a person fails to answer a summons by appearing in court, a
justice can issue a warrant for their apprehension.

What is Criminality:

While the term criminality is used often in criminology to refer to actual criminal characteristics of a
person (i.e., propensity evidence such as past criminal record, etc.), we use the term criminality to refer
to the extent to which a person’s appearance triggers stereotypes about criminals. Research on facial
stereotypes and their effects on social and cognitive processes has been predominantly limited to the
attractive and babyface stereotypes (Zebrowitz, 1998). While we know that people are quick to make
attributions based on appearance (Berscheid & Walster, 1974; Berry & McArthur, 1985; Bull &
Rumsey, 1988; Zebrowitz, 1998; Zebrowitz & Collins, 1997), little work to date has evaluated the
stereotype of criminality. Stereotypes of criminal appearance are important not simply for broadening
our understanding of the link between face perception and trait attributions, but for the practical
applications in the legal system. Eyewitnesses, lawyers, judges, jurors and police officers make
decisions directly related to interactions with individuals who may or may not have committed a crime.
Criminal stereotypes introduce a bias into these processes that negatively affect people’s lives and affect
the course of law enforcement activities.

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What is crimina

• involving illegal activity : relating to crime

• relating to laws that describe crimes rather than to laws about a person's rights
• morally wrong

Examples of CRIMINAL

• a history of criminal behavior

• The captain of the wrecked boat was accused of criminal negligence.
• The company brought criminal charges against her.
• It's criminal that the government is doing nothing to stop the problem.

To ensure public order and safety, lawmakers classify certain acts as criminal offenses. Each state has
adopted laws that make certain acts illegal, although the punishment may vary from one state to another.
Federal criminal laws and sentences apply no matter where you are in the United States.

Criminal vs. Civil Cases

Court cases are divided into two broad categories: civil and criminal. Businesses and private citizens
file civil lawsuits, usually for the purpose of getting the other side to pay money or stop doing
something. If you lose a civil lawsuit, your credit rating may suffer – but you won’t go to jail.

If you are accused of a criminal offense, the government files the lawsuit. If you are found guilty, you
may be required to pay a fine or go to jail. A criminal conviction can affect your ability to get a driver’s
license, find a place to live, or get a job.

State Criminal Offenses

The county or district attorney files state criminal cases. Crimes that fall under the jurisdiction of the
state include acts of burglary, murder and theft that take place within the state. Some acts may be crimes
in one state but not in others. Texas, for example, lists more than 1,000 acts as criminal offenses –
including reproducing or tampering with a livestock mark. If you are found guilty of a state crime, you
may be fined, placed on probation or ordered to spend time in a state prison.

Federal Criminal Offenses

Federal criminal laws apply throughout the United States. Federal crimes include kidnapping across
state lines, civil rights violations, selling illegal drugs across states lines and mail fraud. Committing a
crime on federal property or against a federal employee is also a federal crime. A federal prosecutor
files the charges in federal court and, if you are found guilty, you may be sent to a federal prison.

Types of Criminal Offenses

Many states group criminal offenses into two categories: misdemeanors and felonies. A misdemeanor
is a lesser offense, such as theft, and the punishment is typically less than one year in a local jail.
Felonies are more serious crimes that include rape, murder and kidnapping, and offenders are usually
sentenced to more than one year in prison. Some states refer to criminal offenses in terms of degrees.

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A fourth-degree offense such as mischief is less serious than a first-degree crime such as murder. The
least serious criminal offenses are called infractions. Vandalism and traffic violations are examples of
infractions.

A Criminal Law Lawyer Can Help

The law surrounding criminal offenses is complicated. Plus, the facts of each case are unique. This
article provides a brief, general introduction to the topic. For more detailed, specific information, please
contact a criminal lawyer.

