Counterinsurgency Warfare Theory and Practice
Counterinsurgency Warfare Theory and Practice
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Counterinsurgency Warfare Theory and Practice
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Counterinsurgency Warfare Theory and Practice
Counterinsurgency Warfare Theory and Practice
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Counterinsurgency
Warfare: Theory and
Practice
David Galula
PRAEGER SECURITY
INTERNATIONAL
#OUNTERINSURGENCY 7ARFARE
03) #LASSICS OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENCY %RA
#OUNTERINSURGENCY 7ARFARE 4HEORY AND 0RACTICE
$AVID 'ALULA
#OMMUNIST 2EVOLUTIONARY 7ARFARE &ROM THE 6IETMINH TO THE 6IET #ONG
'EORGE + 4ANHAM
-ODERN 7ARFARE ! &RENCH 6IEW OF #OUNTERINSURGENCY
2OGER 4RINQUIER
#OUNTER
'UERRILLA /PERATIONS 4HE 0HILIPPINE %XPERIENCE
.APOLEAN $ 6ALERIANO AND #HARLES 42 "OHANNAN
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9
7!2&!2%
4HEORY AND 0RACTICE
$AVID 'ALULA
&OREWORD BY *OHN ! .AGL
03) #LASSICS OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENCY %RA
0RAEGER 3ECURITY )NTERNATIONAL
7ESTPORT #ONNECTICUT s ,ONDON
,IBRARY OF #ONGRESS #ATALOGING
IN
0UBLICATION $ATA
'ALULA $AVID
#OUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE THEORY AND PRACTICE $AVID 'ALULA &OREWORD BY *OHN !
.AGL
P CM 03) #LASSICS OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENCY %RA
)NCLUDES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES AND INDEX
)3".
ALK PAPER n )3".
PBK ALK PAPER
'UERRILLA WARFARE ) 4ITLE )) 3ERIES
5'
"RITISH ,IBRARY #ATALOGUING IN 0UBLICATION $ATA IS AVAILABLE
#OPYRIGHT © BY 0RAEGER 3ECURITY )NTERNATIONAL
!LL RIGHTS RESERVED .O PORTION OF THIS BOOK MAY BE
REPRODUCED BY ANY PROCESS OR TECHNIQUE WITHOUT THE
EXPRESS WRITTEN CONSENT OF THE PUBLISHER
,IBRARY OF #ONGRESS #ATALOG #ARD .UMBER
)3". nnn
nnn PBK
&IRST PUBLISHED IN
0RAEGER 3ECURITY )NTERNATIONAL 0OST 2OAD 7EST 7ESTPORT #4
!N IMPRINT OF 'REENWOOD 0UBLISHING 'ROUP )NC
WWWPRAEGERCOM
0RINTED IN THE 5NITED 3TATES OF !MERICA
4HE PAPER USED IN THIS BOOK COMPLIES WITH THE
0ERMANENT 0APER 3TANDARD ISSUED BY THE .ATIONAL
)NFORMATION 3TANDARDS /RGANIZATION :n
#/.4%.43
&OREWORD
BY *OHN ! .AGL VII
)NTRODUCTION XI
2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR .ATURE AND #HARACTERISTICS
7HAT )S A 2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR
2EVOLUTION 0LOT )NSURGENCY
)NSURGENCY AND #IVIL 7AR
!SYMMETRY "ETWEEN THE )NSURGENT AND THE #OUNTERINSURGENT
/BJECTIVE 4HE 0OPULATION
2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR )S A 0OLITICAL 7AR
'RADUAL 4RANSITION FROM 0EACE TO 7AR
2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR )S A 0ROTRACTED 7AR
)NSURGENCY )S #HEAP #OUNTERINSURGENCY #OSTLY
&LUIDITY OF THE )NSURGENT 2IGIDITY OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENT
4HE 0OWER OF )DEOLOGY
0ROPAGANDA! /NE
3IDED 7EAPON
2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR 2EMAINS 5NCONVENTIONAL 5NTIL THE %ND
4HE 0REREQUISITES FOR A 3UCCESSFUL )NSURGENCY
! #AUSE
7EAKNESS OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENT
'EOGRAPHIC #ONDITIONS
/UTSIDE 3UPPORT
VI #/.4%.43
4HE )NSURGENCY $OCTRINE
3TRATEGIC 0ATTERNS FOR )NSURGENCY
4HE /RTHODOX 0ATTERN #OMMUNIST
4HE "OURGEOIS
.ATIONALIST 0ATTERN ! 3HORTCUT
6ULNERABILITY OF THE )NSURGENT IN THE /RTHODOX 0ATTERN
6ULNERABILITY OF THE )NSURGENT IN THE 3HORTCUT 0ATTERN
#OUNTERINSURGENCY IN THE #OLD 2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR
$IRECT !CTION !GAINST THE )NSURGENT
)NDIRECT !CTION !GAINST THE )NSURGENT
)NlLTRATION OF THE )NSURGENT -OVEMENT
3TRENGTHENING THE 0OLITICAL -ACHINE
#OUNTERINSURGENCY IN THE (OT 2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR
,AWS AND 0RINCIPLES OF #OUNTERINSURGENCY 7ARFARE
3TRATEGY OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENCY
&ROM 3TRATEGY TO 4ACTICS
#OMMAND 0ROBLEMS
3ELECTION OF THE !REA OF %FFORTS
0OLITICAL 0REPARATION
4HE &IRST !REA AS A 4EST !REA
4HE /PERATIONS
4HE &IRST 3TEP $ESTRUCTION OR %XPULSION OF THE )NSURGENT
&ORCES
4HE 3ECOND 3TEP $EPLOYMENT OF THE 3TATIC 5NIT
4HE 4HIRD 3TEP #ONTACT WITH AND #ONTROL OF THE 0OPULATION
4HE &OURTH 3TEP $ESTRUCTION OF THE )NSURGENT
0OLITICAL /RGANIZATION
4HE &IFTH 3TEP ,OCAL %LECTIONS
4HE 3IXTH 3TEP 4ESTING THE ,OCAL ,EADERS
4HE 3EVENTH 3TEP /RGANIZING A 0ARTY
4HE %IGHTH 3TEP 7INNING /VER OR 3UPPRESSING THE
,AST 'UERRILLAS
#ONCLUDING 2EMARKS
)NDEX
&/2%7/2$
4HE BEST WRITINGS ON COUNTERINSURGENCY SHARE WITH THE BEST SEX MANUALS
THE FACT THAT THEIR AUTHORS GENERALLY HAVE SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF THEIR
SUBJECT MATTER 0RAEGERS COMPANION PIECES TO THIS TEXT WERE WRITTEN BY
ARMY OFlCERS WHO KNEW WELL THE COLD HARD FACTS OF COUNTERINSURGENCY
$AVID 'ALULA DRANK AS DEEPLY OF THIS BITTER DRAUGHT AS DID HIS CONTEMPO
RARIES AND REmECTED ON IT EVEN MORE PROFOUNDLY ! &RENCHMAN RAISED IN
#ASABLANCA HE WAS GRADUATED FROM 3AINT #YR IN IN TIME TO lGHT IN
.ORTH !FRICA )TALY AND &RANCE ,ATER ASSIGNMENTS INCLUDED IRREGULAR WARS
IN #HINA 'REECE )NDOCHINA AND !LGERIA 'ALULA WAS A LIEUTENANT COLONEL
WHEN HE TOOK THE OPPORTUNITY TO REmECT ON HIS EXPERIENCE AND WROTE #OUN
TERINSURGENCY 7ARFARE 4HEORY AND 0RACTICE ON A FELLOWSHIP IN THE #ENTER
FOR )NTERNATIONAL !FFAIRS AT (ARVARD (E DIED A FEW YEARS LATER MISSING THE
CHANCE TO OBSERVE THE !MERICAN MILITARY IGNORE MOST OF HIS PRESCRIPTIONS
ON 6IETNAM
'ALULAS PRIMACY OF PLACE IN THE CANON OF IRREGULAR WARFARE IS SECURED BY
HIS LUCID INSTRUCTIONS ON HOW COUNTERINSURGENCY FORCES CAN PROTECT AND HENCE
GAIN SUPPORT OF THE POPULACE ACQUIRE INFORMATION ON THE IDENTITY AND LOCA
TION OF INSURGENTS AND THEREBY DEFEAT THE INSURGENCY 7HILE THE PRIMARY
CHALLENGE OF CONVENTIONAL WARFARE IS MASSING lREPOWER AT THE APPROPRIATE
PLACE AND TIME TO DESTROY THE ENEMY THE KEY TO SUCCESS IN COUNTERINSURGENCY
IS MASSING INTELLIGENCE DERIVED FROM THE LOCAL POPULATION TO IDENTIFY THE
ENEMY THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS LITERALLY DYING FOR THAT INFORMATION
'ALULA POINTS OUT A BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL WAR AND
INSURGENCY 7HILE CONVENTIONAL WARFARE IS LARGELY THE SAME EXPERIENCE FOR
VIII &/2%7/2$
ALL SIDES CONCERNED THE CONTESTANTS IN AN INSURGENCY lGHT DIFFERENT WARS
CONDUCTED UNDER DIFFERENT RULES !N INSURGENT FORCE HAS COMPARATIVELY FEW
WEAPONS AND NO ARMY IF IT OPENLY APPEARS ON THE SAME BATTLElELD AS THE
COUNTERINSURGENCY FORCE IT WILL BE SWIFTLY DEFEATED 7HAT IT DOES HAVE IS
POLITICAL CONTROL OVER AT LEAST SOME OF THE POPULATION AND AS A RESULT
A SHIELD FROM BEHIND WHICH TO STRIKE ITS CONVENTIONAL OPPONENT AT WILL
!N INSURGENCY IS A COMPETITION BETWEEN INSURGENT AND GOVERNMENT FOR
THE SUPPORT OF THE CIVILIAN POPULATION WHICH PROVIDES THE SEA IN WHICH THE
INSURGENT SWIMS 'ALULA REMINDS US THAT THE hCOUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT
ACHIEVE MUCH IF THE POPULATION IS NOT AND DOES NOT FEEL PROTECTED AGAINST
THE INSURGENTv !N INSECURE POPULATION WILL NOT PROVIDE THE NECESSARY
INFORMATION TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT hINTELLIGENCE HAS TO COME FROM THE
POPULATION BUT THE POPULATION WILL NOT TALK UNLESS IT FEELS SAFE AND IT DOES
NOT FEEL SAFE UNTIL THE INSURGENTS POWER HAS BEEN BROKENv )F THEY FEAR RET
RIBUTION FROM INSURGENTS CIVILIANS WILL NOT COOPERATE WITH OFlCIALS 'OV
ERNMENT AGENTS THEN MUST BE ABLE TO ESTABLISH SUFlCIENT PRESENCE IN ANY
GIVEN LOCALITY TO SEPARATE THE INSURGENTS FROM THE CIVILIANS THEY EXPLOIT
4HIS IS A PAINSTAKING PROCESS &IRST CIVILIANS MUST BE SEPARATED FROM
INSURGENTS USING ROAD BLOCKS IDENTITY CARDS AND A CENSUS .EXT THE COUN
TERINSURGENT MUST GUARANTEE CIVILIAN SECURITY BY TRAINING LOCAL SECURITY
FORCES WHO ARE THEN READILY AVAILABLE FOR MANNING THE ROAD BLOCKS AND
CONDUCTING THE CENSUS &INALLY THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD TARGET THE INSUR
GENTS ARMED WITH SPECIlC LOCAL INFORMATION DERIVED FROM LONG AND CLOSE
ASSOCIATION WITH THE POPULATION .OT ROCKET SCIENCEBUT IF IT WERE WEST
ERN MILITARIES WOULD BE BETTER AT IT 3ADLY THE MILITARY
INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX
DOES NOT BUILD MANY TOOLS FOR lGHTING COUNTERINSURGENCIES
0ROTECTING THE POPULATION BY ESTABLISHING LOCAL SECURITY FORCES IS NOT THE
SAME AS FOCUSING COUNTERINSURGENCY FORCES ON KILLING INSURGENTS !LTHOUGH
PROTECTING THE LOCAL PEOPLE CLEARLY REQUIRES SOME KINETIC ACTIONS AGAINST
COMMITTED INSURGENTS CONVENTIONAL MILITARY FORCES ARE TOO PRONE TO EMPHA
SIZE OFFENSIVE ACTIONS SUCH AS CAPTURING OR KILLING TERRORISTS RATHER THAN THE
PREDOMINANTLY POLITICAL ECONOMIC AND SECURITY REQUIREMENTS UPON WHICH
THE ULTIMATE DEFEAT OF THE INSURGENCY DEPENDS 3OME TODAY WOULD MARRY
THE INTELLIGENCE AVAILABLE FROM CIVILIANS TO SOPHISTICATED WEAPONS SYSTEMS
TO CREATE TARGETED KILLING CAMPAIGNS AGAINST INSURGENT LEADERSHIP 4HIS
APPROACH OFFERS ONLY FALSE HOPE FOR EVERY INSURGENT CAPTURED OR KILLED
ANOTHER ONE OR OFTEN SEVERAL WILL APPEARSO LONG AS THEY ARE ENABLED BY
PASSIVE CIVILIANS AND A MORIBUND GOVERNMENT PRESENCE 4O WIN THE GOV
ERNMENT MUST SECURE AND CONTROL THE LOCAL POPULATION
$OING SO IN THE MEDIA AGE DEMANDS MORE EXACTING MEASURES THAN MERELY
BUILDING CONCENTRATION CAMPS h#ONTROL OF THE POPULATION OBVIOUSLY BEGINS
WITH A CENSUS v THAT ACCORDING TO 'ALULA hIF PROPERLY MADE AND EXPLOITED
IS A BASIC SOURCE OF INTELLIGENCEv 4HE STATIC ELEMENTS OF POPULATION CONTROL
&/2%7/2$ IX
ARE ULTIMATELY MORE IMPORTANT THAN CLEARING THE ENEMY USING KINETIC RAIDS
AND SWEEPS 4HOSE FORCES EMBEDDED WITH THE LOCAL POPULATION BECOME
INTELLIGENCE COLLECTORS AND ANALYSTSTHE KEYS TO ULTIMATE VICTORY 4HEY ARE
THE HOLDERS AND BUILDERS AND GENERALLY SHOULD CONSIST OF LOCAL FORCES LEAV
ENED WITH ADVISERS FROM THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCE
4HE AIM OF CONTROL IS TO CUT OFF OR AT LEAST REDUCE SIGNIlCANTLY THE CON TACTS
BETWEEN THE POPULATION AND THE GUERRILLAS 4HIS IS DONE BY WATCHING THE POPU
LATIONS ACTIVITIES 4HIS PROCESS OF GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH THE POPULATION
MAY BE SPEEDED UP IF THE OCCUPIED VILLAGES ARE DIVIDED INTO SECTIONS AND EACH
ASSIGNED TO A GROUP OF SOLDIERS WHO WILL ALWAYS WORK THERE ;EMPHASIS ADDED=
)NFORMATION GAINED BY THESE SOLDIERS
IN
RESIDENCE CANNOT BE OBTAINED BY
SATELLITE IMAGERY OR MONITORING CELL PHONES -UCH OF WHAT THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT IS COLLECTING IS NOT ACTIONABLE INTELLIGENCE IN THE SHORT TERM WHILE EVEN
SPECIlC INTELLIGENCE REGARDING INSURGENT IDENTITIES AND LOCATIONS WILL ONLY BE
PROVIDED WITHIN THE TRUSTING ATMOSPHERE OF A LONG
STANDING RELATIONSHIP
#IVILIANS MUST BELIEVE THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT WILL BE ABLE TO PROTECT THEM
FROM RETALIATION ONCE SUCH CRITICAL INFORMATION IS PROVIDED 4ECHNOLOGY IS NO
SUBSTITUTE FOR BOOTS ON THE GROUND AMONG THE POPULATION AND NUMBERS
MATTER'ALULA SUGGESTS THAT hA RATIO OF FORCE OF TEN OR TWENTY TO ONE BETWEEN
THE COUNTERINSURGENT AND THE INSURGENT IS NOT UNCOMMONv 4HE REASON BEHIND
THE DISPARITY IN NUMBERS IS SIMPLE hDISORDERTHE NORMAL STATE OF NATUREIS
CHEAP TO CREATE AND VERY COSTLY TO PREVENTv 0ROTECTING OR REBUILDING A STATE IS
MUCH HARDER THAN TOPPLING ITS GOVERNMENT DEMANDING A FAR GREATER INVEST
MENT OF TIME TREASURE AND INTELLECT
#ONVENTIONAL ARMIES ARE NOT WELL SUITED TO THE DEMANDS OF COUNTERIN
SURGENCY 4HE lREPOWER ON WHICH THEY PRIDE THEMSELVES CANNOT BE LEVER
AGED AGAINST THE INSURGENT IN FACT AN ALMOST ENTIRELY DIFFERENT ORIENTATION
IS NECESSARY ONE IN WHICH hA MIMEOGRAPH MACHINE MAY TURN OUT TO BE
MORE USEFUL THAN A MACHINE GUN A SOLDIER TRAINED AS A PEDIATRICIAN MORE
IMPORTANT THAN A MORTAR EXPERT CEMENT MORE WANTED THAN BARBED WIRE
CLERKS MORE IN DEMAND THAN RImEMENv 'ALULA PRESCRIBES A LIGHTLY ARMORED
FORCE EQUIPPED WITH A SURPLUS OF INTERPRETERS INTELLIGENCE ANALYSTS CIVIL
AFFAIRS SPECIALISTS AND ENGINEERS #OUNTERINSURGENTS WHO CANNOT OR DO
NOT COMMUNICATE WITH THE POPULATION ARE DOOMED TO ABJECT FAILURE
4HE CONTROL OF INFORMATION IS STRATEGICALLY DECISIVE IN COUNTERINSURGENCY
)T IS THE INSURGENTS PRIMARY WEAPON WHILE THE CIVILIAN POPULATION IS ITS
MAIN TARGET AND ALSO THE BATTLElELD ON WHICH THE WAR IS FOUGHT +EY TERRAIN
IN AN INSURGENCY IS NOT A PHYSICAL SPACE BUT THE POLITICAL LOYALTY OF THE
PEOPLE WHO INHABIT THAT SPACE #OUNTERINSURGENCY IS NOT A FAIR lGHT AS
hTHE INSURGENT HAVING NO RESPONSIBILITY IS FREE TO USE EVERY TRICK IF NECES
SARY HE CAN LIE CHEAT EXAGGERATE (E IS NOT OBLIGATED TO PROVE HE IS JUDGED
BY WHAT HE PROMISES NOT WHAT HE DOESv )T IS ESSENTIAL THEN FOR THE COUN
X &/2%7/2$
TERINSURGENT TO lGHT AN EVEN MORE ADROIT INFORMATION WAR IN HIS CHAPTER ON
OPERATIONS 'ALULA DEVOTES MORE THAN THREE TIMES AS MUCH ATTENTION TO
INFORMATION OPERATIONS AS TO TRADITIONAL KINETIC WARFARE (IS CLEAR IMPLICA
TION IS THAT CONVENTIONAL FORCES MUST REORGANIZE THEMSELVES IN A SIMILAR
RATIO OF INFORMATION OPERATORS INCLUDING INTELLIGENCE COLLECTORS AS WELL AS
DISSEMINATORS TO BE EFFECTIVE IN THIS KIND OF WAR
-ODIFYING ORGANIZATIONS TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ARMED
FORCES CRITICAL AS IT IS IS INSUFlCIENT TO SATISFY THE DEMANDS OF COUNTERIN
SURGENCY OPERATIONS 'ALULA ARGUES THAT hIT IS JUST AS IMPORTANT THAT THE
MINDS OF THE LEADERS AND THE MENAND THIS INCLUDES THE CIVILIAN AS WELL AS
THE MILITARYBE ADAPTED ALSO TO THE SPECIAL DEMANDS OF COUNTERINSURGENCY
WARFAREv .OT ALL SOLDIERS CAN ADAPT AND PUTTING THOSE WHO CANNOT IN COM
MAND OF A COUNTERINSURGENCY EFFORT IS COUNTERPRODUCTIVE h! WORKABLE
SOLUTION v HE ADDED hIS TO IDENTIFY THOSE WHO READILY ACCEPT THE NEW CON
CEPTS OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE AND GIVE THEM RESPONSIBILITY 4HOSE
WHO THEN PROVE THEMSELVES IN ACTION SHOULD BE PUSHED UPWARDv
3OLDIERS WHO STROVE TO EMULATE .APOLEONS SUCCESSES OF THE TH AND TH
CENTURIES STUDIED THE MANEUVER OF LARGE ARMIES ON THE CONVENTIONAL BATTLElELD
AND MASTERED THE TECHNOLOGY THAT CREATED INDUSTRIAL AND THEN INFORMATION
AGE
ARMIES "Y THEIR VERY SUCCESSES IN CONVENTIONAL WAR WESTERN MILITARIES HAVE
DRIVEN THE ENEMIES OF MODERN CIVILIZATION TO ADAPT THE METHODS OF THE INSUR
GENT 4HOSE WHO ASPIRE TO HIGH COMMAND IN THE NEW AGE OF IRREGULAR WARFARE
SHOULD STUDY CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY ECONOMICS POLITICAL SCIENCE INTERNA
TIONAL RELATIONS AND LANGUAGES IN ADDITION TO CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 4HEY MUST
ALSO MASTER THE PRINCIPLES OF BOTH INSURGENCY AND COUNTERINSURGENCYAND
UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO FORMS OF WARFARE
4ODAY TOO MANY SOLDIERS LEARN THOSE LESSONS lRSTHAND IN THE HARD CLASS
ROOMS OF INSURGENCIES IN DESERTS JUNGLES AND CITIES AROUND THE GLOBE
!LTHOUGH 'ALULAS BOOK IS SHORT ENOUGH TO BE READ IN THEATER BETWEEN COP
ING WITH IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES AND MORTAR ATTACKS FAR BETTER FOR ITS
LESSONS TO BE ABSORBED IN THE CLASSROOMS OF STAFF COLLEGES AND MILITARY
ACADEMIES "UT WHEREVER IT IS READ IN THIS AGE OF COMPETING AND COOPERAT
ING GLOBAL TRANSNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSURGENCIES IT IS HARD TO lND ANY
BOOK WHOSE LESSONS CAN BE MORE PROlTABLY LEARNED BY THOSE WHO MAY FOL
LOW 'ALULA DOWN THE STREETS WITHOUT JOY OF COUUNTERINSURGENCYA JOURNEY
LIKELY TO BE THE FATE OF MANY MORE SOLDIERS IN THE ST CENTURY THAN WAS THE
CASE EVEN IN THE COUNTERINSURGENCY ERA OF TH CENTURY
*OHN ! .AGL
-AY
,IEUTENANT #OLONEL *OHN ! .AGL 53! IS A -ILITARY !SSISTANT TO THE $EPUTY 3EC
RETARY OF $EFENSE AND THE AUTHOR OF ,EARNING TO %AT 3OUP WITH A +NIFE #OUNTER
INSURGENCY ,ESSONS FROM -ALAYA AND 6IETNAM
).42/$5#4)/.