Definition, meaning and scope of

Criminology
Man is a social animal. Human beings live in communities and groups together engaged in mutual
concourse. In order to keep order and avoid conflict it is essential to have a set of rules and regulations
of collective behaviour. Each community and each group prescribes its own behavioural norms and
standards which keep the wheels of society well-oiled and as far as possible frictionless; only thus can
a community make progress. The norms and standards prescribed in a particular society determine the
activities of the individuals which can be considered normal or permissible any deviation from these
permissible acts is an abnormal behaviour. If these abnormal acts are pronouncedly deviant and pose
threat to communal order and peace, these are called crimes. Thus crimes may be defined as an act
inimical to social peace and harmony. The crimes may be defined as an act inimical to social peace and
harmony. The crimes are hurtful to social stability. In order to achieve prevention of crimes, we need
to study the various causes and background of crimes systematically. The discipline engaged in such a
systematic investigation is known as criminology. Before making a detailed study of Criminology it is
essential to understand its meaning and scope.

Meaning and Definition of Criminology

The word criminology is composite of two words criminal + logy. Literally, it means a systematic study
of the criminals, that is, persons who break or offend the social or group law. However, since the
offences committed by criminals are crimes; and as crimes occur in society, the term criminology fully
means a study of crimes as well as criminals in relation to society. It also tries to determine the causes
of these and also thereby recommends preventive measures. The science of criminology is a scientific
and systematic study of a social phenomenon. Various scientific techniques and methods are employed
for the study of this phenomenon. As criminology views man as a social animal, it tries to study social
interactions and phenomena to place its subject matter in a proper perspective. The science of
criminology also investigates the structure and function of social laws rules and regulations. How do
the social laws, conventions and traditions get formulated? How and why does an individual break
them? Is there an element of compulsion or coercion in his defiance of the law? Or is it deliberate?
These and other allied matters are studied by criminology with a view to find adequate answers which
may help to formulate the effective preventive measures and controls. The reaction of society towards
a criminal and the disposition of criminal towards society are the important matters for investigation
which help to understand adequately the phenomenon of crime. Only by a full appreciation of these
matters can we learn ways and means to control crime. The above discussion makes explicit the meaning
of criminology. But in order to appreciate fully the nature of criminology, it is essential to examine

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closely the definitions given by learned sociologists and eminent criminologists. Below we give the
most important of these definitions:

(1) According to an eminent sociologist Sutherland: “Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding
crime as a social phenomenon.” This definition exhibits sociological bias and regards crime to be
reaction to certain set of social factors and causes.

(2) According to an eminent criminologist Elliot: “Criminology may be defined as the scientific study
of rime and its treatment.” This definition, besides emphasizing the scientific investigation into the
nature and etiology of crime, stresses the practical or utilitarian nature of this body of knowledge,
namely, devising ways and means to prevent or reduce the incidence of crime and rehabilitate criminals
as normal members of the society.

(3) According to renowned criminologist D. R. Taft: “Criminology is the study which includes all the
subject matter necessary to understanding and prevention of crimes together with the punishment and
treatment of delinquents and criminals.” This is a comprehensive definition and describes theoretical as
well as practical aspects of the study. It brings out clearly the fact, which may get overlooked usually,
that criminology is concerned not with the offences committed by adults only but also deals with
juvenile offences.

According to another noted sociologist Webster, the science of Criminology may be described to be
“the scientific study of crime as a social phenomenon, or of criminals and their mental traits, habits and
discipline.” This definition has the merit of emphasizing equally the sociological as well as
psychological aspects of the crime and the criminal.

Nature of Criminology:

The foregoing discussion about the meaning and description of criminology makes abundantly explicit
and clear the nature of this science. Fundamentally speaking, the task of criminology is a scientific,
systematic, statistical, structural and functional in depth study of crime. The behaviour covertly deviant
is liable to become overtly offensive of social norms and laws, both from sociological and psychological
standpoints. Besides having a theoretical understanding of crime, criminal and his behaviour, the object
of criminology is also to devise effective tools to minimize the incidence of crime, reform and
rehabilitate the criminal. Lastly, criminology also tries to suggest reform in penal code and its
enforcement in order to make these rational and humanitarian.

Scope of Criminology

Like other social sciences, the scope of criminology is also quite vast and extensive. It is related to each
and every social class and structure. Though the scope of criminology is very vast and coextensive with
many sciences, the criminologists have tried to limit its scope in order to be able to study the subject
scientifically, systematically and exhaustively. The viewpoints of certain notable criminologists are
given on next page:

(A) According to Sutherland the science of criminology, “includes within its scope the processes of
making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting towards the breaking of laws.” In the opinion of
Sutherland criminology has three distinct aspects of departments. Though distinct, these are nonetheless

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not independent, but inter-linked. A thorough study of these aspects exhausts the scope of criminology;
to study all of them is the same as studying the whole science of criminology. In accordance with
Sutherland’s description of the scope of criminology, we can divide it into departments:

(a) The sociology of law-In this we study the nature of crime from legalistic point of view. Also we
investigate into the effects of present laws upon them and study the possible reforms in the laws in order
to prevent and control the occurrence of crime. The major concern of the sociology of law is to critically
examine the impact of various legal systems upon crime. This study can go a long way to evolve suitable
changes in the laws to curb crime.

(b) Criminal Etiology-In this department a systematic investigation into the various causes of crime is
made. Here we study the social and personal factors responsible for the occurrence of crime and growth
of criminals.

(c) Penology-Besides knowledge and determination of the causes and factors which generate or
encourage crime, it is equally, if not more essential to know the ways and means of controlling and
preventing the crime. This aspect is studied systematically and in a scientific manner to achieve control
over crime. The facts and theories in this regard from the scope of Penology, an important department
of criminology.

The Viewpoint of Elliot and Merrill

The eminent scholars Elliot and Merrill have made an exhaustive and thorough study regarding the
scope of criminology. According to these scholars, in criminology we study four sets of facts. These
are as follows:

(a) The Nature of Crime-What are the features of crime? What type of action is crime? In what respect
does a criminal act differ from a social or moral act? Is it just the action which may be considered
criminal or can the motive make difference to our description of a crime? For example, the theft
committed for personal gain and the theft committed for impersonal reasons or social gain are both
cases of theft. Can we make any distinction between the two? The answers to these questions tell us the
nature of crime.

(b) Investigations into the causes of Crime-Under this aspect of Criminology we study the reasons of
criminal behaviour. The different types of crime have different causes. Are these differences apparent
or real? Can we come by a general theory of crime which will be adequate to explain all types of crime?
Are there relations, inverse or direct, between various crimes. These questions are investigated under
this head. Besides, we also study the question of responsibility of crimes. If criminals are made and not
born, who is responsible for encouraging criminality? Is it parent education or social system that is
responsible in conjunction or one of these alone? All these questions form the subject mater of this
aspect of criminology.

(c) Individualized Study of Criminals-How and when does one turn into a criminal? What particular
event or series of events happen which turn man towards criminality? In order to know all these facts
we have to study in detail the personal lives of the criminals. Also we have to study the life of a person
in totality for understanding the nature of crime and criminal. For this purpose we make use of what has
come to be known as the technique of case-history method.

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(d) Study of Prevention of Crime & Reform of the Criminal-Most obviously crimes is inimical to the
interests of the society. They not only disturb the social equilibrium but make life hell for the criminal
as well as his relatives. Even more, due to crime the normal law abiding citizen lives in fear. Therefore
it is most essential to devise ways and means to prevent crime and reform the criminals. Should the
system of punishment the deterrent, preventive, reformative or exemplary? What type of punishment is
adequate for each type of crime? Such questions are studied under this head.

Criminology and Criminal law

Criminology ought before anything to show humanitythe way to combat, and especially, prevent,
crime.What is required more than anything is soundknowledge, whereas up to the present we have had
far too much of dogma and dilettantism. Whoever is inclose touch with what is called socio-pathological
phenomena should make a note of this speciallycriminal jurists, whose knowledge of the
lawimperatively needs to be supplemented with that of thesubject-matter with which it has to deal.

C :The nature of criminological study :Criminology is concerned with the scientific study of crime. It
is essentially a multi-disciplinary study. Thestudy of crime is carried out by many scholars from the
point of view of their different disciplines, andsometimes (though rarely and with difficulty)
throughinterdisciplinary studies.