4HE LAWS OF WARTHIS IS A PROBLEM THAT ANYONE DIRECTING A WAR MUST STUDY AND
SOLVE
4HE LAWS OF REVOLUTIONARY WARTHIS IS A PROBLEM THAT ANYONE DIRECTING A REVOLU
TIONARY WAR MUST STUDY AND SOLVE
4HE LAWS OF #HINAS REVOLUTIONARY WARTHIS IS A PROBLEM THAT ANYONE DIRECTING A
REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN #HINA MUST STUDY AND SOLVE
-AO 4SE
TUNG 3TRATEGIC 0ROBLEMS OF #HINAS
2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR $ECEMBER
.O CHESS PLAYER HAS EVER FOUND NOR IS ANY LIKELY TO lND A SURE WAY OF
WINNING FROM THE lRST MOVE 4HE GAME CONTAINS TOO MANY VARIABLES EVEN
FOR ONE OF TODAYS NERVELESS ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS TO PLOT OUT A GUARANTEED
CHECKMATE
7AR IS NOT A CHESS GAME BUT A VAST SOCIAL PHENOMENON WITH AN INlNITELY
GREATER AND EVER EXPANDING NUMBER OF VARIABLES SOME OF WHICH ELUDE ANALY
SIS 7HO CAN DENY THE IMPORTANCE OF LUCK IN WAR FOR INSTANCE AND WHO CAN
ASSESS LUCK IN ADVANCE 7HEN -USSOLINI PRECIPITATED A WAR IN THE "ALKANS
FORCING (ITLER TO WASTE THE BEST PART OF THE SPRING OF IN A SECONDARY
THEATER AND TO DELAY THE PREPARED 'ERMAN ATTACK ON 3OVIET 2USSIA HE MAY
WELL HAVE SAVED -OSCOW )T CAN BE ARGUED THAT THIS EVENT INVOLVED NO ELE
MENT OF LUCK BUT RATHER A mAGRANT ERROR ON THE PART OF THE !XIS -USSOLINI
SHOULD HAVE CONSULTED HIS PARTNER 9ET SINCE 3TALIN HAD PLAYED NO PART IN
-USSOLINIS DECISION WHAT CONCLUSION CAN BE REACHED EXCEPT THAT 3TALIN WAS
EXTREMELY LUCKY
XII ).42/$5#4)/.
4HE PROFUSION OF VARIABLES IN WAR HAS NEVER DISCOURAGED THE SEARCH FOR
FOOLPROOF SYSTEMS "ECAUSE WAR CAN BE A MATTER OF LIFE AND DEATH TO STATES
AND NATIONS FEW OTHER lELDS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY HAVE BEEN SO CONSISTENTLY
THOROUGHLY AND ACTIVELY ANALYZED %VER SINCE MEN HAVE THOUGHT AND FOUGHT
SOMETIMES IN THE REVERSE ORDER ATTEMPTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO STUDY WAR
PHILOSOPHICALLY BECAUSE THE HUMAN MIND LOVES AND NEEDS TO LEAN ON A FRAME
OF REFERENCE PRACTICALLY WITH THE OBJECT OF DRAWING USEFUL LESSONS FOR THE
NEXT WAR
3UCH STUDIES HAVE LED IN EXTREME CASES TO THE DENIAL THAT ANY LESSON AT ALL
CAN BE INFERRED FROM PAST WARS IF IT IS ASSERTED THAT THE CONDUCT OF WAR IS ONLY
A MATTER OF INSPIRATION AND CIRCUMSTANCES OR CONVERSELY THEY HAVE LED TO THE
CONSTRUCTION OF DOCTRINES AND THEIR RETENTION AS RIGID ARTICLES OF FAITH REGARD
LESS OF FACTS AND SITUATION &RENCH MILITARY HISTORY OFFERS A REMARKABLE EXAM
PLE OF OSCILLATION BETWEEN THESE TWO POLES 4HE &RENCH HAD NO THEORY NO PLAN
IN THE n &RANCO
0RUSSIAN 7AR )N THEY DUPLICATED A RECIPE
PROVED DURING 7ORLD 7AR ) AND FOUGHT A
TYPE OF WAR AGAINST THE 'ERMAN
PANZER DIVISIONS 4HE RESULT IN BOTH CASES WAS DISASTROUS
.EVERTHELESS FROM STUDIES AND ACCUMULATED EXPERIENCE OBSERVATIONS
HAVE EMERGED OF CERTAIN RECURRENT FACTS THAT HAVE BEEN FORMULATED INTO
hLAWSv OF WAR 4HEY DO NOT OF COURSE HAVE THE SAME STRICT VALUE AS LAWS IN
PHYSICAL SCIENCE (OWEVER THEY CANNOT BE SERIOUSLY CHALLENGED IF ONLY
BECAUSE THEY CONlRM WHAT PLAIN COMMON SENSE TELLS US !ND THEY ARE VERY
FEW IN NUMBER 4HUS IT IS THE lRST LAW THAT THE STRONGEST CAMP USUALLY
WINS HENCE .APOLEONS AXIOM h6ICTORY GOES TO THE LARGE BATTALIONv )F THE
CONTENDING CAMPS ARE EQUALLY STRONG THE MORE RESOLUTE WINS THIS IS THE SEC
OND LAW )F RESOLUTION IS EQUALLY STRONG THEN VICTORY BELONGS TO THE CAMP
THAT SEIZES AND KEEPS THE INITIATIVETHE THIRD LAW 3URPRISE ACCORDING TO
THE FOURTH LAW MAY PLAY A DECISIVE ROLE 4HESE LAWS SUBSTANTIATED BY COUNT
LESS CASES CONSTITUTE THE !"#S OF WARFARE 4HEY HAVE IN TURN BEGOTTEN
GUIDING PRINCIPLES SUCH AS CONCENTRATION OF EFFORTS ECONOMY OF FORCES
FREEDOM OF ACTION SAFETY !PPLICATION OF THESE PRINCIPLES MAY CHANGE FROM
EPOCH TO EPOCH AS TECHNOLOGY ARMAMENT AND OTHER FACTORS CHANGE BUT
THEY RETAIN IN GENERAL THEIR VALUE THROUGHOUT THE EVOLUTION OF WARFARE
)N MOST WARS THE SAME LAWS AND PRINCIPLES HOLD EQUALLY TRUE FOR BOTH
CONTENDING SIDES 7HAT VARIES IS THE WAY EACH OPPONENT USES THEM ACCORDING
TO HIS ABILITY HIS PARTICULAR SITUATION HIS RELATIVE STRENGTH #ONVENTIONAL
WAR BELONGS TO THIS GENERAL CASE
2EVOLUTIONARY WAR ON THE OTHER HAND REPRESENTS AN EXCEPTIONAL CASE NOT
ONLY BECAUSE AS WE SUSPECT IT HAS ITS SPECIAL RULES DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF
THE CONVENTIONAL WAR BUT ALSO BECAUSE MOST OF THE RULES APPLICABLE TO ONE
SIDE DO NOT WORK FOR THE OTHER )N A lGHT BETWEEN A mY AND A LION THE mY
CANNOT DELIVER A KNOCKOUT BLOW AND THE LION CANNOT mY )T IS THE SAME WAR
).42/$5#4)/. XIII
FOR BOTH CAMPS IN TERMS OF SPACE AND TIME YET THERE ARE TWO DISTINCT
WARFARESTHE REVOLUTIONARYS AND SHALL WE SAY THE COUNTERREVOLUTIONARYS
4HIS IS WHERE -AO 4SE
TUNG IS MISLEADING 7HAT HE CALLS hTHE LAWS OF
REVOLUTIONARY WARv ARE IN FACT THOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY SIDE HIS SIDE 4HE
ONE WHO DIRECTS A WAR AGAINST A REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT WILL NOT lND IN
-AO AND IN OTHER REVOLUTIONARY THEORISTS THE ANSWERS TO HIS PROBLEMS (E
WILL SURELY lND USEFUL INFORMATION ON HOW THE REVOLUTIONARY ACTS HE MAY
PERHAPS INFER THE ANSWERS HE IS LOOKING FOR BUT NOWHERE WILL HE lND THEM
EXPLICITLY STATED 3OME COUNTERREVOLUTIONARIES HAVE FALLEN INTO THE TRAP OF
APING THE REVOLUTIONARIES ON BOTH MINOR AND MAJOR SCALES AS WE SHALL SHOW
4HESE ATTEMPTS HAVE NEVER MET SUCCESS
7HAT THEN ARE THE RULES OF COUNTERREVOLUTIONARY WARFARE (ERE WE CAN
OBSERVE ANOTHER CURIOUS FACT !LTHOUGH ANALYSES OF REVOLUTIONARY WARS
FROM THE REVOLUTIONARYS POINT OF VIEW ARE NUMEROUS TODAY THERE IS A VAC
UUM OF STUDIES FROM THE OTHER SIDE PARTICULARLY WHEN IT COMES TO SUGGEST
ING CONCRETE COURSES OF ACTION FOR THE COUNTERREVOLUTIONARY 6ERY LITTLE IS
OFFERED BEYOND FORMULASWHICH ARE SOUND ENOUGH AS FAR AS THEY GO
SUCH AS h)NTELLIGENCE IS THE KEY TO THE PROBLEM v OR h4HE SUPPORT OF THE
POPULATION MUST BE WONv (OW TO TURN THE KEY HOW TO WIN THE SUPPORT THIS
IS WHERE FRUSTRATIONS USUALLY BEGIN AS ANYONE CAN TESTIFY WHO IN A HUMBLE
OR IN AN EXALTED POSITION HAS BEEN INVOLVED IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR ON THE
WRONGIE THE ARDUOUSSIDE 4HE JUNIOR OFlCER IN THE lELD WHO AFTER
WEEKS AND MONTHS OF ENDLESS TRACKING HAS AT LAST DESTROYED THE DOZEN
GUERRILLAS OPPOSING HIM ONLY TO SEE THEM REPLACED BY A FRESH DOZEN THE
CIVIL SERVANT WHO PLEADED IN VAIN FOR A lVE
CENT REFORM AND IS NOW ORDERED
TO IMPLEMENT AT ONCE A HUNDRED
DOLLAR PROGRAM WHEN HE NO LONGER CON
TROLS THE SITUATION IN HIS DISTRICT THE GENERAL WHO HAS hCLEAREDv 3ECTOR !
BUT SCREAMS BECAUSE hTHEYv WANT TO TAKE AWAY TWO BATTALIONS FOR 3ECTOR "
THE OFlCIAL IN CHARGE OF THE PRESS WHO CANNOT SATISFACTORILY EXPLAIN WHY
AFTER SO MANY DECISIVE VICTORIES THE REBELS ARE STILL VIGOROUS AND EXPAND
ING THE CONGRESSMAN WHO CANNOT UNDERSTAND WHY THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD
GET MORE MONEY WHEN IT HAS SO LITTLE TO SHOW FOR THE HUGE APPROPRIATIONS
PREVIOUSLY GRANTED THE CHIEF OF STATE HARASSED FROM ALL SIDES WHO WON
DERS HOW LONG HE WILL LASTTHESE ARE TYPICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PLIGHT OF
THE COUNTERREVOLUTIONARY
4HERE IS CLEARLY A NEED FOR A COMPASS AND THIS WORK HAS AS ITS ONLY PUR
POSE TO CONSTRUCT SUCH AN INSTRUMENT HOWEVER IMPERFECT AND RUDIMENTARY
IT MAY BE 7HAT WE PROPOSE TO DO IS TO DElNE THE LAWS OF COUNTERREVOLU
TIONARY WARFARE TO DEDUCE FROM THEM ITS PRINCIPLES AND TO OUTLINE THE COR
RESPONDING STRATEGY AND TACTICS
4HE ENTERPRISE IS RISKY &IRST OF ALL WHEREAS CONVENTIONAL WARS OF ANY
SIZE AND SHAPE CAN BE COUNTED IN THE HUNDREDS NO MORE THAN A SCORE OF
XIV ).42/$5#4)/.
REVOLUTIONARY WARS HAVE OCCURRED MOST OF THEM SINCE )S IT ENOUGH TO
DETECT LAWS 'ENERALIZATION AND EXTRAPOLATION FROM SUCH A LIMITED BASIS MUST
RELY TO SOME EXTENT ON INTUITION WHICH MAY OR MAY NOT BE CORRECT 4HEN
THERE IS THE PITFALL OF DOGMATISM INHERENT IN ANY EFFORT AT ABSTRACTION FOR WE
ARE NOT STUDYING A SPECIlC COUNTERREVOLUTIONARY WAR BUT THE PROBLEM IN GEN
ERAL WHAT MAY SEEM RELEVANT IN A MAJORITY OF CASES MAY NOT BE SO IN OTHERS
WHERE PARTICULAR FACTORS HAVE AFFECTED THE EVENTS IN A DECISIVE WAY
7E SHALL NOT CLAIM THEREFORE THAT WE ARE PROVIDING THE WHOLE AND COM
PLETE ANSWER TO THE COUNTERREVOLUTIONARYS PROBLEMS 7E HOPE MERELY TO CLEAR
AWAY SOME OF THE CONFUSIONS THAT WE HAVE SO OFTEN AND SO LONG WITNESSED IN
THE hWRONGv CAMP
7HAT IS PRIMARILY DEALT WITH HERE IS COUNTERREVOLUTIONARY WARFARE IN THE
AREAS CALLED hCOLONIALv AND hSEMICOLONIALv BY THE #OMMUNISTS AND
hUNDERDEVELOPEDv BY US 4HAT REVOLUTIONARY WARS CAN OCCUR OUTSIDE THESE
AREAS IS POSSIBLE BUT THEIR SUCCESS WOULD BE FAR FROM CERTAIN FOR A STABLE
SOCIETY IS OBVIOUSLY LESS VULNERABLE )N RECENT TIMES ONLY ONE REVOLUTION
ARY WAR HAS TAKEN PLACE IN A hCAPITALISTv AREAIN 'REECE IN nAND
THE REVOLUTIONARIES WERE DEFEATED 7E MAY PERHAPS SEE THE BEGINNING OF
ANOTHER IN THE 1UEBEC 0ROVINCE OF #ANADA TODAY )N ANY CASE WE BELIEVE
THAT THE PROBLEM IS NOT ACUTE IN THE DEVELOPED PARTS OF THE WORLD
! MATTER OF SEMANTICS HAS TO BE CLEARED UP BEFORE PROCEEDING FURTHER )T
IS UNWISE TO CONCEDE TO -AO 4SE
TUNG THAT THE REVOLUTIONARYS OPPONENT IS
A hCOUNTERREVOLUTIONARY v FOR THIS WORD HAS COME TO BE SYNONYMOUS WITH
hREACTIONARY v WHICH HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN NOR WILL IT ALWAYS BE THE CASE
4HEREFORE ONE SIDE WILL BE CALLED THE hINSURGENTv AND HIS ACTION THE hINSUR
GENCYv ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE WE WILL lND THE hCOUNTERINSURGENTv AND THE
hCOUNTERINSURGENCYv 3INCE INSURGENCY AND COUNTERINSURGENCY ARE TWO DIF
FERENT ASPECTS OF THE SAME CONmICT AN EXPRESSION IS NEEDED TO COVER THE
WHOLE hREVOLUTIONARY WARv WILL SERVE THE PURPOSE
#HAPTER
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2 .!452%
!.$ #(!2!#4%2)34)#3
7(!4 )3 ! 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
! REVOLUTIONARY WAR IS PRIMARILY AN INTERNAL CONmICT ALTHOUGH EXTERNAL
INmUENCES SELDOM FAIL TO BEAR UPON IT !LTHOUGH IN MANY CASES THE INSUR
GENTS HAVE BEEN EASILY IDENTIlABLE NATIONAL GROUPS)NDONESIANS
6IETNAMESE 4UNISIANS !LGERIANS #ONGOLESE !NGOLANS TODAYTHIS
DOES NOT ALTER THE STRATEGICALLY IMPORTANT FACT THAT THEY WERE CHALLENGING
A LOCAL RULING POWER CONTROLLING THE EXISTING ADMINISTRATION POLICE AND
ARMED FORCES )N THIS RESPECT COLONIAL REVOLUTIONARY WARS HAVE NOT DIF
FERED FROM THE PURELY INDIGENOUS ONES SUCH AS THOSE IN #UBA AND 3OUTH
6IETNAM
4HE CONmICT RESULTS FROM THE ACTION OF THE INSURGENT AIMING TO SEIZE
POWEROR AT SPLITTING OFF FROM THE EXISTING COUNTRY AS THE +URDS ARE
ATTEMPTING TO DO NOWAND FROM THE REACTION OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT
AIMING TO KEEP HIS POWER !T THIS POINT SIGNIlCANT DIFFERENCES BEGIN TO
EMERGE BETWEEN THE TWO CAMPS 7HEREAS IN CONVENTIONAL WAR EITHER SIDE
CAN INITIATE THE CONmICT ONLY ONETHE INSURGENTCAN INITIATE A REVOLU
TIONARY WAR FOR COUNTERINSURGENCY IS ONLY AN EFFECT OF INSURGENCY
&URTHERMORE COUNTERINSURGENCY CANNOT BE DElNED EXCEPT BY REFERENCE
TO ITS CAUSE
0ARAPHRASING #LAUSEWITZ WE MIGHT SAY THAT h)NSURGENCY IS THE PURSUIT
OF THE POLICY OF A PARTY INSIDE A COUNTRY BY EVERY MEANSv )T IS NOT LIKE AN
ORDINARY WARA hCONTINUATION OF THE POLICY BY OTHER MEANSvBECAUSE AN
INSURGENCY CAN START LONG BEFORE THE INSURGENT RESORTS TO THE USE OF FORCE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
2%6/,54)/. 0,/4 ).352'%.#9
2EVOLUTION PLOT OR COUP DÏTAT AND INSURGENCY ARE THE THREE WAYS TO
TAKE POWER BY FORCE )T WILL BE USEFUL TO OUR ANALYSIS TO TRY TO DISTINGUISH
AMONG THEM
! REVOLUTION USUALLY IS AN EXPLOSIVE UPHEAVALSUDDEN BRIEF SPONTANE
OUS UNPLANNED &RANCE #HINA 2USSIA (UNGARY
)T IS AN ACCIDENT WHICH CAN BE EXPLAINED AFTERWARD BUT NOT PREDICTED OTHER
THAN TO NOTE THE EXISTENCE OF A REVOLUTIONARY SITUATION (OW AND EXACTLY
WHEN THE EXPLOSION WILL OCCUR CANNOT BE FORECAST ! REVOLUTIONARY SITUA
TION EXISTS TODAY IN )RAN 7HO CAN TELL WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHETHER THERE WILL
BE AN EXPLOSION AND IF SO HOW AND WHEN IT WILL ERUPT
)N A REVOLUTION MASSES MOVE AND THEN LEADERS APPEAR 3UN 9AT SEN WAS
IN %NGLAND WHEN THE -ANCHU DYNASTY WAS OVERTHROWN ,ENIN IN 3WITZER
LAND WHEN THE 2OMANOVS FELL
! PLOT IS THE CLANDESTINE ACTION OF AN INSURGENT GROUP DIRECTED AT THE
OVERTHROW OF THE TOP LEADERSHIP IN ITS COUNTRY "ECAUSE OF ITS CLANDESTINE
NATURE A PLOT CANNOT AND DOES NOT INVOLVE THE MASSES !LTHOUGH PREPARA
TIONS FOR THE PLOT MAY BE LONG THE ACTION ITSELF IS BRIEF AND SUDDEN ! PLOT
IS ALWAYS A GAMBLE THE PLOT AGAINST (ITLER IN THE PLOTS IN )RAQ AGAINST
+ING &AISAL AND .URI AL 3AID IN AND AGAINST +ASSEM IN
/N THE OTHER HAND AN INSURGENCY IS A PROTRACTED STRUGGLE CONDUCTED
METHODICALLY STEP BY STEP IN ORDER TO ATTAIN SPECIlC INTERMEDIATE OBJECTIVES
LEADING lNALLY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE EXISTING ORDER #HINA n
'REECE n )NDOCHINA n -ALAYA n !LGERIA n
4O BE SURE IT CAN NO MORE BE PREDICTED THAN A REVOLUTION IN FACT ITS
BEGINNINGS ARE SO VAGUE THAT TO DETERMINE EXACTLY WHEN AN INSURGENCY STARTS
IS A DIFlCULT LEGAL POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL PROBLEM )N #HINA FOR INSTANCE
SHOULD IT BE DATED FROM WHEN THE +UOMINTANG #OMMUNIST ALLIANCE
BROKE AND FORCE CAME INTO PLAY OR FROM WHEN THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST
0ARTY WAS FOUNDED TO ESTABLISH A #OMMUNIST REGIME IN THE COUNTRY "UT
THOUGH IT CANNOT BE PREDICTED AN INSURGENCY IS USUALLY SLOW TO DEVELOP AND
IS NOT AN ACCIDENT FOR IN AN INSURGENCY LEADERS APPEAR AND THEN THE MASSES
ARE MADE TO MOVE !LTHOUGH ALL RECENT INSURGENCIESWITH THE EXCEPTION OF
THAT IN 'REECEWERE CLEARLY TIED TO A REVOLUTIONARY SITUATION THE CASES OF
-ALAYA n 4UNISIA n -OROCCO n #YPRUS n
#UBA n AND OTHERS SEEM TO SHOW THAT THE REVOLUTIONARY SITUA
TION DID NOT HAVE TO BE ACUTE IN ORDER FOR THE INSURGENCY TO BE INITIATED
).352'%.#9 !.$ #)6), 7!2
!N INSURGENCY IS A CIVIL WAR 9ET THERE IS A DIFFERENCE IN THE FORM THE WAR
TAKES IN EACH CASE
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
! CIVIL WAR SUDDENLY SPLITS A NATION INTO TWO OR MORE GROUPS WHICH
AFTER A BRIEF PERIOD OF INITIAL CONFUSION lND THEMSELVES IN CONTROL OF PART
OF BOTH THE TERRITORY AND THE EXISTING ARMED FORCES THAT THEY PROCEED
IMMEDIATELY TO DEVELOP 4HE WAR BETWEEN THESE GROUPS SOON RESEMBLES
AN ORDINARY INTERNATIONAL WAR EXCEPT THAT THE OPPONENTS ARE FELLOW CITI
ZENS SUCH AS IN THE !MERICAN 7AR "ETWEEN THE 3TATES AND THE 3PANISH
#IVIL 7AR
!39--%429 "%47%%. 4(% ).352'%.4 !.$
4(% #/5.4%2).352'%.4
4HERE IS AN ASYMMETRY BETWEEN THE OPPOSITE CAMPS OF A REVOLUTIONARY
WAR 4HIS PHENOMENON RESULTS FROM THE VERY NATURE OF THE WAR FROM THE
DISPROPORTION OF STRENGTH BETWEEN THE OPPONENTS AT THE OUTSET AND FROM
THE DIFFERENCE IN ESSENCE BETWEEN THEIR ASSETS AND THEIR LIABILITIES
3INCE THE INSURGENT ALONE CAN INITIATE THE CONmICT WHICH IS NOT TO SAY
THAT HE IS NECESSARILY THE lRST TO USE FORCE STRATEGIC INITIATIVE IS HIS BY
DElNITION (E IS FREE TO CHOOSE HIS HOUR TO WAIT SAFELY FOR A FAVORABLE SITU
ATION UNLESS EXTERNAL FACTORS FORCE HIM TO ACCELERATE HIS MOVES (OWEVER
IN THE WORLD OF TODAY POLARIZED AS IT IS BETWEEN %AST AND 7EST NO REVOLU
TIONARY WAR CAN REMAIN A PURELY INTERNAL AFFAIR )T IS PROBABLE THAT THE
-ALAYAN AND THE )NDONESIAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTIES WERE ORDERED TO START THE
VIOLENT PHASE OF THEIR INSURGENCY AT THE #ALCUTTA #OMMUNIST
SPONSORED #ONFERENCE OF 9OUTH AND 3TUDENTS OF 3OUTHEAST !SIA 4HUS THE
DECISION WAS NOT ENTIRELY LEFT TO THE -ALAYAN AND )NDONESIAN 0ARTIES
5NTIL THE INSURGENT HAS CLEARLY REVEALED HIS INTENTIONS BY ENGAGING IN
SUBVERSION OR OPEN VIOLENCE HE REPRESENTS NOTHING BUT AN IMPRECISE
POTENTIAL MENACE TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT AND DOES NOT OFFER A CONCRETE
TARGET THAT WOULD JUSTIFY A LARGE EFFORT 9ET AN INSURGENCY CAN REACH A
HIGH DEGREE OF DEVELOPMENT BY LEGAL AND PEACEFUL MEANS AT LEAST IN
COUNTRIES WHERE POLITICAL OPPOSITION IS TOLERATED 4HIS GREATLY LIMITS PRE
EMPTIVE MOVES ON THE PART OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT 5SUALLY THE MOST HE
CAN DO IS TO TRY TO ELIMINATE OR ALLEVIATE THE CONDITIONS PROPITIOUS FOR AN
INSURGENCY
!N APPRAISAL OF THE CONTENDING FORCES AT THE START OF A REVOLUTIONARY WAR
SHOWS AN OVERWHELMING SUPERIORITY IN TANGIBLE ASSETS IN FAVOR OF THE COUN
TERINSURGENT %NDOWED WITH THE NORMAL FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC PERQUISITES
OF AN ESTABLISHED GOVERNMENT HE HAS VIRTUALLY EVERYTHINGDIPLOMATIC
RECOGNITION LEGITIMATE POWER IN THE EXECUTIVE LEGISLATIVE AND JUDICIAL
BRANCHES CONTROL OF THE ADMINISTRATION AND POLICE lNANCIAL RESOURCES
INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AT HOME OR READY ACCESS TO THEM
ABROAD TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS FACILITIES USE AND CONTROL OF THE
INFORMATION AND PROPAGANDA MEDIA COMMAND OF THE ARMED FORCES AND THE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
POSSIBILITY OF INCREASING THEIR SIZE (E IS IN WHILE THE INSURGENT BEING OUT
HAS NONE OR FEW OF THESE ASSETS
4HE SITUATION IS REVERSED IN THE lELD OF INTANGIBLES 4HE INSURGENT HAS A
FORMIDABLE ASSETTHE IDEOLOGICAL POWER OF A CAUSE ON WHICH TO BASE HIS
ACTION 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS A HEAVY LIABILITYHE IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
MAINTAINING ORDER THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY 4HE INSURGENTS STRATEGY WILL
NATURALLY AIM AT CONVERTING HIS INTANGIBLE ASSETS INTO CONCRETE ONES THE
COUNTERINSURGENTS STRATEGY AT PREVENTING HIS INTANGIBLE LIABILITY FROM DIS
SIPATING HIS CONCRETE ASSETS
4HE INSURGENT THUS HAS TO GROW IN THE COURSE OF THE WAR FROM SMALL TO
LARGE FROM WEAKNESS TO STRENGTH OR ELSE HE FAILS 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT
WILL DECLINE FROM LARGE TO SMALL FROM STRENGTH TO WEAKNESS IN DIRECT RELA
TION TO THE INSURGENTS SUCCESS
4HE PECULIARITIES THAT MARK THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR AS SO DIFFERENT FROM
THE CONVENTIONAL ONE DERIVE FROM THIS INITIAL ASYMMETRY
/"*%#4)6% 4(% 0/05,!4)/.
!FmICTED WITH HIS CONGENITAL WEAKNESS THE INSURGENT WOULD BE FOOLISH
IF HE MUSTERED WHATEVER FORCES WERE AVAILABLE TO HIM AND ATTACKED HIS
OPPONENT IN A CONVENTIONAL FASHION TAKING AS HIS OBJECTIVE THE DESTRUCTION
OF THE ENEMYS FORCES AND THE CONQUEST OF THE TERRITORY ,OGIC FORCES HIM
INSTEAD TO CARRY THE lGHT TO A DIFFERENT GROUND WHERE HE HAS A BETTER CHANCE
TO BALANCE THE PHYSICAL ODDS AGAINST HIM
4HE POPULATION REPRESENTS THIS NEW GROUND )F THE INSURGENT MANAGES TO
DISSOCIATE THE POPULATION FROM THE COUNTERINSURGENT TO CONTROL IT PHYSI
CALLY TO GET ITS ACTIVE SUPPORT HE WILL WIN THE WAR BECAUSE IN THE lNAL
ANALYSIS THE EXERCISE OF POLITICAL POWER DEPENDS ON THE TACIT OR EXPLICIT
AGREEMENT OF THE POPULATION OR AT WORST ON ITS SUBMISSIVENESS
4HUS THE BATTLE FOR THE POPULATION IS A MAJOR CHARACTERISTIC OF THE
REVOLUTIONARY WAR
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2 )3 ! 0/,)4)#!, 7!2
!LL WARS ARE THEORETICALLY FOUGHT FOR A POLITICAL PURPOSE ALTHOUGH IN
SOME CASES THE lNAL POLITICAL OUTCOME DIFFERS GREATLY FROM THE ONE INTENDED
INITIALLY
)N THE CONVENTIONAL WAR MILITARY ACTION SECONDED BY DIPLOMACY PROPA
GANDA AND ECONOMIC PRESSURE IS GENERALLY THE PRINCIPAL WAY TO ACHIEVE
THE GOAL 0OLITICS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF WAR TENDS TO TAKE A BACK SEAT AND
EMERGES AGAINAS AN INSTRUMENTWHEN THE lGHTING ENDS 7E ARE NOT
IMPLYING THAT POLITICS VANISHES ENTIRELY AS THE MAIN DIRECTING FORCE BUT
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
RATHER THAT IN THE COURSE OF THE CONVENTIONAL WAR ONCE POLITICAL GOALS HAVE
BEEN SET ALTHOUGH THE GOVERNMENT MAY CHANGE THEM ONCE DIRECTIVES
HAVE BEEN GIVEN TO THE ARMED FORCES ALTHOUGH THE GOVERNMENT MAY MODIFY
THEM MILITARY ACTION BECOMES FOREMOST h,APAROLE PASSE AUX ARMESv
THE GUN BECOMES THE hULTIMA RATIO REGUMv 7ITH THE ADVENT OF THE NUCLEAR
AGE AND ITS CONSEQUENT RISKS OF MUTUAL DESTRUCTION POLITICS NO DOUBT WILL
INTERFERE MORE CLOSELYAS IT DID IN THE RECENT CASE OF +OREAWITH THE
CONDUCT OF THE WAR LIMITED OBJECTIVES AND WITH THE ACTUAL CONDUCT OF THE
OPERATIONS PRIVILEGED SANCTUARIES EXCLUSION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS .EVER
THELESS MILITARY ACTION REMAINS THE PRINCIPAL INSTRUMENT OF THE CONVEN
TIONAL WAR
!S A RESULT IT IS RELATIVELY EASY TO ALLOCATE TASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
AMONG THE GOVERNMENT WHICH DIRECTS OPERATIONS THE POPULATION WHICH
PROVIDES THE TOOLS AND THE SOLDIER WHO UTILIZES THEM
4HE PICTURE IS DIFFERENT IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 4HE OBJECTIVE BEING THE
POPULATION ITSELF THE OPERATIONS DESIGNED TO WIN IT OVER FOR THE INSURGENT
OR TO KEEP IT AT LEAST SUBMISSIVE FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT ARE ESSENTIALLY
OF A POLITICAL NATURE )N THIS CASE CONSEQUENTLY POLITICAL ACTION REMAINS
FOREMOST THROUGHOUT THE WAR )T IS NOT ENOUGH FOR THE GOVERNMENT TO SET
POLITICAL GOALS TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH MILITARY FORCE IS APPLICABLE TO
ENTER INTO ALLIANCES OR TO BREAK THEM POLITICS BECOMES AN ACTIVE INSTRUMENT
OF OPERATION !ND SO INTRICATE IS THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN THE POLITICAL AND THE
MILITARY ACTIONS THAT THEY CANNOT BE TIDILY SEPARATED ON THE CONTRARY EVERY
MILITARY MOVE HAS TO BE WEIGHED WITH REGARD TO ITS POLITICAL EFFECTS AND
VICE VERSA
4HE INSURGENT WHOSE POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT IS A PARTY AND WHOSE ARMED
FORCES ARE THE PARTYS FORCES ENJOYS AN OBVIOUS ADVANTAGE OVER HIS OPPO
NENT WHOSE POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT IS THE COUNTRYS GOVERNMENT WHICH
MAY OR MAY NOT BE SUPPORTED BY A PARTY OR BY A COALITION OF PARTIES WITH
THEIR CENTRIFUGAL TENDENCIES AND WHOSE ARMY IS THE NATIONS ARMY REmECT
ING THE CONSENSUS OR THE LACK OF CONSENSUS IN THE NATION
'2!$5!, 42!.3)4)/. &2/- 0%!#% 4/ 7!2
)N THE CONVENTIONAL WAR THE AGGRESSOR WHO HAS PREPARED FOR IT WITHIN THE
CONlNES OF HIS NATIONAL TERRITORY CHANNELING HIS RESOURCES INTO THE PREPA
RATION HAS MUCH TO GAIN BY ATTACKING SUDDENLY WITH ALL HIS FORCES 4HE
TRANSITION FROM PEACE TO WAR IS AS ABRUPT AS THE STATE OF THE ART ALLOWS THE
lRST SHOCK MAY BE DECISIVE
4HIS IS HARDLY POSSIBLE IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR BECAUSE THE AGGRESSOR
THE INSURGENTLACKS SUFlCIENT STRENGTH AT THE OUTSET )NDEED YEARS MAY
SOMETIMES PASS BEFORE HE HAS BUILT UP SIGNIlCANT POLITICAL LET ALONE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
MILITARY POWER 3O THERE IS USUALLY LITTLE OR NO lRST SHOCK LITTLE OR NO SUR
PRISE NO POSSIBILITY OF AN EARLY DECISIVE BATTLE
)N FACT THE INSURGENT HAS NO INTEREST IN PRODUCING A SHOCK UNTIL HE FEELS
FULLY ABLE TO WITHSTAND THE ENEMYS EXPECTED REACTION "Y DELAYING THE
MOMENT WHEN THE INSURGENCY APPEARS AS A SERIOUS CHALLENGE TO THE COUN
TERINSURGENT THE INSURGENT DELAYS THE REACTION 4HE DELAY MAY BE FURTHER
PROLONGED BY EXPLOITING THE FACT THAT THE POPULATION REALIZES THE DANGER
EVEN LATER THAN THE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADERSHIP
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2 )3 ! 02/42!#4%$ 7!2
4HE PROTRACTED NATURE OF A REVOLUTIONARY WAR DOES NOT RESULT FROM A
DESIGN BY EITHER SIDE IT IS IMPOSED ON THE INSURGENT BY HIS INITIAL WEAK
NESS )T TAKES TIME FOR A SMALL GROUP OF INSURGENT LEADERS TO ORGANIZE A
REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT TO RAISE AND TO DEVELOP ARMED FORCES TO REACH A
BALANCE WITH THE OPPONENT AND TO OVERPOWER HIM ! REVOLUTIONARY WAR IS
SHORT ONLY IF THE COUNTERINSURGENCY COLLAPSES AT AN EARLY STAGE AS IN #UBA
WHERE THE "ATISTA REGIME DISINTEGRATED SUDDENLY LESS UNDER THE BLOWS FROM
THE INSURGENTS THAN THROUGH ITS OWN WEAKNESS OR IF SOMEHOW A POLITICAL
SETTLEMENT IS REACHED AS IN 4UNISIA -OROCCO #YPRUS 4O DATE THERE HAS
NEVER BEEN AN EARLY COLLAPSE OF AN INSURGENCY
4HE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN #HINA LASTED TWENTY
TWO YEARS IF IS TAKEN
AS THE STARTING YEAR 4HE WAR LASTED lVE YEARS IN 'REECE NINE IN )NDOCHINA
NINE IN THE 0HILIPPINES lVE IN )NDONESIA TWELVE IN -ALAYA THREE IN 4UNI
SIA FOUR IN -OROCCO EIGHT IN !LGERIA 4HE WAR STARTED IN IN "URMA
AND STILL GOES ON THOUGH IN A FEEBLE WAY
).352'%.#9 )3 #(%!0 #/5.4%2).352'%.#9
#/34,9
0ROMOTING DISORDER IS A LEGITIMATE OBJECTIVE FOR THE INSURGENT )T HELPS
TO DISRUPT THE ECONOMY HENCE TO PRODUCE DISCONTENT IT SERVES TO UNDER
MINE THE STRENGTH AND THE AUTHORITY OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT -OREOVER
DISORDERTHE NORMAL STATE OF NATUREIS CHEAP TO CREATE AND VERY COSTLY
TO PREVENT 4HE INSURGENT BLOWS UP A BRIDGE SO EVERY BRIDGE HAS TO BE
GUARDED HE THROWS A GRENADE IN A MOVIE THEATER SO EVERY PERSON ENTERING
A PUBLIC PLACE HAS TO BE SEARCHED 7HEN THE INSURGENT BURNS A FARM ALL THE
FARMERS CLAMOR FOR PROTECTION IF THEY DO NOT RECEIVE IT THEY MAY BE
TEMPTED TO DEAL PRIVATELY WITH THE INSURGENT AS HAPPENED IN )NDOCHINA
AND !LGERIA TO GIVE JUST TWO EXAMPLES -ERELY BY MAKING ANONYMOUS
PHONE CALLS WARNING OF BOMBS PLANTED IN LUGGAGE THE INSURGENT CAN DIS
RUPT CIVILIAN AIRLINE SCHEDULES AND SCARE AWAY TOURISTS
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
"ECAUSE THE COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT ESCAPE THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR
MAINTAINING ORDER THE RATIO OF EXPENSES BETWEEN HIM AND THE INSURGENT IS
HIGH )T MAY BE TEN OR TWENTY TO ONE OR HIGHER 4HE lGURE VARIES GREATLY
OF COURSE FROM CASE TO CASE AND IN EACH SITUATION DURING THE COURSE OF THE
REVOLUTIONARY WAR )T SEEMS TO APPLY PARTICULARLY WHEN THE INSURGENT
REACHES THE INITIAL STAGES OF VIOLENCE AND RESORTS TO TERRORISM AND GUERRILLA
WARFARE 4HE "RITISH CALCULATED THE COST OF EVERY REBEL IN -ALAYA AT MORE
THAN )N !LGERIA THE &,. BUDGET AT ITS PEAK AMOUNTED TO OR
MILLION A YEAR LESS THAN THE &RENCH FORCES HAD TO SPEND IN TWO
WEEKS
4HERE IS IT SEEMS AN UPPER LIMIT TO THIS RATIO 7HEN THE INSURGENT
INCREASES HIS TERRORISM OR GUERRILLA ACTIVITY BY A FACTOR OF TWO THREE OR lVE
HE DOES NOT FORCE THE COUNTERINSURGENT TO MULTIPLY HIS EXPENDITURES BY THE
SAME FACTOR 3OONER OR LATER A SATURATION POINT IS REACHED A POINT WHERE
THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS OPERATES FOR BOTH SIDES
/NCE THE INSURGENT HAS SUCCEEDED IN ACQUIRING STABLE GEOGRAPHICAL BASES
AS FOR INSTANCE THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS DID IN NORTHWEST #HINA OR THE
6IETMINH IN 4ONKIN HE BECOMES IPSO FACTO A STRONG PROMOTER OF ORDER
WITHIN HIS OWN AREA IN ORDER TO SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EFFECTIVE
NESS OF HIS RULE AND THE INADEQUACY OF HIS OPPONENTS
"ECAUSE OF THE DISPARITY IN COST AND EFFORT THE INSURGENT CAN THUS ACCEPT
A PROTRACTED WAR THE COUNTERINSURGENT SHOULD NOT
&,5)$)49 /& 4(% ).352'%.4 2)')$)49 /& 4(%
#/5.4%2).352'%.4
4HE INSURGENT IS mUID BECAUSE HE HAS NEITHER RESPONSIBILITY NOR CONCRETE
ASSETS THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS RIGID BECAUSE HE HAS BOTH AND NO AMOUNT OF
WAILING CAN ALTER THIS FACT FOR EITHER SIDE %ACH MUST ACCEPT THE SITUATION AS
IT IS AND MAKE THE BEST OF IT
)F THE COUNTERINSURGENT WANTED TO RID HIMSELF OF HIS RIGIDITY HE WOULD
HAVE TO RENOUNCE TO SOME EXTENT HIS CLAIM TO THE EFFECTIVE RULE OF THE COUN
TRY OR DISPOSE OF HIS CONCRETE ASSETS /NE WAY OF DOING THIS OF COURSE
WOULD BE TO HAND OVER EVERYTHING TO THE INSURGENT AND THEN START AN INSUR
GENCY AGAINST HIM BUT NO COUNTERINSURGENT ON RECORD HAS DARED APPLY THIS
EXTREME SOLUTION
/N THE OTHER HAND THE INSURGENT IS OBLIGED TO REMAIN mUID AT LEAST UNTIL
HE HAS REACHED A BALANCE OF FORCES WITH THE COUNTERINSURGENT (OWEVER
DESIRABLE FOR THE INSURGENT TO POSSESS TERRITORY LARGE REGULAR FORCES AND
POWERFUL WEAPONS TO POSSESS THEM AND TO RELY ON THEM PREMATURELY COULD
SPELL HIS DOOM 4HE FAILURE OF THE 'REEK #OMMUNIST INSURGENTS MAY BE
ATTRIBUTED IN PART TO THE RISK THEY TOOK WHEN THEY ORGANIZED THEIR FORCES INTO
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
BATTALIONS REGIMENTS AND DIVISIONS AND ACCEPTED BATTLE 4HE 6IETMINH
MADE THE SAME MISTAKE IN IN 4ONKIN AND SUFFERED SERIOUS SET BACKS
)N THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR THEREFORE AND UNTIL THE BALANCE OF FORCES HAS BEEN
REACHED ONLY THE INSURGENT CAN CONSISTENTLY WAGE PROlTABLE HIT AND RUN
OPERATIONS BECAUSE THE COUNTERINSURGENT ALONE OFFERS PROlTABLE AND lXED
TARGETS ONLY THE INSURGENT AS A RULE IS FREE TO ACCEPT OR REFUSE BATTLE THE
COUNTERINSURGENT BEING BOUND BY HIS RESPONSIBILITY /N THE OTHER HAND
ONLY THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAN USE SUBSTANTIAL MEANS BECAUSE HE ALONE
POSSESSES THEM
&LUIDITY FOR ONE SIDE AND RIGIDITY FOR THE OTHER ARE FURTHER DETERMINED BY
THE NATURE OF THE OPERATIONS 4HEY ARE RELATIVELY SIMPLE FOR THE INSURGENT
PROMOTING DISORDER IN EVERY WAY UNTIL HE ASSUMES POWER THEY ARE COMPLI
CATED FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT WHO HAS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT CONmICTING
DEMANDS PROTECTION OF THE POPULATION AND THE ECONOMY AND OFFENSIVE
OPERATIONS AGAINST THE INSURGENT AND WHO HAS TO COORDINATE ALL THE COMPO
NENTS OF HIS FORCESTHE ADMINISTRATOR THE POLICEMAN THE SOLDIER THE
SOCIAL WORKER ETC 4HE INSURGENT CAN AFFORD A LOOSE PRIMITIVE ORGANIZA
TION HE CAN DELEGATE A WIDE MARGIN OF INITIATIVE BUT HIS OPPONENT CANNOT
4(% 0/7%2 /& )$%/,/'9
4HE INSURGENT CANNOT SERIOUSLY EMBARK ON AN INSURGENCY UNLESS HE HAS A
WELL
GROUNDED CAUSE WITH WHICH TO ATTRACT SUPPORTERS AMONG THE POPULA
TION ! CAUSE AS WE HAVE SEEN IS HIS SOLE ASSET AT THE BEGINNING AND IT
MUST BE A POWERFUL ONE IF THE INSURGENT IS TO OVERCOME HIS WEAKNESS
#AN TWO EXPLOSIVE BUT ANTAGONISTIC CAUSES EXIST SIMULTANEOUSLY IN A SIN
GLE COUNTRYONE FOR THE INSURGENT THE OTHER FOR HIS OPPONENT 3UCH A
SITUATION HAS HAPPENED OCCASIONALLY FOR EXAMPLE IN THE 5NITED 3TATES
WHEN THE ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT CLASHED WITH THE DOCTRINE OF STATES RIGHTS
4HE MOST LIKELY RESULT IN THIS CASE IS A CIVIL WAR NOT AN INSURGENCY
4HE PROBABILITY IS THAT ONLY ONE CAUSE EXISTS )F THE INSURGENT HAS PRE
EMPTED IT THEN THE FORCE OF IDEOLOGY WORKS FOR HIM AND NOT FOR THE COUN
TERINSURGENT (OWEVER THIS IS TRUE LARGELY IN THE EARLY PARTS OF THE CONmICT
,ATER ON AS THE WAR DEVELOPS WAR ITSELF BECOMES THE PARAMOUNT ISSUE AND
THE ORIGINAL CAUSE CONSEQUENTLY LOSES SOME OF ITS IMPORTANCE
)T HAS BEEN ASSERTED THAT A COUNTERINSURGENT CONFRONTED BY A DYNAMIC
INSURGENT IDEOLOGY IS BOUND TO MEET DEFEAT THAT NO AMOUNT OF TACTICS AND
TECHNIQUE CAN COMPENSATE FOR HIS IDEOLOGICAL HANDICAP 4HIS IS NOT NECES
SARILY SO BECAUSE THE POPULATIONS ATTITUDE IN THE MIDDLE STAGE OF THE WAR IS
DICTATED NOT SO MUCH BY THE RELATIVE POPULARITY AND MERITS OF THE OPPONENTS
AS BY THE MORE PRIMITIVE CONCERN FOR SAFETY 7HICH SIDE GIVES THE BEST PRO
TECTION WHICH ONE THREATENS THE MOST WHICH ONE IS LIKELY TO WIN THESE ARE
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
THE CRITERIA GOVERNING THE POPULATIONS STAND 3O MUCH THE BETTER OF COURSE
IF POPULARITY AND EFFECTIVENESS ARE COMBINED
02/0!'!.$!! /.%
3)$%$ 7%!0/.