Criminology isn't be confused with the science of criminal detection or forensic science and
forensic pathology. There is no direct connection between thedetection of crime and the study of crimes
and criminal behavior carried out by criminologists, though theremay sometimes be an indirect
connection. Forensicscientists and pathologists serve the needs of the police and the courts in crime
detection and crime prevention.Indirectly, however, their work may throw somevaluable light on
criminal behavior in ways which will be of interest to the criminologist, e.g. regarding the patterns of
homicide, the battered baby syndrome andthe study of alcoholism and drug abuse in relation tocrime.
The criminologist is concerned more with howand why crimes come to be committed rather than
whodid it, and providing proof of guilt.

Criminology is best seen as a social scienceconcerned with those aspects of human behavior regarded
as criminal because they are prohibited by the criminal law, together with such aspects of
sociallydeviant behavior as are closely related to crime andmay usefully be studied in this connection.
The mainfocus of the criminologist should remain on criminal behavior as an aspect of social behavior,
including theway people come to be perceived and dealt with asoffenders. The study can best be viewed
as limited bythe range of behavior currently dealt with as criminal because it is prohibited by the current
criminal law. thelist of crimes is not immutable, however, andhistorically many changes have occurred
in the list of criminal prohibitions. In our time changes have beenmade or are seen as desirable in order
to reflectchanges in public sentiment or judgments of publicneeds and values.

The criminologist may properly be concerned tostudy fringe areas, 'deviant' behavior which is
notactually criminal, in order to throw light on the gaps inthe criminal law or to show that some closely
relatedtypes of behavior which are regarded as criminalshould no longer be so defined. The
sociologistdescribes such behavior as socially deviant behavior,and sometimes studies aspects of
socially deviant behavior in their own right, as it were. Studies of alcoholism, drug abuse, gambling and
sexual behavior provide examples, as do studies of certain 'white-collar' business or economic
activities.

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Such studies may throw light on the true nature of the behavior in question and whether the criminal
lawshould or should not intervene.

When we say that criminology should limit its scopeto the study of conduct which is criminal because
itcontravenes the criminal law in one or more of its prohibitions, we do not mean that in studying such
behavior the criminologist must stick slavishly to thelegal definitions and descriptions of what is a
criminaloffence. Sometimes criminologists find it useful to gooutside the strict legal definitions in order
to study a particular type of behavior .

A word of warning must be uttered about thetendency of some criminologists to stray too far fromthe
focus or field of interest described thus far, and toinclude in their discussion a much wider range of
conduct which is in their view anti-social, immoral andcontrary to the public interest, and to make
publiccondemnations of such behavior as criminologists.Certain aspects of the discussion of 'white-
collar' crimefrequently partake of this character. There is a danger here of intellectual and indeed moral
confusion. Simply because one disapproves of certain behavior does notmake it criminal if the law still
permits it, however reprehensible the behavior may be.

Criminologists would be well advised to confine their observations and studies to the consideration of
behavior already legally defined as criminal. This subject is large enough by any standard .

At the same time one should recognise the so-called'over-reach' of the criminal law. the discussion
usuallyfocuses on areas of private morality including sexual behavior, such as homosexual behavior,
prostitutionand drug abuse, and pornography.

The criminal law has been used in recent years tohelp regulate such subjects as the pollution of
theenvironment, and many other matters of public interestand social concern.

The extent and range of criminology's interests andconcerns includes all the various aspects of criminal
behavior, though of course individual criminologistshave their own special interests. Criminology
includesthe study of the general crime situation in this country,and also the study of regional differences
observed between different parts of the country, and localdifferences.

Crimal Law:

Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It regulates social conduct and proscribes whatever
is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety, and moral welfare of
people. It includes the punishment of people who violate these laws. Criminal law varies according to
jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, where emphasis is more on dispute resolution and victim
compensation than on punishment.

Objectives of criminal law

Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to
abide by its rules.

Every crime is composed of criminal elements. Capital punishment may be imposed in some
jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as
whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may

13
be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement
may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life. Government supervision may be
imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines
as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a
person convicted of a crime.

Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the criminal law by punishments: retribution,
deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation and restoration. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed
on each.

Retribution – Criminals ought to suffer in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Criminals
have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the
criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales." People submit
to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, they surrender
the rights granted to them by the law. Thus, one who murders may be executed himself. A related theory
includes the idea of "righting the balance."