4HE ASYMMETRICAL SITUATION HAS IMPORTANT EFFECTS ON PROPAGANDA 4HE
INSURGENT HAVING NO RESPONSIBILITY IS FREE TO USE EVERY TRICK IF NECESSARY
HE CAN LIE CHEAT EXAGGERATE (E IS NOT OBLIGED TO PROVE HE IS JUDGED BY
WHAT HE PROMISES NOT BY WHAT HE DOES #ONSEQUENTLY PROPAGANDA IS A
POWERFUL WEAPON FOR HIM 7ITH NO POSITIVE POLICY BUT WITH GOOD PROPA
GANDA THE INSURGENT MAY STILL WIN
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT IS TIED TO HIS RESPONSIBILITIES AND TO HIS PAST AND FOR
HIM FACTS SPEAK LOUDER THAN WORDS (E IS JUDGED ON WHAT HE DOES NOT ON WHAT
HE SAYS )F HE LIES CHEATS EXAGGERATES AND DOES NOT PROVE HE MAY ACHIEVE
SOME TEMPORARY SUCCESSES BUT AT THE PRICE OF BEING DISCREDITED FOR GOOD !ND
HE CANNOT CHEAT MUCH UNLESS HIS POLITICAL STRUCTURES ARE MONOLITHIC FOR THE
LEGITIMATE OPPOSITION IN HIS OWN CAMP WOULD SOON DISCLOSE HIS EVERY PSYCHO
LOGICAL MANEUVER &OR HIM PROPAGANDA CAN BE NO MORE THAN A SECONDARY
WEAPON VALUABLE ONLY IF INTENDED TO INFORM AND NOT TO FOOL ! COUNTERINSUR
GENT CAN SELDOM COVER BAD OR NONEXISTENT POLICY WITH PROPAGANDA
2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2 2%-!).3
5.#/.6%.4)/.!, 5.4), 4(% %.$
/NCE THE INSURGENT HAS ACQUIRED STRENGTH AND POSSESSES SIGNIlCANT REG
ULAR FORCES IT WOULD SEEM THAT THE WAR SHOULD BECOME A CONVENTIONAL ONE
A SORT OF CIVIL WAR IN WHICH EACH CAMP HOLDS A PORTION OF THE NATIONAL TER
RITORY FROM WHICH HE DIRECTS BLOWS AT THE OTHER "UT IF THE INSURGENT HAS
UNDERSTOOD HIS STRATEGIC PROBLEMS WELL REVOLUTIONARY WAR NEVER REVERTS TO
A CONVENTIONAL FORM
&OR ONE REASON THE CREATION OF A REGULAR ARMY BY THE INSURGENT DOES NOT
MEAN AN END TO SUBVERSION AND GUERRILLA ACTIVITY /N THE CONTRARY THEY
INCREASE IN SCOPE AND INTENSITY IN ORDER TO FACILITATE THE OPERATIONS OF THE
REGULAR ARMY AND TO AMPLIFY THEIR EFFECTS
&OR ANOTHER REASON THE INSURGENT HAS INVOLVED THE POPULATION IN THE CON
mICT SINCE ITS BEGINNING THE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION OF THE POPULATION WAS
INDEED A SINE QUA NON FOR HIS SUCCESS (AVING ACQUIRED THE DECISIVE ADVAN
TAGE OF A POPULATION ORGANIZED AND MOBILIZED ON HIS SIDE WHY SHOULD HE
CEASE TO MAKE USE OF AN ASSET THAT GIVES HIS REGULAR FORCES THE mUIDITY AND
THE FREEDOM OF ACTION THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT ACHIEVE !S LONG AS
THE POPULATION REMAINS UNDER HIS CONTROL THE INSURGENT RETAINS HIS LIBERTY
TO REFUSE BATTLE EXCEPT ON HIS OWN TERMS
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
)N THE #HINESE .ATIONALISTS LAUNCHED AN OFFENSIVE AGAINST 9ENAN
THE #OMMUNIST CAPITAL IN NORTHERN 3HENSI 4HEY TOOK IT WITHOUT DIFlCULTY
THE #OMMUNIST 'OVERNMENT AND REGULAR FORCES EVACUATED THE AREA WITHOUT
A lGHT 3OON AFTER HOWEVER THE POPULATION THE LOCAL MILITIAS AND A SMALL
CORE OF GUERRILLA AND REGIONAL TROOPS BEGAN HARASSING THE .ATIONALISTS WHILE
REGULAR #OMMUNIST UNITS ATTACKED THEIR LONG COMMUNICATION LINES WHICH
EXTENDED NORTH FROM 3IAN 4HE .ATIONALISTS WERE lNALLY OBLIGED TO WITH
DRAW HAVING GAINED NOTHING AND LOST MUCH IN THE AFFAIR
)N THE &RENCH FORCES IN )NDOCHINA FOUND A STUDY MADE BY THE
6IETMINH COMMAND TO DETERMINE WHETHER IN 6IETMINH TERRITORY THERE WAS
ANY AREA ANY lXED INSTALLATION WORTH DEFENDING 4HE ANSWER WAS NO
)NDEED THAT SAME YEAR IN 6IETMINH TERRITORY NORTHWEST OF (ANOI THE
&RENCH SEIZED A HUGE DEPOT OF TRUCKS AND AMMUNITIONS LEFT TOTALLY
UNGUARDED
7E HAVE INDICATED ABOVE THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF REVOLUTIONARY
WAR 4HEY ARE AN INELUCTABLE PRODUCT OF THE NATURE OF THIS WAR !N INSURGENT
OR A COUNTERINSURGENT WHO WOULD CONDUCT HIS WAR IN OPPOSITION TO ANY OF
THESE CHARACTERISTICS GOING AGAINST THE GRAIN SO TO SPEAK WOULD CERTAINLY
NOT INCREASE HIS CHANCES FOR SUCCESS
#HAPTER
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2
! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
4HE CAUSE OF MOST RECENT INSURGENCIES CAN EASILY BE ATTRIBUTED TO REVOLUTIONARY
SITUATIONS THAT MIGHT HAVE EXPLODED INTO SPONTANEOUS REVOLUTIONS BUT BRED
INSTEAD A GROUP OF LEADERS WHO THEN PROCEEDED TO ORGANIZE AND CONDUCT THE
INSURGENCIES )N VIEW OF THIS FACT IT WOULD BE WRONG AND UNJUST TO CONCLUDE
THAT INSURGENCIES ARE MERELY THE PRODUCT OF PERSONAL AMBITIONS ON THE PART OF
THEIR LEADERS WHO DEVELOPED THE WHOLE MOVEMENT ARTIlCIALLY SO TO SPEAK
&OR THE SAKE OF DEMONSTRATION LET US SUPPOSE THAT IN #OUNTRY 8 A SMALL
GROUP OF DISCONTENTED MENPOSSESSING THE ATTRIBUTES OF LEADERSHIP INSPIRED
BY THE SUCCESS OF SO MANY INSURGENCIES IN THE PAST TWENTY YEARS WELL AWARE
OF THE STRATEGIC AND TACTICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN SUCH AN ENTERPRISEHAVE
MET AND DECIDED TO OVERTHROW THE EXISTING ORDER BY THE PATH OF INSURGENCY
)N LIGHT OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS MATERIAL SUPERIORITY AT THE OUTSET THEIR
CHANCES OF VICTORY WILL OBVIOUSLY DEPEND ON WHETHER CERTAIN PRELIMINARY
CONDITIONS ARE MET 7HAT CONDITIONS !RE THESE CONDITIONS A MUST )N
OTHER WORDS WHAT ARE THE PREREQUISITES FOR A SUCCESSFUL INSURGENCY
+NOWING WHAT THEY ARE WOULD HELP IN ASSESSING FROM A COUNTERINSURGENTS
POINT OF VIEW HOW VULNERABLE A COUNTRY WOULD BE TO AN INSURGENCY
! #!53%
.ECESSITY OF A #AUSE
(OW CAN THE INSURGENT EVER HOPE TO PRY THE POPULATION AWAY FROM THE
COUNTERINSURGENT TO CONTROL IT AND TO MOBILIZE IT "Y lNDING SUPPORTERS
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
AMONG THE POPULATION PEOPLE WHOSE SUPPORT WILL RANGE FROM ACTIVE PAR
TICIPATION IN THE STRUGGLE TO PASSIVE APPROVAL 4HE lRST BASIC NEED FOR AN
INSURGENT WHO AIMS AT MORE THAN SIMPLY MAKING TROUBLE IS AN ATTRACTIVE
CAUSE PARTICULARLY IN VIEW OF THE RISKS INVOLVED AND IN VIEW OF THE FACT THAT
THE EARLY SUPPORTERS AND THE ACTIVE SUPPORTERSNOT NECESSARILY THE SAME
PERSONSHAVE TO BE RECRUITED BY PERSUASION
7ITH A CAUSE THE INSURGENT HAS A FORMIDABLE IF INTANGIBLE ASSET THAT HE
CAN PROGRESSIVELY TRANSFORM INTO CONCRETE STRENGTH ! SMALL GROUP OF MEN
SANS CAUSE CAN SEIZE POWER BY A LUCKY PLOTTHIS HAS HAPPENED IN HISTORY
BUT THEN A PLOT IS NOT AN INSURGENCY 4HE LACK OF AN ATTRACTIVE CAUSE IS WHAT
RESTRAINS A PRIORI APOLITICAL CRIME SYNDICATES FROM ATTEMPTING TO ASSUME
POWER FOR THEY REALIZE THAT ONLY CRIMINALS WILL FOLLOW THEM
4HE n #OMMUNIST INSURGENCY IN 'REECE A TEXTBOOK CASE OF EVERY
THING THAT CAN GO WRONG IN AN INSURGENCY IS AN EXAMPLE OF FAILURE DUE AMONG
OTHER LESS ESSENTIAL REASONS TO THE LACK OF A CAUSE 4HE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY THE
%!- AND ITS ARMY THE %,!3 GREW DURING 7ORLD 7AR )) WHEN THE ENTIRE
POPULATION WAS RESISTING THE 'ERMANS /NCE THE COUNTRY WAS LIBERATED THE
%!- COULD lND NO VALID CAUSE 'REECE HAD LITTLE INDUSTRY AND CONSEQUENTLY
NO PROLETARIAT EXCEPT THE DOCKERS OF 0IRAEUS AND TOBACCO
FACTORY WORKERS
THE MERCHANT SAILORS WHOSE JOBS KEPT THEM MOVING ABOUT COULD PROVIDE NO
CONSTANT SUPPORT 4HERE WAS NO APPALLING AGRARIAN PROBLEM TO EXPLOIT 4HE
WEALTHY 'REEK CAPITALISTS WHOSE FORTUNES HAD USUALLY BEEN MADE ABROAD
WERE AN OBJECT OF ADMIRATION RATHER THAN OF HOSTILITY IN A TRADE
MINDED NATION
.O SHARPLY lXED CLASSES EXISTED THE -INISTER OF THE .AVY MIGHT WELL BE THE
COUSIN OF A CAFÏ WAITER 4O MAKE MATTERS WORSE THE 'REEK #OMMUNISTS WERE
PERFORCE ALLIED TO "ULGARIA 'REECES TRADITIONAL ENEMY TO 9UGOSLAVIA WHICH
CLAIMS A PART OF 'REECES -ACEDONIA TO !LBANIA FROM WHICH 'REECE CLAIMS
PART OF %PIRUS 7ITH NATIONAL FEELINGS RUNNING AS HIGH AS THEY DO IN THE
"ALKANS THESE ASSOCIATIONS DID NOT INCREASE THE POPULARITY OF THE 'REEK
#OMMUNISTS
5SING WHAT FORCES THEY HAD AT THE END OF THE WAR TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE
DIFlCULT TERRAIN WITHDRAWING INTO SAFE ASYLUM ACROSS THE SATELLITES BOR
DERS WHEN NECESSARY THE #OMMUNIST INSURGENTS WERE ABLE TO WAGE
COMMANDO
TYPE OPERATIONS BUT NOT TRUE GUERRILLA WARFARE IN FACT THEIR
INlLTRATING UNITS HAD TO HIDE FROM THE POPULATION WHEN THEY COULD NOT COW
IT AND THEIR OPERATIONS LASTED GENERALLY AS LONG AS THE SUPPLIES THEY CARRIED
WITH THEM 4HE %,!3 WAS OBLIGED TO ENLIST PARTISANS BY FORCE 7HENEVER
THE UNWILLING RECRUITS FOUND THE POLITICAL COMMISSAR BEHIND THEIR BACK LESS
DANGEROUS THAN THE NATIONALIST FORCES IN FRONT THEY DESERTED
4HE MAIN REASON THE INSURGENCY LASTED SO LONG WAS THAT AT THE START
THE REGULAR GOVERNMENT FORCES CONSISTED OF ONLY A SINGLE BRIGADE WHICH
HAD FOUGHT WITH THE !LLIES IN THE -EDITERRANEAN 4HEATER AND WAS GREATLY
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
OUTNUMBERED BY THE INSURGENTS !S SOON AS THE ARMY WAS REORGANIZED
AND STRENGTHENED lRST WITH "RITISH THEN WITH 53 AID THE NATIONALIST
COMMAND UNDERTOOK TO CLEAN THE COUNTRY AREA BY AREA BY PURELY MILITARY
ACTION ! CLEANED AREA WAS KEPT CLEAN BY ARMING LOCAL MILITIAS THIS
PRESENTED LITTLE DIFlCULTY SINCE THE POPULATION WAS DElNITELY ANTI
#OMMUNIST AND COULD BE RELIED UPON
3TRATEGIC #RITERIA OF A #AUSE
4HE BEST CAUSE FOR THE INSURGENTS PURPOSE IS ONE THAT BY DElNITION CAN
ATTRACT THE LARGEST NUMBER OF SUPPORTERS AND REPEL THE MINIMUM OF OPPO
NENTS 4HUS A CAUSE APPEALING TO THE PROLETARIAT IN AN INDUSTRIALIZED COUN
TRY OR TO THE PEASANTS IN AN UNDERDEVELOPED ONE IS A GOOD CAUSE ! PURELY
.EGRO MOVEMENT TRYING TO EXPLOIT THE .EGRO PROBLEM AS A BASIS FOR AN
INSURGENCY IN THE 5NITED 3TATES WITH A POPULATION OF MILLION .EGROES
AND MILLION WHITES WOULD BE DOOMED FROM THE START )N 3OUTH !FRICA
WITH MILLION .EGROES AND MILLION WHITES ITS CHANCES WOULD BE
GOODOTHER FACTORS ASIDE )NDEPENDENCE FROM COLONIAL RULE WAS AUTOMATI
CALLY A GOOD CAUSE IN )NDONESIA )NDOCHINA 4UNISIA -OROCCO !LGERIA
#YPRUS THE "ELGIAN #ONGO AND NOW !NGOLA
4HE INSURGENT MUST OF COURSE BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY HIMSELF TOTALLY WITH THE
CAUSE OR MORE PRECISELY WITH THE ENTIRE MAJORITY OF THE POPULATION THEO
RETICALLY ATTRACTED BY IT )N -ALAYA INDEPENDENCE FROM 'REAT "RITAIN WAS
THE CAUSE CHOSEN BY THE INSURGENTS THE -ALAYAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY (OW
EVER PERCENT OF THE 0ARTY MEMBERS WERE #HINESE NOT TRUE -ALAYS THE
-ALAYS CONSEQUENTLY REMAINED LARGELY INDIFFERENT TO THE STRUGGLE 4HE
SAME STORY OCCURRED IN +ENYA IF ONE CHOOSES TO QUALIFY WHAT TOOK PLACE
THERE AS A REVOLUTIONARY WAR THE INSURGENCY WAS CONDUCTED IN SO CRUDE A
FASHION AS TO MAKE ITS INCLUSION IN THIS CATEGORY QUESTIONABLE )NDEPEN
DENCE WAS PURSUED BY MEMBERS OF A SINGLE TRIBE THE +IKUYUS NO OTHER
TRIBE MOVED IN SUPPORT
4O BE PERFECTLY SOUND THE CAUSE MUST BE SUCH THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT
CANNOT ESPOUSE IT TOO OR CAN DO SO ONLY AT THE RISK OF LOSING HIS POWER
WHICH IS AFTER ALL WHAT HE IS lGHTING FOR ,AND REFORM LOOKED LIKE A PROM
ISING CAUSE TO THE (UKBALAHAPS AFTER THE DEFEAT OF *APAN AND THE ACCESSION
OF THE 0HILIPPINES TO INDEPENDENCE BUT WHEN THE GOVERNMENT OFFERED LAND
TO THE (UKS ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL SUPPORTERS THE INSURGENTS LOST THEIR CAUSE
AND THE GAME 4HE SAME DISASTER STRUCK THE -ALAYAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY
ONCE "RITAIN PROMISED INDEPENDENCE TO THE COUNTRY AND SET A DATE FOR IT
! CAUSE lNALLY MUST ALSO BE LASTING IF NOT FOR THE DURATION OF THE REVO
LUTIONARY WAR AT LEAST UNTIL THE INSURGENT MOVEMENT IS WELL ON ITS FEET 4HIS
DIFFERENTIATES A STRATEGIC CAUSE FROM A TACTICAL ONE A DEEP
SEATED CAUSE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
FROM A TEMPORARY ONE RESULTING FROM THE EXPLOITATION OF AN EPHEMERAL
DIFlCULTY SUCH AS FOR INSTANCE THE HIGH PRICE AND THE SCARCITY OF FOOD AFTER
A YEAR OF NATURAL CALAMITIES
4HE .ATURE OF THE #AUSE
7HAT IS A POLITICAL PROBLEM )T IS hAN UNSOLVED CONTRADICTION v ACCORDING
TO -AO 4SE
TUNG )F ONE ACCEPTS THIS DElNITION THEN A POLITICAL CAUSE IS THE
CHAMPIONING OF ONE SIDE OF THE CONTRADICTION )N OTHER WORDS WHERE THERE
IS NO PROBLEM THERE IS NO CAUSE BUT THERE ARE ALWAYS PROBLEMS IN ANY
COUNTRY 7HAT MAKES ONE COUNTRY MORE VULNERABLE THAN ANOTHER TO INSUR
GENCY IS THE DEPTH AND THE ACUITY OF ITS EXISTING PROBLEMS
0ROBLEMS OF ALL NATURES ARE EXPLOITABLE FOR AN INSURGENCY PROVIDED THE
CAUSES THEY LEAD TO MEET THE ABOVE CRITERIA 4HE PROBLEM MAY BE ESSENTIALLY
POLITICAL RELATED TO THE NATIONAL OR INTERNATIONAL SITUATION OF THE COUNTRY
4HE DICTATORSHIP OF "ATISTA FOR THE #UBAN INSURGENTS THE *APANESE AGGRES
SION FOR THE #HINESE ARE EXAMPLES OF POLITICAL PROBLEMS )T FOLLOWS THAT ANY
COUNTRY WHERE THE POWER IS INVESTED IN AN OLIGARCHY WHETHER INDIGENOUS OR
FOREIGN IS POTENTIAL GROUND FOR A REVOLUTIONARY WAR
4HE PROBLEM MAY BE SOCIAL AS WHEN ONE CLASS IS EXPLOITED BY ANOTHER OR
DENIED ANY POSSIBILITY OF IMPROVING ITS LOT 4HIS HAS BEEN EXHAUSTIVELY
DISCUSSED SINCE +ARL -ARX AND LITTLE NEED BE ADDED HERE 4HE PROBLEM
BECOMES PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS WHEN THE SOCIETY DOES NOT INTEGRATE THOSE
WHO BY THE LEVEL OF THEIR EDUCATION OR BY THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS HAVE PROVED
TO BELONG TO THE TRUE ELITE &OR IT IS AMONG THIS REJECTED ELITE THAT THE INSUR
GENTS CAN lND THE INDISPENSABLE LEADERS
4HE PROBLEM MAY BE ECONOMIC SUCH AS THE LOW PRICE OF AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTS IN RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL GOODS OR THE LOW PRICE OF RAW MATERIAL IN
RELATION TO lNISHED PRODUCTS OR THE IMPORT OF FOREIGN GOODS RATHER THAN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL INDUSTRY 4HE ISSUE OF NEOCOLONIALISM TODAY IS
CLOSELY RELATED TO THIS PROBLEM
4HE PROBLEM MAY BE RACIAL AS IT WOULD BE IN 3OUTH !FRICA /R RELIGIOUS
AS IT WOULD BE IN ,EBANON ALTHOUGH HERE THE POPULATION IS EVENLY DIVIDED
BETWEEN #HRISTIANS AND -OSLEMS /R CULTURAL AS IN )NDIA WHERE THE
MULTIPLICITY OF LANGUAGES HAS ALREADY PRODUCED CONSIDERABLE AGITATION
4HE PROBLEM MAY EVEN BE ARTIlCIAL SO LONG AS IT HAS A CHANCE TO BE
ACCEPTED AS A FACT 4HE LOT OF THE #HINESE FARMERSVICTIMS OF EXACTIONS BY
THE AUTHORITIES AND OF THE RAPACITY OF THE LOCAL USURERSWAS NO DOUBT A HARD
ONE 4HE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS DID EXPLOIT THIS PROBLEM (OWEVER THEIR
CHIEF CAUSE BORROWED FROM 3UN 9AT
SEN WAS LAND REFORM )TS REVOLUTIONARY
VALUE LIES IN THE IDEA THAT LAND OWNERSHIP WAS CONCENTRATED IN A SMALL
MINORITY A CLASS WAR ON THE ISSUE WOULD THEORETICALLY BRING TO THEIR SIDE THE
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
MAJORITY OF THE FARMERS 4HE SOLE COMPREHENSIVE WORK ON THE SUBJECT OF
LAND TENURE IN #HINA BY * ,OSSING "UCK CONTRADICTED THE #OMMUNIST
PICTURE OF THE SITUATION BUT THIS FACT DID NOT DECREASE IN THE SLIGHTEST THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL VALUE OF THE SLOGAN h,AND TO THE 4ILLERv !N EFlCIENT PROPA
GANDA MACHINE CAN TURN AN ARTIlCIAL PROBLEM INTO A REAL ONE
)T IS NOT ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY THAT THE PROBLEM BE ACUTE ALTHOUGH THE
INSURGENTS WORK IS FACILITATED IF SUCH IS THE CASE )F THE PROBLEM IS MERELY
LATENT THE lRST TASK OF THE INSURGENT IS TO MAKE IT ACUTE BY hRAISING THE
POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE MASSESv 4ERRORISM MAY BE A QUICK MEANS OF
PRODUCING THIS EFFECT "ATISTAS DICTATORSHIP DID NOT BY ITSELF SUDDENLY
BECOME UNBEARABLE TO THE #UBAN PEOPLE THEY HAD LIVED UNDER OTHER DICTA
TORSHIPS IN THE PAST INCLUDING A PREVIOUS "ATISTA REGIME !ND THE COUNTRY
WAS PROSPEROUS IN ALTHOUGH THERE WAS GREAT DISPARITY IN THE DISTRIBU
TION OF WEALTH "ATISTA MIGHT PERHAPS HAVE LASTED MANY MORE YEARS HAD IT
NOT BEEN FOR #ASTRO AND HIS FOLLOWERS WHO SPECTACULARLY RAISED THE ISSUE
AND FOCUSED THE LATENT OPPOSITION ON THEIR MOVEMENT
4ACTICAL -ANIPULATION OF THE #AUSE
4HE INSURGENT IS NOT RESTRICTED TO THE CHOICE OF A SINGLE CAUSE 5NLESS HE
HAS FOUND AN OVER
ALL CAUSE LIKE ANTICOLONIALISM WHICH IS SUFlCIENT IN
ITSELF BECAUSE IT COMBINES ALL THE POLITICAL SOCIAL ECONOMIC RACIAL RELI
GIOUS AND CULTURAL CAUSES DESCRIBED ABOVE HE HAS MUCH TO GAIN BY SELECT
ING AN ASSORTMENT OF CAUSES ESPECIALLY TAILORED FOR THE VARIOUS GROUPS IN
THE SOCIETY THAT HE IS SEEKING TO ATTRACT
,ET US SUPPOSE THAT THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT IS TENTATIVELY MADE UP
AS IT WAS IN #HINA OF THE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY hVANGUARD OF THE REVOLUTION
PARTY OF THE WORKERS AND THE POOR FARMERSv AND ITS ALLIES MEDIUM AND RICH
PEASANTS ARTISANS PLUS THE hNATIONAL BOURGEOISIEv AND THE CAPITALISTS WHO
SUFFER FROM hBUREAUCRATIC CAPITALISMv AND FROM THE ECONOMIC ENCROACH
MENTS OF THE IMPERIALISTS 4HE INSURGENT HAS TO APPEAL TO THE WHOLE AND A
CAUSE IS NECESSARY FOR THAT 3INCE IT IS EASIER TO UNITE hAGAINSTv THAN hFOR v
PARTICULARLY WHEN THE COMPONENTS ARE SO VARIED THE GENERAL CAUSE WILL
MOST PROBABLY BE A NEGATIVE ONE SOMETHING LIKE hTHROW THE RASCALS OUTv
THE RASCALS IN THIS CASE #HIANG +AI
SHEK AND THE +UOMINTANG REACTIONAR
IES THE FEUDAL WARLORDS hBUREAUCRATIC CAPITALISMv THE COMPRADORES hRUN
NING DOGS OF IMPERIALISMv AND THE LANDLORDS )N ADDITION THE INSURGENT
MUST APPEAL TO EACH COMPONENT OF THE MOVEMENT AND IN THIS ASPECT THE
VARIOUS CAUSES WILL PROBABLY CONTAIN A CONSTRUCTIVE ELEMENT FOR THE PROLE
TARIAT A -ARXIST SOCIETY FOR THE POOR FARMERS LAND FOR THE MEDIUM FARM
ERS FAIR TAXES FOR THE RICH FARMERS JUST REASONABLE AND LASTING SETTLEMENT
FOR THE NATIONAL BOURGEOISIE DEFENSE OF THE NATIONAL INTERESTS ORDER FAIR
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
TAXES DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY PROTECTION AGAINST IMPERIALIST
COMPETITION
.OTHING OBLIGES THE INSURGENT TO STICK TO THE SAME CAUSE IF ANOTHER ONE
LOOKS MORE PROlTABLE 4HUS IN #HINA THE #OMMUNISTS INITIALLY TOOK THE
CLASSIC -ARXIST STAND IN FAVOR OF THE WORKERS n 4HEN THEY
ACTIVELY ESPOUSED THE NATIONAL CAUSE OF THE +UOMINTANG FOR THE UNIlCA
TION OF #HINA AGAINST THE WARLORDS n !FTER THE +UOMINTANGn
#OMMUNIST SPLIT THEY LARGELY DROPPED THE WORKERS IN FAVOR OF THE POOR
PEASANTS ADVOCATING LAND REFORM BY RADICAL MEANS n 4HEN
*APANESE AGGRESSION BECAME THE CENTRAL ISSUE IN #HINA AND THE #OM
MUNISTS ADVOCATED A PATRIOTIC UNITED FRONT AGAINST *APAN n
ADOPTING MEANWHILE A MODERATE AGRARIAN POLICY ,AND REDISTRIBUTION
WOULD BE ENDED BUT INSTEAD THE #OMMUNISTS WOULD IMPOSE STRICT CON
TROL OF RENTS AND INTEREST RATES !FTER THE *APANESE SURRENDER THEY lNALLY
REVERTED TO LAND REFORM WITH THE TEMPERATE PROVISO THAT LANDLORDS THEM
SELVES WOULD BE ENTITLED TO A SHARE OF LAND n 7HAT THE #OM
MUNISTS ACTUALLY DID AFTER THEIR VICTORY BETWEEN AND WAS TO
CARRY OUT THEIR LAND REFORM hTHROUGH VIOLENT STRUGGLESv IN ORDER TO CON
DUCT A CLASS WAR AMONG THE RURAL POPULATION AND THEREBY DElNITELY TO
COMMIT THE ACTIVISTS ON THEIR SIDE IF ONLY BECAUSE THESE ACTIVISTS HAD
SHARED IN THE CRIMES /NCE THIS WAS ACHIEVED THE 0ARTY BURIED LAND
REFORM FOR GOOD AND STARTED COLLECTIVIZING THE LAND
4HUS IF IDEALISM AND A SENSE OF ETHICS WEIGH IN FAVOR OF A CONSISTENT
STAND TACTICS PULL TOWARD OPPORTUNISM
$IMINISHING )MPORTANCE OF THE #AUSE
4HE IMPORTANCE OF A CAUSE AN ABSOLUTE ESSENTIAL AT THE OUTSET OF AN INSUR
GENCY DECREASES PROGRESSIVELY AS THE INSURGENT ACQUIRES STRENGTH 4HE WAR
ITSELF BECOMES THE PRINCIPAL ISSUE FORCING THE POPULATION TO TAKE SIDES
PREFERABLY THE WINNING ONE 4HIS HAS ALREADY BEEN EXPLAINED IN THE PREVI
OUS CHAPTER
7%!+.%33 /& 4(% #/5.4%2).352'%.4
,ET US ASSUME NOW THAT OUR MINUTE GROUP OF INSURGENT LEADERS IN
#OUNTRY 8 HAS FOUND SEVERAL GOOD CAUSES SOME ACUTE SOME LATENT
SOME EVEN ARTIlCIAL ON WHICH TO BASE THEIR INSURGENCY 4HEY ALL HAVE
AGREED ON A POTENT PLATFORM #AN THEY START OPERATING .OT UNLESS ANOTHER
PRELIMINARY CONDITION HAS BEEN MET 4HE INSURGENT STARTING FROM ALMOST
ZERO WHILE HIS ENEMY STILL HAS EVERY MEANS AT HIS DISPOSAL IS AS VULNER
ABLE AS A NEW
BORN BABY (E CANNOT LIVE AND GROW WITHOUT SOME SORT OF
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
PROTECTION AND WHO BUT THE COUNTERINSURGENT HIMSELF CAN PROTECT HIM
4HEREFORE WE MUST ANALYZE WHAT MAKES A BODY POLITIC RESISTANT TO
INFECTION
3TRENGTHS AND 7EAKNESSES OF THE 0OLITICAL 2EGIME
!BSENCE OF PROBLEMS ! COUNTRY FORTUNATE ENOUGH TO KNOW NO PROBLEM IS
OBVIOUSLY IMMUNE FROM INSURGENCY "UT SINCE WE HAVE ASSUMED THAT OUR
POTENTIAL INSURGENT LEADERS HAVE FOUND A CAUSE LET US ELIMINATE THESE
COUNTRIESIF THERE ARE ANYFROM OUR CONSIDERATION
.ATIONAL CONSENSUS 4HE SOLIDITY OF A REGIME IS PRIMARILY BASED UPON THIS
FACTOR 4HAILAND MAY LIVE UNDER A DICTATORSHIP OR A DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM
BUT HER NATIONAL CONSENSUSWHICH IS NOT APATHY FOR THE 4HAIS WOULD
REACT VIGOROUSLY TO ANY ATTEMPT AGAINST THEIR +ING AND THEIR WAY OF LIFE
HAS SO FAR ALWAYS STRENGTHENED THE REGIME IN POWER /N THE OTHER HAND
NO NATIONAL CONSENSUS BACKS UP %AST 'ERMANYS GOVERNMENT
2ESOLUTENESS OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADERSHIP 2ESOLUTENESS IS A MAJOR
FACTOR IN ANY SORT OF CONmICT BUT PARTICULARLY SO IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR FOR
THE REASONS THAT A THE INSURGENT HAS THE INITIAL BENElT OF A DYNAMIC
CAUSE B AN INSURGENCY DOES NOT GROW SUDDENLY INTO A NATIONAL DANGER
AND THE PEOPLES REACTION AGAINST IT IS SLOW #ONSEQUENTLY THE ROLE OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENT LEADERS IS PARAMOUNT
#OUNTERINSURGENT LEADERS KNOWLEDGE OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE )T
IS NOT ENOUGH FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADERS TO BE RESOLUTE THEY MUST
ALSO BE AWARE OF THE STRATEGY AND TACTICS REQUIRED IN lGHTING AN INSUR
GENCY 'ENERALISSIMO #HIANG +AI
SHEKS DETERMINATION CANNOT BE QUES
TIONED HE PROVED IT AGAINST *APAN AND STILL SHOWS IT IN 4AIWAN "UT DID HE
KNOW HOW TO COPE WITH THE #OMMUNISTS METHODS
4HE MACHINE FOR THE CONTROL OF THE POPULATION &OUR INSTRUMENTS OF CON
TROL COUNT IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR SITUATION THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE THE
ADMINISTRATIVE BUREAUCRACY THE POLICE THE ARMED FORCES
A 4
HE POLITICAL STRUCTURE )F #OUNTRY 8 IS LOCATED BEHIND THE )RON #UR
TAIN WHERE POLITICAL OPPOSITION IS NOT TOLERATED AND WHERE THE POPULA
TION IS KEPT UNDER A SYSTEM OF TERROR AND MUTUAL SUSPICION THE INITIAL
GROUP OF INSURGENTS HAS NO CHANCE TO DEVELOP AT BEST THE GROUP
WILL BE ABLE TO SURVIVE IN TOTAL SECRECYAND HENCE BE COMPLETELY
INACTIVEWHILE WAITING FOR BETTER TIMES
3INCE THERE ARE PEOPLE WHO DREAM OF UNLEASHING INSURGENCIES IN CERTAIN
#OMMUNIST COUNTRIESh$ONT THE PEOPLE HATE THE REGIME THERE vIT MAY
BE USEFUL TO GIVE AN IDEA OF THE EXTENT OF POPULATION CONTROL ACHIEVED BY THE
#OMMUNIST TECHNIQUES OF TERROR AND MUTUAL SUSPICION OF WHICH THE 2ED
#HINESE ARE PAST MASTERS
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
)N #ANTON IN A NEIGHBOR SAW AN OLD #HINESE LADY GIVING SOME RICE
TO HER CAT
h) AM SORRY BUT ) WILL BE OBLIGED TO REPORT YOU AT THE NEXT STREET MEETING v
SAID THE NEIGHBOR TO THE OWNER OF THE CAT
h7HY v ASKED THE OLD LADY
h"ECAUSE RICE IS RATIONED AND YOU HAVE BEEN WASTING IT ON YOUR CATv
h)F YOU REPORT ME THEY WILL CUT OFF MY RICE RATION 7HY DONT YOU JUST
KEEP SILENT v
h3UPPOSE SOMEONE ELSE SAW YOU AND REPORTS YOU 7HAT WILL HAPPEN TO
ME YOUR NEIGHBOR IF ) HAVE NOT REPORTED YOU lRST ) AM YOUR FRIEND )F THEY
SUPPRESS YOUR RATION ) WILL GIVE YOU HALF OF MINEv
4HIS IS EXACTLY WHAT HAPPENED IN A CITY WHERE ACCORDING TO SOME 7ESTERN
VISITORS #HINESE #OMMUNIST CONTROL WAS LESS EFlCIENT THAN ELSEWHERE IN
#HINA
!T THE END OF A %UROPEAN WAS EXPELLED FROM (AINAN )SLAND WHERE
HE HAD LIVED FOR MANY YEARS /N REACHING (ONG +ONG HE REPORTED THAT THE
PEASANTS hHATEDv THE REGIME AND HE GAVE MUCH CONVINCING EVIDENCE OF IT
(E MENTIONED LATER THAT THE .ATIONALISTS HAD TWICE ATTEMPTED TO DROP AGENTS
IN HIS AREA FROM 4AIWAN )N EACH CASE THE MILITIA ON DUTY AT NIGHT HEARD THE
PLANES SAW THE PARACHUTES COMING DOWN GAVE THE ALERT AND THE .ATIONALIST
AGENTS WERE CORNERED AND CAPTURED BY SEVERAL HUNDRED ARMED VILLAGERS
4HE %UROPEAN WAS CHALLENGED ON THIS h)SNT THERE A CONTRADICTION
BETWEEN YOUR STATEMENT CONCERNING THE FEELINGS OF THE PEASANTS TOWARD THE
REGIME AND THE ATTITUDE OF THE MILITIAMEN WHO AFTER ALL ARE PEASANTS TOO
7HY DIDNT THEY KEEP SILENT v
h0UT YOURSELF IN THE PLACE OF ONE OF THESE MILITIAMEN v HE EXPLAINED
h(OW DOES HE KNOW WHETHER THE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE MILITIA WONT GIVE
THE ALERT )F THEY DO AND HE HASNT HE WILL BE IN GREAT TROUBLE WHEN THE
#OMMUNIST CADRES MAKE THEIR USUAL POST MORTEM INVESTIGATIONSv
)N *ULY DURING THE +OREAN 7AR THE .ATIONALISTS DECIDED TO MAKE
A RAID ON THE MAINLAND OF #HINA 4HEY SELECTED AS THEIR OBJECTIVE THE SMALL
PENINSULA OF 4UNGSHAN JUTTING OUT OF THE &UKIEN COAST WHICH IS TRANS
FORMED INTO AN ISLAND AT HIGH TIDE 4HE #OMMUNIST GARRISON WAS MADE UP
OF A REGULAR BATTALION PLUS A THOUSAND MAN MILITIA 4HE LATTER THE .ATIONAL
ISTS THOUGHT WOULD PUT UP NO REAL lGHT )NDEED EVERY PIECE OF AVAILABLE
INTELLIGENCE INDICATED THAT THE POPULATION WAS THOROUGHLY FED UP WITH THE
#OMMUNISTS 4HE PLAN WAS TO DROP A REGIMENT OF PARATROOPERS TO NEUTRAL
IZE THE #OMMUNIST BATTALION AND TO CONTROL THE ISTHMUS IN ORDER TO PREVENT
REINFORCEMENT FROM THE MAINLAND AN AMPHIBIOUS LANDING WOULD FOLLOW TO
WIPE OUT THE OPPOSITION
"ECAUSE OF A MISCALCULATION IN COMPUTING THE LOCAL TIDE THE AMPHIBIOUS
LANDING WAS DELAYED AND THE .ATIONALIST PARATROOPERS BORE THE BRUNT OF THE
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
OPPOSITION ALONE 4HEY WERE VIRTUALLY ANNIHILATED 4HE MILITIA FOUGHT LIKE
DEVILS (OW COULD THEY ACT OTHERWISE WHEN THEY KNEW THAT THE .ATIONALIST
ACTION WAS JUST A RAID
! CONTROL OF THIS ORDER RULES OUT THE POSSIBILITY OF LAUNCHING AN INSUR
GENCY !S LONG AS THERE IS NO PRIVACY AS LONG AS EVERY UNUSUAL MOVE OR
EVENT IS REPORTED AND CHECKED AS LONG AS PARENTS ARE AFRAID TO TALK IN FRONT
OF THEIR CHILDREN HOW CAN CONTACTS BE MADE IDEAS SPREAD RECRUITING
ACCOMPLISHED
7HAT IS POSSIBLE IS TERRORISM IN A LIMITED WAY BECAUSE A SINGLE MAN
EVEN THOUGH COMPLETELY ISOLATED CAN CONDUCT A TERRORIST CAMPAIGN
WITNESS THE CASE OF THE hMAD BOMBERv IN .EW 9ORK "UT TERRORISM ITSELF
HAS FAR LESS VALUE THAN THE PUBLICITY THAT IT IS EXPECTED TO PRODUCE AND
IT IS RATHER DOUBTFUL THAT #OMMUNIST AUTHORITIES WOULD COMPLACENTLY
FURNISH PUBLICITY
!NOTHER TACTIC THAT CONTINUES TO BE POSSIBLE WAS ONE USED IN 'REECE BY
THE #OMMUNISTSUNSUSTAINED COMMANDOTYPE OPERATIONS WHERE TERRAIN
CONDITIONS ARE FAVORABLE
!T THE OTHER EXTREME IF ANARCHY PREVAILS IN #OUNTRY 8 THE INSURGENT WILL
lND ALL THE FACILITIES HE NEEDS IN ORDER TO MEET TO TRAVEL TO CONTACT PEOPLE
TO MAKE KNOWN HIS PROGRAM TO lND AND ORGANIZE THE EARLY SUPPORTERS TO
RECEIVE AND TO DISTRIBUTE FUNDS TO AGITATE AND TO SUBVERT OR TO LAUNCH A
WIDESPREAD CAMPAIGN OF TERRORISM
)N BETWEEN THESE EXTREMES LIES A WIDE RANGE OF POLITICAL STRUCTURES THAT
IN VARYING DEGREES FACILITATE OR HINDER THE TASK OF THE INSURGENT DICTATOR
SHIP WITH A ONE
PARTY SYSTEM DICTATORSHIP WITH NO LINK TO THE GRASS ROOTS
VIGILANT DEMOCRACY INDOLENT DEMOCRACY ETC
B 4HE ADMINISTRATIVE BUREAUCRACY ! COUNTRY IS RUN IN ITS DAY
TO
DAY LIFE
BY ITS BUREAUCRACY WHICH HAS A FORCE OF ITS OWN THAT HAS SOMETIMES NO
RELATION TO THE STRENGTH OR WEAKNESS OF THE TOP POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
&RANCE UNDER THE 4HIRD AND &OURTH 2EPUBLICS HAD A WEAK LEADERSHIP BUT
A STRONG ADMINISTRATIVE APPARATUS THE OPPOSITE APPEARS TO BE THE CASE IN
3OUTH 6IETNAM TODAY 3INCE AN INSURGENCY IS A BOTTOM
TO
TOP MOVE
MENT AN ADMINISTRATIVE VACUUM AT THE BOTTOM AN INCOMPETENT BUREAU
CRACY PLAYS INTO THE HANDS OF THE INSURGENT
4HE CASE OF !LGERIA MAY BE TAKEN AS AN EXAMPLE 4HE TERRITORY WAS
NOTORIOUSLY UNDERADMINISTERED ON THE EVE OF THE INSURGENCY NOT BECAUSE
THE CIVIL SERVANTS WERE INCOMPETENT BUT RATHER BECAUSE THE BUREAUCRATIC
ESTABLISHMENT HAD NO RELATION TO THE SIZE OF THE COUNTRY AND ITS POPULATION
!LGERIA NOT COUNTING THE 3AHARA EXTENDS MORE THAN MILES ALONG THE
-EDITERRANEAN 3EA AND MILES INLAND WITH AN AREA OF SQUARE
MILES AND A POPULATION OF OF WHOM ARE OF %URO
PEAN STOCK
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
5NDER A GOVERNOR GENERAL IN !LGIERS THE TERRITORY WAS DIVIDED INTO THREE
DÏPARTEMENTS WITH SEATS IN /RAN !LGIERS AND #ONSTANTINE EACH UNDER A
PRÏFET ASSISTED BY A LARGE STAFF ! DÏPARTEMENT WAS IN TURN DIVIDED INTO
SOUS
PRÏFECTURES FOR INSTANCE IN THE DÏPARTEMENT OF !LGIERS THERE WAS
THE SOUS
PRÏFECTURE OF +ABYLIA WITH ITS SEAT IN 4IZI
/UZOU +ABYLIA CON
SISTED OF SQUARE MILES OF RUGGED MOUNTAIN TERRAIN WITH
INHABITANTS OF WHOM PER CENT WERE -OSLEMS
4HE LOWER ECHELON IN PREDOMINANTLY -OSLEM AREAS WAS THE COMMUNE
MIXTE UNDER A &RENCH ADMINISTRATOR WITH OR ASSISTANTS AND GENDARMES
THE COMMUNE
MIXTE OF 4IGZIRT IN +ABYLIA MEASURED MILES BY MILES
WITH SOME INHABITANTS
!T THE LOWEST LEVEL WAS THE DOUAR WHERE THE POWER OF THE STATE WAS
EMBODIED IN A GARDE
CHAMPÐTRE A NATIVE RURAL POLICEMAN ARMED WITH AN
OLD PISTOL IN A HOLSTER ON WHICH SHONE A BRASS SIGN ENGRAVED WITH THE AWE
INSPIRING WORDS h,A ,OIv /NE SUCH DOUAR COVERED AN AREA OF MILES BY
MILES WITH A POPULATION OF +ABYLIAS
7ITH THIS SETUP THE INSURGENTS HAD A lELD DAY
C 4HE POLICE 4HE EYE AND THE ARM OF THE GOVERNMENT IN ALL MATTERS PERTAIN
ING TO INTERNAL ORDER THE POLICE ARE OBVIOUSLY A KEY FACTOR IN THE EARLY
STAGES OF AN INSURGENCY THEY ARE THE lRST COUNTERINSURGENT ORGANIZATION
THAT HAS TO BE INlLTRATED AND NEUTRALIZED
4HEIR EFlCIENCY DEPENDS ON THEIR NUMERICAL STRENGTH THE COMPETENCY OF
THEIR MEMBERS THEIR LOYALTY TOWARD THE GOVERNMENT AND LAST BUT NOT LEAST
ON THE BACKING THEY GET FROM THE OTHER BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT
PARTICULARLY THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM )F INSURGENTS THOUGH IDENTIlED AND ARRESTED
BY THE POLICE TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE MANY NORMAL SAFEGUARDS BUILT INTO THE