Deterrence – Individual deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a
sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. General deterrence aims at society
at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other individuals are discouraged from
committing those offenses.

Incapacitation – Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected
from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today. The death penalty or
banishment have served the same purpose.

Rehabilitation – Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal
is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that their conduct was wrong.

Restoration – This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment. The goal is to repair, through state
authority, any injury inflicted upon the victim by the offender. For example, one who embezzles will
be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restoration is commonly combined with other
main goals of criminal justice and is closely related to concepts in the civil law, i.e., returning the victim
to his or her original position before the injury

Crime as Social Problem

Crime is a violation of criminal law for which formal penalties are applied by some governmental
authority. It represents some type of deviation from formal social norms administered by the state.
Crimes are divided by law into various categories, depending on the severity of the offence, the age of
the offender, the potential punishment that can be levied, and the court that holds jurisdiction over the
case. There is no society in any part of the world, which is without crimes.

One of the serious problems of today’s crimes is that in many cases the criminals are socially, politically
and economically so powerful that they decide the course of punishment for others while they
themselves manage to get escaped completely.

Causes of Crime

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There are many causes of the crime. Few of the many causes may be discussed as under:

1. Poverty

2. Education System

3. Unemployment

4. Political Setup

5. Change in Values

1. Poverty

Poverty is one of the most importance causes of crime. In fact it can be said that it is the root cause of
many crimes. Though poverty is a relative term, yet in every form it result in corruption and adopting
illegal and underhand means. Poverty results in committing suicide and prostitution as well as bribery
and so on. Directly or indirectly poverty is responsible for all sorts of crimes.

2. Educational System

Unfortunately present day educational system is very defective. The system of education does not lay
stress on morality and character, which are effective forces for checking crimes. Similarly we find the
education is mostly not vocational biased and does not help the young people to get timely employment.
Delay in getting proper employment encourages tendency towards crime.

3. Unemployment

In the economic field unemployment plays an important role in committing of crimes. Thus an
unemployed young person can become robber or a thief. He can become violent and take law into his
own hands. In this way unemployment results in many crimes. That is the reason that we find that in
countries, which have undeveloped economy, and in which chances of unemployment are marginal,
rate of crimes is high.

4. Political Set up

Our political set up also encourages crimes in our modern times government machineries are slow and
inefficient with the result that this becomes premium on the illegal activities of the criminals. Similarly
our legal system too is very complex and complicated and the criminals are confident that they can
escape free and involve some innocent persons in it.

They know that by their illegally earned wealth they can purchase as well as mould the course of law.
Not only this, but we find that some of our politicians encourage criminals for one reason or the other.

5. Change in Values

As we know that due to industrialization and advancement of science and advancement of science and
technology social values have very greatly changed. Today we are more materialists and rational as
well as individualists. Collectivism and blind faith is being replaced by new ideas. Due to these changes,
social values have also together changed and restrictions considerably reduced. This has resulted in
committing many crimes.

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Crime is anti-social behaviour which a group rejects and to which it attaches penalties. In this way all
those activities for which society lays down attached may be sinful but they would not be criminal. But
some thinkers have deemed it comprehensively. In the words of C. Darrow, “Crime is an act forbidden
by the law of the land and for which penalty is prescribed”. This constitutes a definition of crime from
the social viewpoint. From the legal viewpoint, violation of law constitutes crime. In the words of
Barnes and Teeters, “The term “Crime” technically means a form of anti-social behaviour that has
violated public sentiment to such an extent as to be forbidden by statute”. This definition does not
include those anti-social activities which are not prohibited by law. Actually, criminality should attach
both to anti social activities and to activities forbidden by law. Though no punishment is prescribed for
anti-social activities, the public opinion always condemns them. According to Garofalo even the actions
contradictory to the prevalent conceptions of pity and truth should be considered criminal. To quote
Elliott and Merrill, “A crime ipso facto implies a disturbance in a social relationship and a social
definition as to what such a disturbance is”.

Causes of Crime

The main causes of crime are – (1) Social, (2) Economic, (3) Physical and developmental (4)
Geographical (5) Political.