JUDICIAL SYSTEM AND ARE RELEASED THE POLICE CAN DO LITTLE 0ROMPT ADAPTATION
OF THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM TO THE EXTRAORDINARY CONDITIONS OF AN INSURGENCY AN
AGONIZING PROBLEM AT BEST IS A NECESSITY !LGERIA MAY AGAIN SERVE AS AN
EXAMPLE 4HE TOTAL POLICE FORCE IN WAS LESS THAN BARELY LARGER
THAN THE POLICE FORCE FOR THE CITY OF 0ARIS 7HEN THE INSURGENCY WAS BREW
ING THE !LGERIAN POLICE GAVE TIMELY WARNINGS WHICH WERE NOT HEEDED
! YEAR AFTER THE INSURGENCY BROKE OUT THE &RENCH .ATIONAL !SSEMBLY
lNALLY GRANTED THE GOVERNMENT THE hSPECIAL POWERSv REQUIRED TO DEAL WITH
THE SITUATION "Y THAT TIME THE POLICEPARTICULARLY ITS -OSLEM MEMBERS
HAD BEEN ENGULFED IN THE CHAOS
D 4HE ARMED FORCES ,EAVING ASIDE THE FACTORS OF STRENGTH APPLICABLE TO
THE ARMED FORCES IN ALL WARS THOSE THAT ARE RELEVANT IN A REVOLUTIONARY
WAR ARE
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
I 4HE NUMERICAL STRENGTH OF THE ARMED FORCES IN RELATION TO THE SIZE AND
THE POPULATION OF THE COUNTRY !N INSURGENCY IS A TWO
DIMENSIONAL
WAR FOUGHT FOR THE CONTROL OF THE POPULATION 4HERE IS NO FRONT NO
SAFE REAR .O AREA NO SIGNIlCANT SEGMENT OF THE POPULATION CAN BE
ABANDONED FOR LONGUNLESS THE POPULATION CAN BE TRUSTED TO DEFEND
ITSELF 4HIS IS WHY A RATIO OF FORCE OF TEN OR TWENTY TO ONE BETWEEN THE
COUNTERINSURGENT AND THE INSURGENT IS NOT UNCOMMON WHEN THE INSUR
GENCY DEVELOPS INTO GUERRILLA WARFARE 4HE &RENCH FORCES IN )NDO
CHINA NEVER APPROACHED THIS RATIO A FACT THAT MORE THAN ANY OTHER
EXPLAINS WHY THE &RENCH COULD NOT HAVE WON THERE EVEN IF THEY HAD
BEEN LED BY .APOLEON REGARDLESS OF THE POWER OF THE NATIONALIST
CAUSE INITIALLY
II 4HE COMPOSITION OF THE ARMED FORCES ! CONVENTIONAL WAR TODAY
REQUIRES A MODERN WELL
BALANCED FORCE WITH ITS AIR SEA AND GROUND
COMPONENTS "UT A REVOLUTIONARY WAR IS PRIMARILY A WAR OF INFANTRY
0ARADOXICALLY THE LESS SOPHISTICATED THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES THE
BETTER THEY ARE &RANCES .!4/ DIVISIONS WERE USELESS IN !LGERIA
THEIR MODERN EQUIPMENT HAD TO BE LEFT BEHIND AND HIGHLY SPECIALIZED
ENGINEER OR SIGNAL UNITS HAD TO BE HURRIEDLY CONVERTED INTO ORDINARY
INFANTRY .AVAL OPERATIONS BY THE INSURGENT BEING UNLIKELY ALL A NAVY
NEEDS IS A SUFlCIENT FORCE TO BLOCKADE THE COAST LINE EFFECTIVELY !S
FOR AN AIR FORCE WHOSE SUPREMACY THE INSURGENT CANNOT CHALLENGE
WHAT IT NEEDS ARE SLOW ASSAULT lGHTERS SHORT TAKE
OFF TRANSPORT
PLANES AND HELICOPTERS
III 4HE FEELING OF THE INDIVIDUAL SOLDIER TOWARD THE INSURGENTS CAUSE
AND TOWARD THE COUNTERINSURGENT REGIME 7HEREAS THE INSURGENT
INITIALLY CAN USE ONLY A FEW COMBATANTS AND CAN THEREFORE SELECT
VOLUNTEERS THE COUNTERINSURGENTS MANPOWER DEMANDS ARE SO
HIGH THAT HE IS CONDEMNED TO DRAFT SOLDIERS AND HE MAY WELL BE
PLAGUED BY THE PROBLEM OF LOYALTY ! FEW CASES OF COLLECTIVE
DESERTIONS MAY CAST SO MUCH SUSPICION ON COUNTERINSURGENT UNITS
THAT THEIR VALUE MAY EVAPORATE ALTOGETHER 4HIS HAPPENED WITH
!LGERIAN 2ImE UNITS IN THE EARLY STAGE OF THE WAR IN !LGERIA
ALTHOUGH BASICALLY SOUND AND TRUSTWORTHY THESE UNITS HAD TO BE
RETIRED FROM DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE POPULATION AND USED IN A
PURELY MILITARY CAPACITY
IV 4HE TIME LAPSE BEFORE INTERVENTION "ECAUSE OF THE GRADUAL TRANSI
TION FROM PEACE TO WAR IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR THE ARMED FORCES ARE
NOT ORDERED INTO ACTION AS FAST AS THEY WOULD BE IN A CONVENTIONAL
WAR 4HIS DELAY IS ANOTHER CHARACTERISTIC OF REVOLUTIONARY WARS 4O
REDUCE IT IS A POLITICAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COUNTRYS LEADERS
'EOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS 'EOGRAPHY CAN WEAKEN THE STRONGEST POLITICAL
REGIME OR STRENGTHEN THE WEAKEST ONE 4HIS QUESTION WILL SUBSEQUENTLY
BE EXAMINED IN MORE DETAIL
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
)T IS THE COMBINATION OF ALL THESE FACTORS THAT DETERMINES WHETHER AN
INSURGENCY IS POSSIBLE OR NOT ONCE THE POTENTIAL INSURGENT HAS A CAUSE
#RISIS AND )NSURGENCY
4HE INSURGENT CANNOT OF COURSE CHOOSE HIS OPPONENT HE MUST ACCEPT HIM
AS HE IS )F HE IS CONFRONTED BY A POWERFUL COUNTERINSURGENT HE HAS NO RECOURSE
BUT TO WAIT UNTIL HIS OPPONENT IS WEAKENED BY SOME INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL CRISIS
4HE RECENT SERIES OF COLONIAL INSURGENCIES IS NO DOUBT A CONSEQUENCE
OF 7ORLD 7AR )) WHICH CONSTITUTED A FORMIDABLE CRISIS FOR THE COLONIAL
POWERS 4HE RECORD SHOWS THAT NO INSURGENCY OR REVOLT SUCCEEDED IN COLO
NIAL TERRITORIES BEFORE ALTHOUGH THE SITUATION THEN WAS NO LESS REVO
LUTIONARY THAN AFTER THE WAR &EW WERE EVEN ATTEMPTEDA REVOLT IN THE
$UTCH %AST )NDIES IN n AND THE EXTRAORDINARY PASSIVE
RESISTANCE
MOVEMENT HEADED BY 'ANDHI IN )NDIA VIRTUALLY EXHAUST THE LIST
4HE HISTORY OF THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST INSURGENCY OFFERS ANOTHER EXAM
PLE OF THE EXPLOITATION OF A CRISIS !FTER A SLOW CLIMB FROM MEMBERS IN
TO IN THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY ASSOCIATED ITSELF
WITH THE +UOMINTANG AND ITS MEMBERSHIP ROSE SUDDENLY TO IN
4HE EXPANSION WAS FACILITATED BY THE STATE OF ANARCHY PREVAILING IN
#HINA AND BY THE POPULARITY OF THE STRUGGLE LED BY THE +UOMINTANG AGAINST
THE WARLORDS AND THE IMPERIALISTS 4HE TWO PARTIES SPLIT IN AND THE
##0 WENT INTO OPEN REBELLION )MMEDIATELY THE MEMBERSHIP FELL TO
! #OMMUNIST GROUP WITH -AO 4SE
TUNG TOOK REFUGE IN THE
+IANGSI
(UNAN AREA WHILE OTHER GROUPS SCATTERED IN VARIOUS PLACES 4HEY
SLOWLY INITIATED GUERRILLA WARFARE AND ALTHOUGH AT lRST THEY COMMITTED
THE MISTAKE OF ATTACKING WELL
DEFENDED TOWNS THEY MANAGED TO DEVELOP
THEIR MILITARY STRENGTH -EMBERSHIP ROSE TO IN 4HE
+UOMINTANG HAD SUCCEEDED BY THAT TIME IN ESTABLISHING ITSELF AS THE CEN
TRAL GOVERNMENT OF #HINA AND THE #OMMUNISTS ALONE PRESENTED A CHAL
LENGE TO ITS AUTHORITY 4HE +UOMINTANG BY NOW A STRONG POWER WAS
ENERGETICALLY TRYING TO STAMP OUT THE REBELLION !FTER SEVERAL UNSUCCESSFUL
OFFENSIVES AGAINST THE #OMMUNISTS THE .ATIONALIST FORCES PRESSED THEM
SO HARD THAT THE ##0 WAS REALLY lGHTING FOR ITS SURVIVAL )N ORDER TO ESCAPE
ANNIHILATION THE #OMMUNISTS SET OFF ON THEIR ,ONG -ARCH FROM +IANGSI
TO A REMOTE AREA IN THE NORTH OF 3HENSI )N AFTER THE ,ONG -ARCH
MEMBERSHIP HAD FALLEN AGAIN TO #HIANG +AI
SHEK WAS PREPARING
ANOTHER POWERFUL OFFENSIVE TO lNISH OFF THE 2EDS WHEN THEY WERE SAVED BY
A CRISIS THE *APANESE AGGRESSION AGAINST #HINA "Y 6
* DAY THE 0ARTY HAD
GROWN TO CONTROLLED AN AREA OF SQUARE MILES WITH A
POPULATION OF MILLION AND HAD A REGULAR ARMY OF MEN AND A
MILITIA FORCE OF )T WAS NO LONGER VULNERABLE
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
4HE "ORDER $OCTRINE
%VERY COUNTRY IS DIVIDED FOR ADMINISTRATIVE AND MILITARY PURPOSES INTO
PROVINCES COUNTIES DISTRICTS ZONES ETC 4HE BORDER AREAS ARE A PERMANENT
SOURCE OF WEAKNESS FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT WHATEVER HIS ADMINISTRATIVE
STRUCTURES AND THIS ADVANTAGE IS USUALLY EXPLOITED BY THE INSURGENT ESPE
CIALLY IN THE INITIAL VIOLENT STAGES OF THE INSURGENCY "Y MOVING FROM ONE
SIDE OF THE BORDER TO THE OTHER THE INSURGENT IS OFTEN ABLE TO ESCAPE PRESSURE
OR AT LEAST TO COMPLICATE OPERATIONS FOR HIS OPPONENT
)T WAS NO ACCIDENT THAT THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST
DOMINATED AREAS INCLUDED
THE 3HENSI
+ANSU
.INGSIA "ORDER !REA THE 3HANSI
#HAHAR
(OPEI -ILITARY
2EGION THE (OPEI
3HANTUNG
(ONAN -ILITARY 2EGION AND THE 3HANSI
(OPEI
(ONAN -ILITARY 2EGION /PERATING ASTRIDE BORDERS HAD BECOME A
MATTER OF DOCTRINE FOR THEM
'%/'2!0()# #/.$)4)/.3
4HE ROLE OF GEOGRAPHY A LARGE ONE IN AN ORDINARY WAR MAY BE OVERRIDING
IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR )F THE INSURGENT WITH HIS INITIAL WEAKNESS CANNOT GET
ANY HELP FROM GEOGRAPHY HE MAY WELL BE CONDEMNED TO FAILURE BEFORE HE
STARTS ,ET US EXAMINE BRIEmY THE EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS
,OCATION ! COUNTRY ISOLATED BY NATURAL BARRIERS SEA DESERT FORBIDDING
MOUNTAIN RANGES OR SITUATED AMONG COUNTRIES THAT OPPOSE THE INSURGENCY
IS FAVORABLE TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT
3IZE 4HE LARGER THE COUNTRY THE MORE DIFlCULT FOR A GOVERNMENT TO CON
TROL IT 3IZE CAN WEAKEN EVEN THE MOST TOTALITARIAN REGIME WITNESS #HINAS
PRESENT TROUBLES IN 4IBET
#ONlGURATION ! COUNTRY EASY TO COMPARTMENTALIZE HINDERS THE INSURGENT
4HUS THE 'REEK NATIONAL FORCES HAD AN EASY TASK CLEANING THE 0ELOPONNE
SUS PENINSULA )F THE COUNTRY IS AN ARCHIPELAGO THE INSURGENCY CANNOT EAS
ILY SPREAD AS WAS THE CASE IN THE 0HILIPPINES 4HE )NDONESIAN 'OVERNMENT
WHICH IS NOT REMARKABLE FOR ITS STRENGTH MANAGED NEVERTHELESS TO STAMP
OUT REBELLIONS IN THE -OLUCCAS !MBOINA AND OTHER ISLANDS
)NTERNATIONAL BORDERS 4HE LENGTH OF THE BORDERS PARTICULARLY IF THE
NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES ARE SYMPATHETIC TO THE INSURGENTS AS WAS THE
CASE IN 'REECE )NDOCHINA AND !LGERIA FAVORS THE INSURGENT ! HIGH
PROPORTION OF COAST LINE TO INLAND BORDERS HELPS THE COUNTERINSURGENT
BECAUSE MARITIME TRAFlC CAN BE CONTROLLED WITH A LIMITED AMOUNT OF
TECHNICAL MEANS WHICH THE COUNTERINSURGENT POSSESSES OR IS USUALLY
ABLE TO ACQUIRE )T WAS CHEAPER IN MONEY AND MANPOWER TO SUPPRESS
SMUGGLING ALONG THE COAST OF !LGERIA THAN ALONG THE 4UNISIAN AND
-OROCCAN BORDERS WHERE THE &RENCH !RMY HAD TO BUILD MAINTAIN AND
MAN AN ARTIlCIAL FENCE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4ERRAIN )T HELPS THE INSURGENT INSOFAR AS IT IS RUGGED AND DIFlCULT EITHER
BECAUSE OF MOUNTAINS AND SWAMPS OR BECAUSE OF THE VEGETATION 4HE HILLS
OF +IANGSI THE MOUNTAINS OF 'REECE THE 3IERRA -AESTRA THE SWAMPS OF
THE 0LAIN OF 2EEDS IN #OCHINCHINA THE PADDY lELDS OF 4ONKIN THE JUNGLE
OF -ALAYA GAVE A STRONG ADVANTAGE TO THE INSURGENTS 4HE #HINESE #OM
MUNISTS IN -ANCHURIA PROlTABLY USED THE TIME WHEN THE lELDS WERE COV
ERED WITH HIGH KAOLIANG STALKS
/N THE OTHER HAND THE &,. WAS NEVER ABLE TO OPERATE FOR ANY SUS
TAINED PERIOD IN THE VAST EXPANSES OF THE 3AHARA WITH THE &RENCH FORCES
SECURING THE OASES AND VITAL WELLS AND AIR SURVEILLANCE DETECTING EVERY
MOVE AND EVEN TRACES OF MOVEMENT LEFT ON SAND
#LIMATE #ONTRARY TO THE GENERAL BELIEF HARSH CLIMATES FAVOR THE COUNTER
INSURGENT FORCES WHICH HAVE AS A RULE BETTER LOGISTICAL AND OPERATIONAL
FACILITIES 4HIS WILL BE ESPECIALLY FAVORABLE IF THE COUNTERINSURGENT SOLDIER
IS A NATIVE AND THEREFORE ACCUSTOMED TO THE RIGORS OF THE CLIMATE 4HE
RAINY SEASON IN )NDOCHINA HAMPERED THE 6IETMINH MORE THAN IT DID THE
&RENCH 7INTER IN !LGERIA BROUGHT &,. ACTIVITY TO ALMOST A STANDSTILL
-ERELY TO KEEP SCARCE WEAPONS AND AMMUNITION IN GOOD CONDITION WHEN
ONE LIVES CONTINUOUSLY IN THE OPEN AS THE GUERRILLA DOES IS A PERPETUAL
HEADACHE
0OPULATION 4HE SIZE OF THE POPULATION AFFECTS THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN
THE SAME WAY AS DOES THE SIZE OF THE COUNTRY THE MORE INHABITANTS THE
MORE DIFlCULT TO CONTROL THEM "UT THIS FACTOR CAN BE ATTENUATED OR
ENHANCED BY THE DENSITY AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION 4HE MORE
SCATTERED THE POPULATION THE BETTER FOR THE INSURGENT THIS IS WHY COUNTER
INSURGENTS IN -ALAYA IN !LGERIA AND IN 3OUTH 6IETNAM TODAY HAVE
ATTEMPTED TO REGROUP THE POPULATION AS IN #AMBODIA IN n
! HIGH RATIO OF RURAL TO URBAN POPULATION GIVES AN ADVANTAGE TO THE INSUR
GENT THE /!3 IN !LGERIA WAS DOOMED TACTICALLY BECAUSE IT COULD RELY
ONLY ON THE %UROPEAN POPULATION WHICH WAS CONCENTRATED IN CITIES PAR
TICULARLY !LGIERS AND /RAN 4HE CONTROL OF A TOWN WHICH IS EXTREMELY
DEPENDENT ON OUTSIDE SUPPLIES REQUIRES SMALLER FORCES THAN THE CONTROL OF
THE SAME NUMBER OF PEOPLE SPREAD OVER THE COUNTRYSIDEEXCEPT IN THE
CASE OF A MASS UPRISING WHICH CAN NEVER LAST LONG IN ANY EVENT
%CONOMY 4HE DEGREE OF DEVELOPMENT AND SOPHISTICATION OF THE ECONOMY
CAN WORK BOTH WAYS ! HIGHLY DEVELOPED COUNTRY IS VERY VULNERABLE TO A
SHORT AND INTENSE WAVE OF TERRORISM "UT IF TERRORISM LASTS THE DISRUPTION
BECOMES SUCH THAT THE POPULATION MAY NOT BE ABLE TO ENDURE IT AND CON
SEQUENTLY MAY TURN AGAINST THE INSURGENT EVEN WHEN IT WAS NOT INITIALLY
HOSTILE TO HIM
!N UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRY IS LESS VULNERABLE TO TERRORISM BUT MUCH
MORE OPEN TO GUERRILLA WARFARE IF ONLY BECAUSE THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAN
NOT COUNT ON A GOOD NETWORK OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION FACILITIES
AND BECAUSE THE POPULATION IS MORE AUTARCHIC
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
4O SUM UP THE IDEAL SITUATION FOR THE INSURGENT WOULD BE A LARGE LAND
LOCKED COUNTRY SHAPED LIKE A BLUNT
TIPPED STAR WITH JUNGLE
COVERED MOUN
TAINS ALONG THE BORDERS AND SCATTERED SWAMPS IN THE PLAINS IN A TEMPERATE
ZONE WITH A LARGE AND DISPERSED RURAL POPULATION AND A PRIMITIVE ECONOMY
3EE &IGURE 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WOULD PREFER A SMALL ISLAND SHAPED
LIKE A POINTED STAR ON WHICH A CLUSTER OF EVENLY SPACED TOWNS ARE SEPA
RATED BY DESERT IN A TROPICAL OR ARCTIC CLIMATE WITH AN INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY
3EE &IGURE
&IGURE
&IGURE
/543)$% 3500/24
/UTSIDE SUPPORT TO AN INSURGENCY CAN TAKE THE FORM OF
-ORAL SUPPORT FROM WHICH THE INSURGENT WILL BENElT WITHOUT ANY EFFORT
ON HIS PART PROVIDED HIS CAUSE GOES ALONG WITH hTHE WIND OF HISTORYv
4HUS IN THE PRESENT STRUGGLE BETWEEN !NGOLANS AND THE 0ORTUGUESE 'OV
ERNMENT THE FORMER BENElT FROM CONSIDERABLE MORAL SUPPORT WHILE THE
LATTER IS ISOLATED -ORAL SUPPORT IS EXPRESSED BY THE WEIGHT OF PUBLIC
OPINION AND THROUGH VARIOUS COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA 0ROPAGANDA IS THE
CHIEF INSTRUMENT OF MORAL SUPPORT USED TO SWAY PUBLIC OPINION WHEN IT
IS ADVERSE OR TO REINFORCE EXISTING PUBLIC SYMPATHY
0OLITICAL SUPPORT WITH PRESSURE APPLIED DIRECTLY ON THE COUNTERINSURGENT
OR INDIRECTLY BY DIPLOMATIC ACTION IN THE INTERNATIONAL FORUM 4AKING THE
SAME CASE AS AN EXAMPLE WE SEE THAT MANY !FRICAN STATES HAVE BROKEN OFF
DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH ,ISBON AND RECOGNIZED A PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT
OF !NGOLA THEY HAVE ALSO SUCCEEDED IN EXPELLING 0ORTUGAL FROM VARIOUS
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS SUCH AS THE )NTERNATIONAL ,ABOR /RGANIZATION
4ECHNICAL SUPPORT IN THE FORM OF ADVICE TO THE INSURGENT FOR THE ORGANI
ZATION OF HIS MOVEMENT AND THE CONDUCT OF HIS POLITICAL AND MILITARY
OPERATIONS 4HE SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE 6IETMINH AND THE #HINESE #OM
MUNISTS METHODS WAS NOT ACCIDENTAL
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
&INANCIAL SUPPORT OVERT OR COVERT ! GREAT PART OF THE &,. BUDGET CAME
FROM GRANTS BY THE !RAB ,EAGUE 2ED #HINA SHIPPED TEA TO THE &,. IN
-OROCCO WHERE IT WAS SOLD ON THE OPEN MARKET
-ILITARY SUPPORT EITHER THROUGH DIRECT INTERVENTION ON THE INSURGENTS
SIDE OR BY GIVING HIM TRAINING FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