Social Causes of Crime

The main social causes of crime are as follows:

1. Family and Crime – The family is the most dominant factor in the social causes of crime in India.
Now-a-days family disorganisation is to be seen in India. The control previously exercised by the family
over the individual is now lacking. In urban areas, all the members of a family are to be seen pursuing
their individual paths. With the lifting of family control there are no restrictions to the criminal
tendencies of children. Now that the natural relations between parents and children are devoid of love
both young boys and girls are prone to criminal activity. Even in the villages the adolescents and young
men and women do not respect their elders, and they want to lead a carefree; unrestricted, individual
life. Due to all these causes, sex crimes are increasing. One main cause of adultery, abortion,
miscarriage, prostitution and juvenile delinquency is the undesirable domestic conditions.

2. Absence of Social Control – A second social cause of crime in India is absence of social control.
Previously, the caste panchayats in the village kept control over the behaviour and conduct of the
members of the caste. It was extremely difficult to conceal crime in the village and when any crime was
revealed the caste panchayats meted out very stern punishments, going to the limit of exterminating the
guilty persons from the caste. This tended to control and check crime effectively. Today, these social
organisations no longer exist. They have been derived of all their authority. Secondly, with better
facilities of transport being available the criminal can commit the crime and abscond from the village
to the town of to the village from the town. In urban areas no one is troubled about caste organisation.
Now-a-days in big cities, even doing favour to neighbourers is a defunct practices because few have
intimacy with their neighbourers and social relationships have been impersonal. Any individual can
commit a crime and conceal his identity in the city mob. In this way, the disappearance of the control
of caste organisations is another cause of crime in India.

3. Defective Education – Modern education in India is very defective. It does not develop the character
of students in right directions. Instead it has led to an increase in selfishness, disorderliness and

16
impertinence. Ethical and religious education has no place in the modern education system. Besides
this, even after completing his education an individual does not become capable of earning his
livelihood and many well educated people remain unemployed for many years. Late employment leads
to late marriage. All these causes tend to aggravate criminal activity.

4. Cinema – Cinema has helped in the increase of crime in India. According to Blumen and Hansen,
cinemas indirectly influence the male criminals. The cinema arouses criminal tendencies in men by
teaching crime techniques, by exhibiting many kinds of crimes, by stimulating the desire for wealth and
comforts, by showing ways and means of appropriating them illegally, by arousing the feelings of
bravado, toughness and adventure, by arousing profound sexual urges, by stimulating day dreams of
criminal jobs. In much the same way it directs or urges many young and inexperienced women to
illegitimate relations and crimes by setting alight the sexual desire, the desire for exhibition, love
making, independence and variety.

5. Newspapers – Besides cinemas, newspapers also have a hand in increasing criminal activity.
Newspapers increase criminal activity by publishing methods of crime through news items, by printing
many news items relating to crime, by making crime a general subject, by printing news of major crimes
and showing their advantages, circulating the names of criminals, by highlighting causes which tend to
increase crime in the name of studies of crime sand by warning and alerting criminals by publishing
police methods. The recent wave of dacoities in India was to some extent indirectly assisted by
newspapers.

6. Use of Alcohol – The consumption of alcohol also is one of the major causes of crime in India.
Drinking is more prevalent among those who have low standard of life and it is also from among them
that the greatest numbers of criminals are coming. There are large numbers of crimes committed under
the influence of alcoholic stimulants. Drinking affects not only the drinker and makes him a criminal
but it also has a deleterious influence on his entire family and inclines men, women and children towards
crime. In this way, drinking increases crime both apparently as well as indirectly.

7. Prohibition of Widow Remarriage – In India widow remarriage is now legally accepted as valid
but it is still looked down upon in society. Consequently many young widows do not remarry for the
rest of their lives but such a decision does not annihilate their sexual passion and these rather lie dormant
in a corner of the mind and wait for a suitable opportunity. Even if the widow is religious and saintly
she is pursued by men and is lured to the path of evil and sin by many threats and coaxes. In this way,
there is an increase in adultery, miscarriages, abortions, infanticides, etc. When their sinful practices
are made public many women commit suicide.

8. Defects of the Marriage and Dowry System – In India the dowry system also is among the social
causes of crime. On the one hand the dowry system urges the fathers of girls to earn money through
illegitimate means for their daughter’s marriage, it on the other hand, leads to suicide by many young
girls who can not bear to see the degraded condition of their parents, the dowry system as further
encouraged late marriages, both in girls and in boys. In extreme cases, the lack of wealth compels a girl
to remain unmarried throughout her life or at most she is married to an old man or to an unsuitable
partner. All these also tend to increase sex crimes in society. Very often the parents do not care to ask
the girl or boy for opinion and sometimes even proceed against it. This also results in suicide and other
crimes.

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9. Religion – Religion has also been one of the causes of crime in India. This doe not mean that religion
itself encouraged crimes but the encouragement has come from the different sects who originated in the
differences of opinion between people on matter of religion and in the hatred for other religions. In a
general way, of course, communal riots and crimes such as looting, murder and so on, perpetrated in
order to increase the followers of one’s own religion and to injure another religion have always been
happening in India, but the crimes committed during communal riots in the name of religion, when the
country was partitioned in 1947 were unequalled in the history of the world. Helpless women were
denuded and taken in procession through the main roads all the time being whipped. Their breasts were
cut off; they were violated and mutilated, their children’s hearts were cut out in front of their eyes. The
most heinous crimes that can be discovered in the history of criminal activity have been perpetrated in
India.

10. Changes in Social Values – There has been a tremendous change in social values in recent times
in India. Now-a-days, new notions such as materialism, individualism, rationalism, the respect for
wealth, absence of sex restriction etc, are becoming very popular in the country. This has led to a
disregard of ancient social values and new values have been reinstated in their stead. There is no one
common opinion of any kind in them. This disordered state of values also inspires crime because and
individual can manage to produce an argument to justify even that which is improper.

The preceding exposition on the social causes of crime in India will have brought to light the extent to
which the defects of such social organizations as family, caste, religion, marriage etc, have no
geographical, economic, political and other causes but it is intended merely show the important part
played by social organization in crime.

Economic Causes
The main economic causes of crimes are the following:

1. Poverty – In India one sees extreme poverty. Poverty is a major cause of crime, since a hungry man
can do literally anything in order to appease his hunger. One comes across instances where a criminal
commits a crime immediately on his release from prison in order that he may be imprisoned again where
he is assured of a square meal. Outside the prison he ahs no such assurance. Dr. Haikerwal has
investigated that in the period 1917 – 1927 thefts increased in number when the prices of wheat went
up, decreased when wheat prices fell. In this way; a close relation is found to exist between the number
of crimes and the prices of food-grains in India. It was found in the course of a study conducted upon
the prostitutes of Kanpur that one major cause of prostitution is poverty. Poor girls are easily enticed
by men who violate them, take away their virginity and put them on the market. One even comes across
news of suicides and murders of families due to poverty.

2. Unemployment – Unemployment, much like poverty is a major cause of crime in India. Many young
men commit suicides when they are frustrated by extreme poverty and continued unemployment. Many
others turn to thieving, picking pockets, robbery etc. Among the people who are seen creating
disturbances, causing violence, etc; the majority are the unemployed. Most gangsters do not work,
Gangsterism is their only occupation.

3. Industrialisation – Industrialisation is also an important cause of crime in India. It has destroyed the
family life of millions of labourers. They work very hard for eight to ten hours in the day during which
they have to suffer many indecencies and for this they have to live in towns far away from their families.
Continued existence of this type leads them to indulge in drinking alcohol and in prostitution and this
encourages other crime. In India, the most prospering centres of prostitution are important industrial
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towns which, at the same time, foster crimes such as murder, assault, disturbance, robbery, etc.
Industrialisation has encouraged crime also due to another reason. Housing becomes a problem in an
industrial town when the population increases beyond limits in some towns thousands of families live
in houses having no more than one room each. In such conditions the married women have no privacy
and children and unmarried members witness happenings which they should not see. This had a bad
influence upon them and sex crimes increase among them. Sex crimes increase tendencies to other
crimes which then take place. In industrial towns many thousands of labourers and men otherwise are
compelled to live alone and this tends to split the ration of men to women, which consequently
encourages sex crimes. Many girls from rural areas are deceived with promises of employment and
brought to towns where they are forced to adopt prostitution.