.O OUTSIDE SUPPORT IS ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY AT THE START OF AN INSURGENCY
ALTHOUGH IT OBVIOUSLY HELPS WHEN AVAILABLE -ILITARY SUPPORT SHORT OF DIRECT
INTERVENTION IN PARTICULAR CANNOT BE ABSORBED IN A SIGNIlCANT AMOUNT BY
THE INSURGENT UNTIL HIS FORCES HAVE REACHED A CERTAIN LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
4HE INITIAL MILITARY PHASE OF AN INSURGENCY WHETHER TERRORISM OR GUERRILLA
WARFARE REQUIRES LITTLE IN THE WAY OF EQUIPMENT ARMS AMMUNITION AND
EXPLOSIVES 4HESE CAN USUALLY BE FOUND LOCALLY OR SMUGGLED IN
7HEN THE TIME COMES HOWEVER FOR THE INSURGENT TO PASS FROM GUER
RILLA WARFARE TO A HIGHER FORM OF OPERATIONS TO CREATE A REGULAR ARMY
THE NEED FOR MUCH LARGER AND MORE VARIED SUPPLIES BECOMES ACUTE
%ITHER HE IS ABLE TO CAPTURE IT FROM THE COUNTERINSURGENT OR IT MUST
COME FROM THE OUTSIDE )F NOT THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSURGENT MILI
TARY ESTABLISHMENT IS IMPOSSIBLE
4HE #OMMUNISTS IN #HINA RECEIVED LITTLE OR NO SUPPORT FROM ABROAD UNTIL
-ANCHURIA WAS OCCUPIED BY THE 3OVIET !RMY THE ARMS AND EQUIPMENT OF
THE *APANESE +WANTUNG !RMY WERE TURNED OVER TO SOLDIERS FROM
THE 0EOPLES ,IBERATION !RMY WHO HAD CROSSED INTO -ANCHURIA FROM *EHOL
AND 3HANTUNG 4HE #OMMUNISTS IN -ANCHURIA WERE AT ONCE ABLE TO CON
DUCT LARGE
SCALE SUSTAINED OPERATIONS AND THE NATURE OF THE lGHTING IN THIS
AREA WAS MARKEDLY DIFFERENT FROM THE #OMMUNIST OPERATIONS SOUTH OF THE
'REAT 7ALL !CCESS TO THE *APANESE !RMY STORES WAS NOT THE DECISIVE FACTOR
IN THE OUTCOME OF THE WAR SINCE THE #OMMUNIST FORCES IN #HINA PROPER
WHO RECEIVED FEW SUPPLIES FROM -ANCHURIA SUCCEEDED IN ARMING THEM
SELVES WITH CAPTURED .ATIONALIST EQUIPMENT BUT IT CERTAINLY HASTENED THE
DEFEAT OF THE BEST .ATIONALIST TROOPS IN -ANCHURIA 4HE #OMMUNISTS
BOASTED THAT THEIR QUARTERMASTER AND ORDNANCE DEPOTS WERE CONVENIENTLY
LOCATED FORWARD IN THE HANDS OF THE .ATIONALISTS 4HEIR SLOGAN h&EED THE
7AR BY 7ARv WAS NOT AN EMPTY ASSERTION
)N )NDOCHINA THE TURNING POINT OCCURRED IN WHEN THE 6IETMINH
BEGAN RECEIVING AID FROM 2ED #HINA 5NTIL THEN THEY HAD BEEN UNABLE TO
DEVELOP THEIR FORCES AND TO STAGE LARGE
SCALE OPERATIONS NOT BECAUSE THEY
SUFFERED FROM MAN POWER PROBLEMSTHEY HAD MORE POTENTIAL SOLDIERS THAN
THEY COULD USEBUT BECAUSE THEIR PRIMITIVE ARSENALS COULD NOT lLL THEIR
NEEDS AND THEY COULD NOT CAPTURE SIGNIlCANT AMOUNTS OF &RENCH WEAPONS
!LTHOUGH THE 6IETMINH COULD HAVE FOUGHT A PROTRACTED GUERRILLA WARFARE AND
THUS COULD HAVE DENIED THE &RENCH ANY BENElT FROM A PROLONGED OCCUPATION
4(% 02%2%15)3)4%3 &/2 ! 35##%33&5, ).352'%.#9
OF THE COUNTRY THEY WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN ABLE TO RAISE A POWERFUL REGULAR
ARMY WITHOUT #HINESE AID "Y 3EPTEMBER MEN IN THE 6IET
MINH FORCES HAD BEEN EQUIPPED WITH MACHINE GUNS HEAVY MORTARS ANTI
AIRCRAFT WEAPONS 4HE 6IETMINH COMMAND WAS ABLE TO ORGANIZE A (EAVY
$IVISION THE ST )N ACCORDING TO &RENCH ESTIMATES #HINESE AID
AMOUNTED TO RImES MACHINE GUNS n HEAVY MORTARS
AND ABOUT RECOILLESS GUNS
)N -ALAYA AND THE 0HILIPPINES THE INSURGENTS RECEIVED NO OUTSIDE MILI
TARY SUPPORT AND DID NOT DEVELOP
)N 'REECE THE #OMMUNIST INSURGENTS RECEIVED SUPPORT FROM AND THROUGH
THE SATELLITE COUNTRIES BUT THE SPLIT BETWEEN 4ITO AND 3TALIN INTERRUPTED THE
LOW JUST WHEN THE INSURGENTS HAVING ORGANIZED THEIR FORCES INTO LARGE
AND VULNERABLEUNITS NEEDED IT MOST
)N !LGERIA THE &RENCH NAVAL BLOCKADE AND THE SEALING OF THE BORDERS
PREVENTED THE mOW OF SUPPLIES TO !LGERIA FROM 4UNISIA AND -OROCCO
WHERE LARGE REBEL STOCKS HAD BEEN ACCUMULATED .O DEVELOPMENT WAS
POSSIBLE 4HE SITUATION OF THE &,. FORCES AFTER BECAME SO CRITICAL
THAT MOST OF THEIR AUTOMATIC WEAPONS WERE BURIED FOR LACK OF AMMUNI
TION
4HE %AST
7EST CONmICT THAT TODAY COVERS THE ENTIRE WORLD CANNOT FAIL TO
BE AFFECTED BY ANY INSURGENCY OCCURRING ANYWHERE 4HUS A #OMMUNIST
INSURGENCY IS ALMOST CERTAIN TO RECEIVE AUTOMATIC SUPPORT FROM THE
#OMMUNIST BLOC #HANCES FOR #OMMUNIST SUPPORT ARE GOOD EVEN FOR NON
#OMMUNIST INSURGENTS PROVIDED OF COURSE THAT THEIR OPPONENT IS AN
hIMPERIALISTv OR AN ALLY OF hIMPERIALISMv
#ONVERSELY THE %AST
7EST CONmICT SOMETIMES ACCELERATES THE OUTBREAK
OF INSURGENCIESAND THIS IS NOT ALWAYS A BLESSING FOR THE INSURGENTS AS
WE HAVE SEEN IN THE CASES OF THE #OMMUNIST MOVEMENTS IN !SIA AFTER THE
#ALCUTTA MEETINGAND SOMETIMES SLOWS THEM DOWN OR INHIBITS
THEM ENTIRELY WHEN INSURGENCIES DO NOT lT IN WITH THE OVER
ALL POLICY OF
THE #OMMUNIST BLOC 4HIS LAST POINT CANNOT BE DOCUMENTED NATURALLY BUT
THERE ARE STRONG PRESUMPTIONS THAT THE SURPRISINGLY QUIET ATTITUDE OF THE
)NDONESIAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY TODAY WHICH SEEMS POWERFUL ENOUGH TO GO
INTO VIOLENT ACTION MAY BE ATTRIBUTED TO SOME SORT OF VETO FROM -OSCOW
ANDOR 0EKING
)F OUTSIDE SUPPORT IS TOO EASILY OBTAINABLE IT CAN DESTROY OR HARM SELF
RELIANCE IN THE INSURGENT RANKS &OR THIS REASON PARTLY #OMMUNIST INSUR
GENTS IN !SIA HAVE ALWAYS EMPHASIZED THE NECESSITY OF COUNTING ON THEIR
OWN EFFORTS 4HE RESOLUTION OF THE &IRST 3ESSION OF THE 6IETNAMESE #ENTRAL
#OMMITTEE OF THE ,AO $ONG #OMMUNIST 0ARTY IN REMINDED 0ARTY
MEMBERS THAT hOUR 2ESISTANCE 7AR IS A LONG AND HARD STRUGGLEv AND hWE
HAVE MAINLY TO RELY ON OUR OWN FORCESv
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
)N CONCLUSION A CAUSE A POLICE AND ADMINISTRATIVE WEAKNESS IN
THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAMP A NOT TOO HOSTILE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
AND OUTSIDE SUPPORT IN THE MIDDLE AND LATER STAGES OF AN INSURGENCY
THESE ARE THE CONDITIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL INSURGENCY 4HE lRST TWO ARE
MUSTS 4HE LAST ONE IS A HELP THAT MAY BECOME A NECESSITY
./4%3
"UCKS ,AND 5TILIZATION IN #HINA ,ONDON /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
WAS BASED ON INVESTIGATIONS CONDUCTED IN n IN FARMS LOCALITIES
HSIEN COUNTIES PROVINCES
4ABLE GIVES THE PERCENTAGES OF FARMERS WHO WERE OWNERS PART
OWNERS AND
TENANTS
/WNERS 0ART
OWNERS 4ENANTS
)N THE WHEAT REGION OF .ORTH #HINA WHERE THE #OMMUNISTS WERE STRONGLY
ESTABLISHED THE PERCENTAGES WERE
/WNERS 0ART
OWNERS 4ENANTS
4ABLE GIVES THE AVERAGE SIZES OF FARMS IN HECTARES BY CLASS OF OWNERSHIP
)N THE WHEAT REGION
/WNERS 0ART OWNERS 4ENANTS
!NOTHER TABLE GIVES THE NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF FARMS IN EACH SIZE CLASS
&OR THE WHEAT REGION
6ERY 3MALL 3MALL -EDIUM -EDIUM ,ARGE ,ARGE
6ERY ,ARGE 6ERY 6ERY ,ARGE 6ERY 6ERY 6ERY ,ARGE
4HE #HINESE #OMMUNIST lGURES ON LAND DISTRIBUTION BASED ON A REPORT BY ,IU
3HAO
CHI IN *UNE WERE THESE h,ANDLORDS AND PEASANTS WHO ACCOUNT FOR
LESS THAN PER CENT OF THE RURAL POPULATION OWN TO PER CENT OF ALL THE LAND
WHILE POOR PEASANTS AGRICULTURAL LABORERS AND MIDDLE PEASANTS WHO ACCOUNT FOR
ABOUT PER CENT OF THE RURAL POPULATION OWN ONLY TO PER CENT OF THE
LAND v %DITORIAL IN *EN
MIN *IH
0AO AS QUOTED IN # + 9ANG ! #HINESE
6ILLAGE IN %ARLY #OMMUNIST 4RANSITION ;#AMBRIDGE -ASS 4HE 4ECHNOLOGY 0RESS
-ASSACHUSETTS )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY =
"ERNARD &ALL ,E 6IET
-INH 0ARIS ,IBRAIRIE !RMAND #OLIN P
#HAPTER
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
342!4%')# 0!44%2.3 &/2 ).352'%.#9
3INCE COUNTERINSURGENCY EXISTS SOLELY AS A REACTION TO AN INSURGENCY THE
COUNTERINSURGENTS PROBLEMS AND OPERATIONS CAN BE BEST UNDERSTOOD IN THE
LIGHT OF WHAT PROMPTS THEM )N THIS CHAPTER WE SHALL SUMMARIZE THE INSUR
GENCY DOCTRINE
4WO GENERAL PATTERNS FOR INSURGENCIES EMERGE FROM THE HISTORY OF PAST
REVOLUTIONARY WARS /NE IS BASED ESSENTIALLY ON THE THEORY AND EXPERIENCE
OF THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS AND WAS OFFERED BY ,IU 3HAO
CHI AS A BLUE
PRINT FOR REVOLUTION IN COLONIAL AND SEMICOLONIAL COUNTRIES
4HE PATH THAT LED THE #HINESE PEOPLE TO VICTORY IS EXPRESSED IN THE FOLLOWING
FORMULA
4HE WORKING CLASS MUST UNITE WITH ALL OTHER CLASSES POLITICAL PARTIES AND
ORGANIZATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE WILLING TO OPPOSE THE OPPRESSION
OF IMPERIALISM AND ITS LACKEYS FORM A BROAD AND NATIONWIDE UNITED FRONT
AND WAGE A RESOLUTE lGHT AGAINST IMPERIALISM AND ITS LACKEYS
4HIS NATIONWIDE UNITED FRONT MUST BE LED AND BUILT AROUND THE WORKING
CLASS WHICH OPPOSES IMPERIALISM MOST RESOLUTELY MOST COURAGEOUSLY
AND MOST UNSELlSHLY AND ITS PARTY THE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY WITH THE LATTER
AS ITS CENTER )T MUST NOT BE LED BY THE WAVERING AND COMPROMISING
NATIONAL BOURGEOISIE OR THE PETTY BOURGEOISIE AND ITS PARTIES
)N ORDER TO ENABLE THE WORKING CLASS AND ITS PARTY THE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY
TO BECOME THE CENTER FOR UNITING ALL THE FORCES THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY
AGAINST IMPERIALISM AND TO LEAD THE NATIONAL UNITED FRONT COMPETENTLY TO
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
VICTORY IT IS NECESSARY TO BUILD UP THROUGH LONG STRUGGLES A #OMMUNIST
0ARTY WHICH IS ARMED WITH THE THEORY OF -ARXISM
,ENINISM WHICH
UNDERSTANDS STRATEGY AND TACTICS PRACTICES SELF
CRITICISM AND STRICT DISCI
PLINE AND WHICH IS CLOSELY LINKED WITH THE MASSES
)T IS NECESSARY TO SET UP WHEREVER AND WHENEVER POSSIBLE A NATIONAL ARMY
THAT IS LED BY THE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY AND IS POWERFUL AND SKILLFUL IN lGHT
ING THE ENEMIES )T IS NECESSARY TO SET UP BASES ON WHICH THE LIBERATION
ARMY CAN RELY FOR ITS ACTIVITIES AND TO COORDINATE THE MASS STRUGGLES IN THE
ENEMY
CONTROLLED AREAS WITH THE ARMED STRUGGLES !RMED STRUGGLE IS THE
MAIN FORM OF STRUGGLE FOR THE NATIONAL LIBERATION STRUGGLES OF MANY COLO
NIES AND SEMICOLONIES
4HIS IS THE BASIC WAY FOLLOWED AND PRACTICED IN #HINA BY THE #HINESE
PEOPLE IN WINNING VICTORY 4HIS IS THE WAY OF -AO 4SE
TUNG WHICH MAY ALSO
BE THE BASIC WAY IN WINNING EMANCIPATION BY THE PEOPLE OF OTHER COLONIAL
AND SEMICOLONIAL COUNTRIES WHERE SIMILAR CONDITIONS PREVAIL
4HE OTHER PATTERN A VARIATION OF THE lRST IN ITS EARLY STAGE HAS BEEN
FOLLOWED IN SEVERAL NATIONALIST INSURGENCIES
4HEY WILL BE DESCRIBED NEXT BUT IT MUST BE UNDERSTOOD THAT THEY ARE
GIVEN ONLY AS PATTERNS BUILT ON GENERALIZATIONS 7HILE THEY SUBSTANTIALLY lT
THE ACTUAL EVENTS IN THEIR BROAD LINES THEY MAY BE PARTIALLY AT VARIANCE WITH
THE HISTORY OF SPECIlC INSURGENCIES
4(% /24(/$/8 0!44%2. #/--5.)34
4O THE #OMMUNISTS REVOLUTION CONSISTS NOT MERELY IN OVERTHROWING THE
EXISTING ORDER BUT ALSO IN CARRYING OUT AFTERWARD A COMPLETE #OMMUNIST
TRANSFORMATION OF THE COUNTRY
4HE &IRST 3TEP #REATION OF A 0ARTY
4HE BASIC INSTRUMENT FOR THE ENTIRE PROCESS IS A PARTY AND THE lRST STEP
FOR THE INSURGENT IS TO CREATE IT
"Y DElNITION IT SHOULD BE THE PARTY OF THE PROLETARIAT BUT SINCE THE PROLE
TARIAT IS SMALL OR NONEXISTENT IN COLONIAL AND SEMICOLONIAL COUNTRIES THE LOW
EST CLASS OF PEASANTS MUST BE INCLUDED IN IT INCLUSION OF THE PEASANTS IS
INDEED A SINE QUA NON INASMUCH AS THE COMING ARMED STRUGGLE HAS TO BE
CONDUCTED IN THE RURAL AREAS "ECAUSE THE PROLETARIAT CANNOT PRODUCE THE
COMPETENT EARLY LEADERS THEY MUST BE SOUGHT FOR AMONG THE INTELLECTUALS AND
PARTICULARLY AMONG THE STUDENTS WHO CAN PROVIDE ARDOR AS WELL AS BRAIN
4HE INTENSITY THE VICISSITUDES OF THE LONG STRUGGLES AHEAD MAKE IT IMPER
ATIVE THAT THE PARTY BE STRONG DISCIPLINED TESTED )T MUST NOT BE A LOOSE
ORGANIZATION WHICH MAY BREAK APART AT THE lRST SHARP TURN IN PARTY POLICY
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
OR GIVE WAY UNDER THE REACTION OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT )N ADDITION IT MUST
NOT DISINTEGRATE IN THE AFTERMATHS OF VICTORY WHEN #OMMUNIST REFORMS ARE
ABOUT TO BE IMPLEMENTED AND WHEN YESTERDAYS ALLIES BECOME TODAYS ENE
MIES )T MUST BE AND STAY AN ELITE PARTY
)TS COHESION CAN BE MAINTAINED BY IMPOSING ON THE MEMBERS ACCEPTANCE
OF THE TWO BASIC FUNCTIONING RULESDEMOCRATIC CENTRALISM AND CRITICISM
AND SELF
CRITICISM BY SCREENING THE APPLICANTS THROUGH THE EASY CRITERION OF
THEIR CLASS ORIGIN BY MAKING THE APPLICANTS SPONSORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR
PRESENT AND FUTURE BEHAVIOR
)TS PURITY IS MAINTAINED BY SYSTEMATIC REGULAR WEEDING
OUT CONDUCTED IN
hINTRA
0ARTY STRUGGLES v WHICH ARE CONSIDERED AS A WELCOME NECESSITY BY
,IU 3HAO
CHI $EVIATORS FROM ORTHODOXY ARE WON BACK BY CONCILIATORY
METHODS OR EXPELLED IF THEY DO NOT CONFESS THEIR ERRORS
)N VIEW OF ITS FUTURE OPERATIONS THE PARTY MUST BE ORGANIZED INTO BOTH
OPEN AND CLANDESTINE APPARATUSES THE LATTER DESIGNED FOR A DUAL PURPOSE
DEFENSIVE IN CASE THE COUNTERINSURGENT DECIDES TO SUPPRESS THE PARTY
OFFENSIVE IN ORDER TO SUBVERT AND TO CONDUCT THE MASS STRUGGLES IN THE ENE
MYS AREAS ONCE THE PARTY HAS GONE INTO OPEN REBELLION
)T CANNOT BE DENIED THAT THE CREATION AND THE GROWTH OF SUCH A PARTY IS AT
BEST A SLOW PAINSTAKING PROCESS )N THE CASE OF THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST
0ARTY lVE YEARS ELAPSED BETWEEN THE MEETING OF ITS FOUNDERS IN 3HANG
HAI ON *ULY AND ITS lRST MEMBERS "UILDING A STRONG RELIABLE
REVOLUTIONARY PARTY IS CERTAINLY THE MOST DIFlCULT PART IN THE INSURGENCY
)F IT WERE EASY TO ACHIEVE THE WORLD MIGHT WELL BE #OMMUNIST BY NOW
CONSIDERING THE MACHINE THE EXPERIENCE THE EFFORTS AND THE MONEY THE
#OMMUNIST )NTERNATIONALE HAS APPLIED TO THE PURPOSE %RRORS IN LEADERSHIP
HUMAN INERTIA CIRCUMSTANCES BEYOND THE INSURGENTS CONTROL AND BAD LUCK
HAVE PROVIDED TREMENDOUS AND RECURRENT OBSTACLES
/N THE OTHER HAND THIS lRST STEP CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED BY LEGAL AND PEACE
FUL MEANS AT LEAST IN THE COUNTRIES WHERE POLITICAL OPPOSITION IS TOLERATED
4HE 3ECOND 3TEP 5NITED &RONT
!N ELITE PARTY IS PERFORCE A MINORITY PARTY )T CANNOT OVERPOWER THE COUN
TERINSURGENT BY ITSELF WITH ITS OWN MEANS 4HEREFORE THE SECOND STEP
WHICH MAY LARGELY OVERLAP WITH THE lRST CONSISTS IN RALLYING ALLIES AROUND
THE PARTYTHE MORE THE BETTER 4HIS RAISES SEVERAL PROBLEMS
! LARGE UNITED FRONT WILL NECESSARILY INCLUDE DUBIOUS ALLIES WHOSE USE
MUST BE CURBED SHORT OF THE POINT WHERE THEY CAN ENDANGER THE BASIC PRO
GRAM OF THE INSURGENT 4HE SOLUTION IS hSALAMI TACTICSv ONCE THE PARTY IS
lRMLY IN POWER THE ALLIES NO LONGER NEEDED WILL BE REJECTED ONE BY ONE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE PARTY MAY LOSE ITS IDENTITY IN A UNITED FRONT )N ORDER TO REDUCE THIS RISK
THE PARTY MUST ALWAYS REMAIN A hBLOC WITHOUTv IN ANY COALITION )T CAN ENTER
AN ALLIANCE WITH OTHER PARTIES BUT IT MUST NEVER MERGE WITH THEM )T CANNOT
ABSORB THEM EITHER SYMPATHETIC BUT UNRELIABLE ELEMENTS MUST BE GROUPED IN
THE PARTYS FRONT ORGANIZATIONS
4HE PARTYS PLATFORM AT ANY GIVEN TIME DURING THE CONmICT MUST CONTAIN
SOMETHING THAT APPEALS TO EACH ALLY AND NOTHING THAT MAY BE TOO OBJECTIONABLE
TO THEM 3O THE REAL POSTWAR INTENTIONS OF THE PARTY MUST BE KEPT SECRET THEY
NEED BE DISCLOSED ONLY TO THE TOP LEADERSHIP )F THE RANK AND lLE ARE DISCI