4. Urbanization – Urbanization is the result of industrialization and other causes. Hence all those
crimes caused by industrialization are also caused by urbanization. In cities the society fails to exercise
control over the individual who loses his identity in the mob after having committed a crime. There is
no such facility, however redoubtable in the village. In towns there are better opportunities for picking
pockets and practising deception in a crowd. There is absence of healthy recreation in the town and
hence the crimes are committed. Gambling dens, indecent theatres and wine shops provide means of
spurious recreation. This encourages crime.

It is evident from the foregoing account of the socio-economic causes of crime in India that there the
main causes of crime is social and economic. Absence of reliable statistics makes it difficult to say
definitely that the causes of crime here are hardly psychological. But what can be said is that since life
in India still lacks some of the velocity and crowdedness of Western life, the psychological causes of
crime in India do not compare favorably with their counterparts in America and other Western countries.

What is deviance in Criminology:

In sociology, deviance describes an action or behavior that violates social norms, including a formally
enacted rule (e.g., crime),[1] as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and
mores). It is the purview of sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and criminologists to study how
these norms are created, how they change over time and how they are enforced.

Norms are rules and expectations by which members of society are conventionally guided. Deviance is
an absence of conformity to these norms. Social norms differ from culture to culture. For example, a
deviant act can be committed in one society that breaks a social norm there, but may be normal for
another society.

Viewing deviance as a violation of social norms, sociologists have characterized it as "any thought,
feeling, or action that members of a social group judge to be a violation of their values or rules "or
group" conduct, that violates definitions of appropriate and inappropriate conduct shared by the
members of a social system. The departure of certain types of behavior from the norms of a particular
society at a particular time and "violation of certain types of group norms where behavior is in a
disapproved direction and of sufficient degree to exceed the tolerance limit of the community.

Deviance can be relative to time and place because what is considered deviant in one social context
may be non-deviant in another (e.g., fighting during a hockey game vs. fighting in a nursing home).
Killing another human is considered wrong, except when governments permit it during warfare or for
self defense. Deviant actions can be mala in se or mala prohibita.

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Functions

Deviant acts can be assertions of individuality and identity, and thus as rebellions against group norms
of the dominant culture and in favor of a sub-culture.

Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. It also clarifies moral boundaries, promotes social unity
by creating an us/them dichotomy, encourages social change, and provides jobs to control deviance.[15]
"Certain factors of personality are theoretically and empirically related to workplace deviance, such as
work environment, and individual differences."[16]"Situated in the masculinity and deviance literature,
this article examines a "deviant" masculinity, that of the male sex worker, and presents the ways men
who engage in sex work cope with the job."

In the seminal 1961 report The Girl Delinquent and the Male Street-Corner Gang, Martha S. Lewis
wrote that female juvenile delinquents were attracted to male gang members and the gang sub-culture.

Types

Taboo is a strong social form of behavior considered deviant by a majority. To speak of it publicly is
condemned, and therefore, almost entirely avoided. The term “taboo” comes from the Tongan word
“tapu” meaning "under prohibition", "not allowed", or "forbidden". Some forms of taboo are prohibited
under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other forms of taboo result in shame,
disrespect and humiliation. Taboo is not universal but does occur in the majority of societies. Some of
the examples include murder, rape, incest, or child molestation.

Howard Becker, a labeling theorist, touched basis with different types of deviant behaviors. There are
four different types of deviant behaviors falling into different categories.

• "Falsely accusing" an individual which falls under others perceiving you to be obtaining
obedient or deviant behaviors.
• "Pure deviance", which falls under perceiving one to participate in deviant and rule-breaking
behavior.
• "Conforming", which falls under not being perceived as deviant, but merely participating in the
social norms that are distributed within societies, can also be placed into the category with pure
deviance and falsely accused.
• "Secret deviance" which is when the individual is not perceived as deviant or participating in
any rule-breaking behaviors.

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