PLINED THEY WILL ACCEPT A WATERED
DOWN OFlCIAL PROGRAM FOR THE SAKE OF TAC
TICS 7HEN THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS WERE ASKED ABOUT THEIR FUTURE PROGRAM
THEY USED TO REPLY IN A CONVINCING FASHION THAT #HINA WAS NOT RIPE FOR #OM
MUNIST REFORMS A LONG PERIOD OF TRANSITION WAS NECESSARY #HINA HAD lRST TO
PASS THROUGH A PERIOD OF NATIONAL CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT 4HE hPERIOD OF TRAN
SITIONv ACTUALLY LASTED LESS THAN TWO YEARS n
$URING THIS SECOND STEP THE PARTYS CLANDESTINE APPARATUS WILL ENGAGE IN
SUBVERSIVE ACTION DIRECTED TOWARD THREE MAIN ELEMENTS
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WITH A VIEW TOWARD PREVENTING AND SABOTAGING AN
EVENTUAL REACTION
4HE ALLIES IN ORDER TO CHANNEL THEIR ACTIVITY IN THE DIRECTION CHOSEN BY THE
PARTY AND TO PREVENT ANY DAMAGING SPLIT IN THE UNITED FRONT
4HE MASSES IN ORDER TO PREPARE AND TO PROMOTE THE POLITICAL STRUGGLES
AGAINST THE COUNTERINSURGENT
4HIS IS DONE BY INlLTRATION NOYAUTAGE AGITATION AND PROPAGANDA 'OOD
INTELLIGENCE IS AN IMPORTANT BY PRODUCT OF THIS WORK
!S THE MOMENT FOR THE ARMED STRUGGLE APPROACHES THE WORK AMONG THE
MASSES BECOMES PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT IN THE RURAL AREAS THAT HAVE BEEN TEN
TATIVELY SELECTED AS FAVORABLE GROUNDS FOR THE INSURGENTS INITIAL MILITARY OPER
ATIONS ! POPULATION LARGELY WON OVER TO THE CAUSE AND AN AREA WHERE THE
PARTY ORGANIZATION IS STRONG ARE ESSENTIAL FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE lRST GUERRILLA
OPERATIONS ON WHICH MUCH DEPENDS
4HE INSURGENTS ACTIVITY DURING THE SECOND STEP REMAINS GENERALLY WITHIN
THE BOUNDS OF LEGALITY AND NONVIOLENCE )T DOES NOT CONSTITUTE AN OPEN REBEL
LION A CLEAR CUT CHALLENGE TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT (AVING THE INITIATIVE THE
INSURGENT CAN ALWAYS SLOW DOWN OR RETREAT IF A REACTION THREATENS
4HE 4HIRD 3TEP 'UERRILLA 7ARFARE
4HE INSURGENT MAY SEIZE POWER MERELY BY POLITICAL PLAY AND SUBVER
SION )F NOT THEN AN ARMED STRUGGLE IS THE LOGICAL CONTINUATION 4HE
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
#HINESE #OMMUNISTS ASSERT THAT THE ARMED STRUGGLE IS BOTH NECESSARY AND
INDISPENSABLE THAT VICTORY MUST BE WON BY FORCE THAT hLIBERATIONv MUST
NOT BE GRANTED OR GAINED BY COMPROMISE 4HE REASONS FOR THEIR STAND ARE
THESE
! LOCAL REVOLUTIONARY WAR IS PART OF THE GLOBAL WAR AGAINST CAPITALISM
AND IMPERIALISM (ENCE A MILITARY VICTORY AGAINST THE LOCAL ENEMY IS IN
FACT A VICTORY AGAINST THE GLOBAL ENEMY AND CONTRIBUTES TO HIS ULTIMATE
DEFEAT
7HEN THE INSURGENT SEIZES POWER AFTER AN ARMED STRUGGLE HIS VICTORY IS
COMPLETE HIS AUTHORITY ABSOLUTE 4HE WAR HAS POLARIZED THE POPULATION
REVEALING FRIENDS AND ENEMIES WHICH MAKES IT EASIER TO IMPLEMENT THE
#OMMUNIST POSTWAR PROGRAM
4HROUGH THE ARMED STRUGGLE THE PARTY CONSOLIDATES ITSELF )T ACQUIRES
EXPERIENCE ONCE AND FOR ALL CURES ITS INFANTILE DISEASES ELIMINATES THE
WEAK MEMBERS IS ABLE TO SELECT THE BEST THE TRUE LEADERS 4HE LOGICAL
IMPLICATION OF THIS IS THAT THE INSURGENT MUST WIN PRIMARILY THROUGH HIS
OWN EFFORT IF HE IS PUT INTO POWER BY EXTERNAL INTERVENTION THE PARTYS
INTERNAL WEAKNESS WILL PLAGUE HIM FOR YEARS
4HE PARTY ASSUMES POWER WITH A TESTED RELIABLE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT
WHICH IS THE PARTYS GUARANTOR IN THE POLITICAL TRANSFORMATION TO COME
3O WHETHER BECAUSE IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO SUCCEED OTHERWISE OR BECAUSE OF
HIS FAITH IN THE USEFULNESS OF THE ARMED STRUGGLE THE INSURGENT EMBARKS ON A
CONTEST OF STRENGTH 4HE DECISION BEING HIS HE CHOOSES THE TIME WHEN CON
DITIONS SEEM RIPE WHEN INTERNALLY THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS WEAKENED BY A
FORTUITOUS OR PROVOKED CRISIS WHEN SUBVERSION IS PRODUCING EFFECTS WHEN
PUBLIC OPINION IS DIVIDED WHEN THE PARTYS ORGANIZATION HAS BEEN BUILT UP IN
SOME RURAL AREAS AND WHEN EXTERNALLY DIRECT INTERVENTION ON THE COUNTERIN
SURGENTS SIDE IS UNLIKELY WHEN THE INSURGENT CAN COUNT ON SOME MORAL AND
POLITICAL SUPPORT AT THIS STAGE AND ON MILITARY AID LATER IF NECESSARY
4HE GOAL IS THE CREATION OF THE INSURGENTS MILITARY POWER BUT IT HAS TO BE
ACCOMPLISHED PROGRESSIVELY STEP BY STEP 'UERRILLA WARFARE IS THE ONLY
POSSIBLE COURSE OF ACTION FOR A START )N THIS STEP THE lRST OBJECTIVE IS THE
GUERRILLAS SURVIVAL THE lNAL ONE THE ACQUISITION OF BASES IN WHICH AN
INSURGENT GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION WILL BE ESTABLISHED THE HUMAN
AND OTHER RESOURCES EXPLOITED AND REGULAR FORCES CREATED 'UERRILLA WAR
FARE WITH NO BASES SAYS -AO 4SE
TUNG IS NOTHING BUT ROVING BANDITISM
UNABLE TO MAINTAIN LINKS WITH THE POPULATION IT CANNOT DEVELOP AND IS
BOUND TO BE DEFEATED
/BJECTIVELY THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY EVERYDAY BANDIT
ACTIVITY IN ALMOST EVERY COUNTRY AND THE lRST GUERRILLA ACTIONS 7HAT MAKES
IT POSSIBLE FOR THE GUERRILLAS TO SURVIVE AND TO EXPAND 4HE COMPLICITY OF
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
THE POPULATION 4HIS IS THE KEY TO GUERRILLA WARFARE INDEED TO THE INSUR
GENCY AND IT HAS BEEN EXPRESSED IN THE FORMULA OF THE lSH SWIMMING IN THE
WATER 4HE COMPLICITY OF THE POPULATION IS NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH THE
SYMPATHY OF THE POPULATION THE FORMER IS ACTIVE THE LATTER INACTIVE AND THE
POPULARITY OF THE INSURGENTS CAUSE IS INSUFlCIENT BY ITSELF TO TRANSFORM
SYMPATHY INTO COMPLICITY 4HE PARTICIPATION OF THE POPULATION IN THE CON
mICT IS OBTAINED ABOVE ALL BY A POLITICAL ORGANIZATION THE PARTY LIVING
AMONG THE POPULATION BACKED BY FORCE THE GUERRILLA GANGS WHICH ELIMI
NATES THE OPEN ENEMIES INTIMIDATES THE POTENTIAL ONES AND RELIES ON THOSE
AMONG THE POPULATION WHO ACTIVELY SUPPORT THE INSURGENTS 0ERSUASION
BRINGS A MINORITY OF SUPPORTERSTHEY ARE INDISPENSABLEBUT FORCE RALLIES
THE REST 4HERE IS OF COURSE A PRACTICAL IF NOT ETHICAL LIMIT TO THE USE OF
FORCE THE BASIC RULE IS NEVER TO ANTAGONIZE AT ANY ONE TIME MORE PEOPLE
THAN CAN BE HANDLED
*UST AS IMPORTANT AS THE LINKS BETWEEN THE INSURGENTS POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
AND THE POPULATION ARE THE LINKS BETWEEN HIS ARMED FORCES AND THE MASSES 4O
SEE THAT THEY ARE PROPERLY MAINTAINEDAND THAT THE FORCES NEVER BECOME A
RIVAL TO THE PARTYIS THE TASK OF THE POLITICAL COMMISSARS
4HE GUERRILLA OPERATIONS WILL BE PLANNED PRIMARILY NOT SO MUCH AGAINST
THE COUNTERINSURGENT AS IN ORDER TO ORGANIZE THE POPULATION !N AMBUSH
AGAINST A COUNTERINSURGENT PATROL MAY BE A MILITARY SUCCESS BUT IF IT DOES
NOT BRING THE SUPPORT OF A VILLAGE OR IMPLICATE ITS POPULATION AGAINST THE
COUNTERINSURGENT IT IS NOT A VICTORY BECAUSE IT DOES NOT LEAD TO EXPANSION
)N OTHER WORDS ATTRITION OF THE ENEMY IS A BY
PRODUCT OF GUERRILLA WARFARE
NOT ITS ESSENTIAL GOAL
7HERE TO OPERATE )N THE AREAS THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT EASILY
CONTROL AND WHERE THE GUERRILLA GANGS CAN CONSEQUENTLY SURVIVE AND
DEVELOP 4HE FACTORS IN SELECTING THE lRST AREAS OF OPERATIONS ARE
4HE STRENGTH OF THE INSURGENTS ORGANIZATION AMONG THE POPULATION THAT
HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN PRELIMINARY WORK
4HE REMOTENESS OF THE AREAS FROM THE CENTER OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS
POWER
4HEIR INACCESSIBILITY DUE TO TERRAIN AND POOR COMMUNICATIONS
4HEIR LOCATION ON BOTH SIDES OF ADMINISTRATIVE BORDERS WHICH MAKES IT
DIFlCULT FOR THE ENEMY TO COORDINATE HIS REACTION
,ATER ON AS SUCCESS BREEDS SUCCESS THE lRST FACTOR BECOMES LESS IMPOR
TANT AND GUERRILLA WARFARE CAN BE EXPANDED GEOGRAPHICALLY BY INJECTING
TEAMS OF GUERRILLA UNITS AND POLITICAL WORKERS IN OTHER AREAS EVEN IF THEY
ARE DEVOID OF STRONG PARTY STRUCTURES 4HIS UNDERLINES THE IMPORTANCE OF
EARLY SUCCESS
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
!RMAMENT IS NOT A PROBLEM AT THIS STAGE 4HE INSURGENTS REQUIREMENTS ARE
SMALL 7EAPONS PISTOLS RImES SHOTGUNS ARE GENERALLY AVAILABLE OR CAN BE
BOUGHT AND SMUGGLED IN #RUDE WEAPONS GRENADES MINES EVEN MORTARS
CAN BE MANUFACTURED AND EQUIPMENT CAN BE CAPTURED FROM THE ENEMY
$EMORALIZATION OF THE ENEMYS FORCES IS AN IMPORTANT TASK 4HE MOST
EFFECTIVE WAY TO ACHIEVE IT IS BY EMPLOYING A POLICY OF LENIENCY TOWARD THE
PRISONERS 4HEY MUST BE WELL TREATED AND OFFERED THE CHOICE OF JOINING THE
MOVEMENT OR OF BEING SET FREE EVEN IF THIS MEANS THAT THEY WILL RETURN TO
THE COUNTERINSURGENTS SIDE $ESPITE ITS SETBACKS IN THE EARLY STAGES THIS IS
THE POLICY THAT PAYS THE MOST IN THE LONG RUN $URING A TRIP IN WESTERN
#HINA IN !PRIL THE AUTHOR WAS CAPTURED BY #OMMUNIST TROOPS UNDER
'ENERAL #HEN +ENG IN (SINKIANG A TOWN IN 3HANSI 0ROVINCE (E WAS
TREATED AS A PRISONER THE lRST MORNING PUT UNDER SURVEILLANCE FOR THE REST OF
THE DAY AND CONSIDERED AS A hGUEST OF HONORv FOR HIS WEEK
LONG INVOLUN
TARY BUT HIGHLY INTERESTING STAY AMONG THE 0EOPLES ,IBERATION !RMY $UR
ING THIS WEEK VARIOUS MILITARY AND POLITICAL CADRES UNDERTOOK TO EXPLAIN
THEIR POLICY STRATEGY AND TACTICS ! POLITICAL COMMISSAR EXPLAINED THE
#OMMUNIST TECHNIQUE FOR HANDLING +UOMINTANG PRISONERS 4HEY WERE
OFFERED THE CHOICE BETWEEN JOINING THE #OMMUNIST !RMY SETTLING IN
#OMMUNIST TERRITORY WHERE THEY WOULD BE GIVEN A SHARE OF LAND GOING
BACK HOME OR RETURNING TO THE .ATIONALIST !RMY ! FEW DAYS LATER THE
AUTHOR VISITED A TEMPORARY PRISONER CAMP WHERE THE #OMMUNISTS WERE
KEEPING A GROUP OF JUNIOR .ATIONALIST OFlCERS WHO HAD JUST BEEN CAP
TURED 7HILE THE POLITICAL COMMISSAR WAS BUSY TALKING TO A GROUP OF PRISON
ERS THE AUTHOR ASKED ANOTHER GROUP IN #HINESE WHETHER ANY AMONG THEM
HAD PREVIOUSLY BEEN CAPTURED BY THE #OMMUNISTS 4HREE .ATIONALIST OFl
CERS ADMITTED THIS WAS THEIR SECOND CAPTURE
)N THAT SAME MONTH A COLLEAGUE OF THE AUTHOR VISITED A CAMP AT
(SUCHOW IN CENTRAL #HINA WHERE THE .ATIONALISTS KEPT #OMMU
NIST PRISONERS
h7HERE WERE THEY CAUGHT v HE ASKED THE .ATIONALIST GENERAL IN CHARGE OF
THE CAMP
h"ETWEEN YOU AND ME WE HAVE NO MORE THAN TEN REAL #OMMUNIST SOL
DIERS AMONG THESE PRISONERSv
h7HO ARE THE OTHERS THEN v
h.ATIONALIST SOLDIERS CAUGHT AND RELEASED BY THE #OMMUNISTS 7E DONT
WANT THEM TO CONTAMINATE OUR ARMYv
4HUS THE #OMMUNISTS HAD ACHIEVED THE TRICK OF HAVING THE .ATIONALISTS
THEMSELVES WATCHING THEIR OWN MEN 4HE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS lRST USED
THIS TECHNIQUE WITH SURPRISING SUCCESS ON *APANESE PRISONERS DURING THE
3INO
*APANESE 7AR )N THE EARLY POSTWAR PERIOD SEVERAL IMPORTANT *APANESE
#OMMUNIST LEADERS WERE GRADUATES OF THE #HINESE SCHOOL FOR *APANESE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
PRISONERS 4HE lRST CLEAR SIGN OF THE #HINESE INmUENCE ON THE 6IETMINH
CAME IN WHEN THE 6IETMINH SUDDENLY CHANGED THEIR ATTITUDE TOWARD
&RENCH PRISONERS )NSTEAD OF SLAUGHTERING THEM THEY UNDERTOOK TO BRAIN
WASH THEM
)N ADDITION TO THE FOREGOING MATTERS OF SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS THE INSUR
GENT MUST SOLVE A PROBLEM CREATED BY WHAT WE HAVE CONSIDERED A TACTICAL
ASSET THE SCATTERED NATURE OF HIS OPERATIONS !LTHOUGH THIS MAKES IT DIFl
CULT FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT TO COPE WITH THEM THE INSURGENT MUST ALSO
RECONCILE THE DILUTION OF HIS FORCES WITH THE NEED FOR UNITY OF ACTION 4HE
SOLUTION IS A CLEAR COMMON DOCTRINE WIDELY TAUGHT AND ACCEPTED
4HE UNITED
FRONT POLICY REMAINS IN FORCE THROUGHOUT THE CONmICT AND
MUST BE GIVEN SUBSTANCE DURING THE ARMED STRUGGLE (OW CAN ALLIES BE
ADMITTED INTO THE POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND THE GUERRILLA UNITS WITHOUT WEAK
ENING THE INSURGENCY 4HE ONLY WAY IS BY CONFRONTING THE ALLIES WITH THE
PARTYS SUPERIORITY IN ORGANIZATION DISCIPLINE DOCTRINE POLICY LEADERSHIP
4HE PARTY ALONE MUST LEAD FORCEFUL LEADERS AMONG THE ALLIES MUST BE WON
OVER OR NEUTRALIZED 4HE PARTY ALONE MUST EXPAND THE ALLIED PARTIES MAY BE
PERMITTED ONLY TO STAGNATE
4HE MILITARY TACTICS OF GUERRILLA WARFARE ARE TOO WELL KNOWN TO BE ELABO
RATED UPON IN THIS SUMMARY
4HE &OURTH 3TEP -OVEMENT 7ARFARE
'UERRILLA WARFARE CANNOT WIN THE DECISION AGAINST A RESOLUTE ENEMY
0ROTRACTED GUERRILLA ACTIVITY SO CHEAP TO CARRY OUT AND SO EXPENSIVE TO SUP
PRESS MAY EVENTUALLY PRODUCE A CRISIS IN THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAMP BUT IT
COULD JUST AS WELL ALIENATE THE POPULATION AND DISINTEGRATE THE UNITED FRONT
4HE ENEMY MUST BE MET ON HIS OWN GROUND AN INSURGENT REGULAR ARMY HAS
TO BE CREATED IN ORDER TO DESTROY THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES
4HERE IS A PROBLEM OF TIMING )F PREMATURE THE CREATION OF THIS REGULAR
ARMY WHICH NECESSARILY IS LESS ELUSIVE THAN GUERRILLA GANGS MAY LEAD TO
DISASTER 3O IT MUST NOT BE UNDERTAKEN UNTIL BASES HAVE BEEN LIBERATED AND
THE ERNEMY DISCOURAGED FROM INVADING THEM TOO FREQUENTLY AND UNTIL THE
PROBLEM OF ARMAMENT IS LIKELY TO BE SOLVED
7HEN THE SITUATION FULlLLS THESE CONDITIONS THE BEST GUERRILLA UNITS CAN
BE PROGRESSIVELY TRANSFORMED INTO REGULAR TROOPS lRST OF COMPANY STRENGTH
THEN OF BATTALION STRENGTH AND SO ON UP TO DIVISION LEVEL OR EVEN HIGHER
!RMAMENT IS THE FOREMOST DIFlCULTY 4HE AMOUNT AND THE TYPE OF WEAP
ONS AND EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE SET THE LIMIT FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INSUR
GENTS REGULAR FORCES 0RODUCTION IN THE BASES CANNOT BE COUNTED UPON
BECAUSE THE ARSENALS OFFER lXED AND EASY TARGETS FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
4HIS LEAVES TWO POSSIBLE SOURCES CAPTURE FROM THE ENEMY AND SUPPLY FROM
ABROAD
/F THESE IT IS CAPTURE FROM THE ENEMY THAT DICTATES THE NATURE OF THE
INSURGENTS OPERATIONS 4HEY WILL BE hCOMMERCIAL OPERATIONS v CONCEIVED
AND EXECUTED IN ORDER TO BRING MORE GAINS THAN LOSSES 4HIS IN TURN
REQUIRES AN OVERWHELMING AND SUDDEN CONCENTRATION OF INSURGENT FORCES
AGAINST AN ISOLATED COUNTERINSURGENT UNIT CAUGHT IN THE OPENNOT ENTRENCHED
HENCE A MOVEMENT WARFARE IN WHICH THE INSURGENT CAN EXPLOIT HIS mUIDITY
HIS BETTER INTELLIGENCE AND THE SIMPLE BUT EFFECTIVE CROSS
COUNTRY LOGISTICAL
FACILITIES AFFORDED BY THE ORGANIZED POPULATION &OR THE SAKE OF mUIDITY
HEAVY ARMAMENT MUST BE RULED OUT BECAUSE OF THE LIMITED LOGISTICAL FACILI
TIES THE ACTUAL SHOCK MUST BE BRIEF AND NO SUSTAINED ATTACK CAN BE UNDER
TAKEN FOR THE SAKE OF BETTER INTELLIGENCE OPERATIONS ARE PREFERABLY
CONDUCTED IN AREAS WHERE THE INSURGENT POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS ARE STRONG
AND ACTIVE AMONG THE POPULATION
3UPPLY FROM ABROAD IF SUCH A POSSIBILITY EXISTS IMPOSES ON THE INSUR
GENT THE NECESSITY OF ACQUIRING BASES ON OR NEAR THE INTERNATIONAL BORDER OF
THE COUNTRY CLOSE TO THE SOURCE OF SUPPLY
4HE INSURGENT UNITS LACK OF PUNCHTHEIR FEEBLE LOGISTICAL CAPACITIES
RULE OUT lXED DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS )N FACT SO PRECIOUS ARE THE REGULAR UNITS
PARTICULARLY WHEN THEY HAVE JUST BEEN CREATED THAT THE DEFENSE OF THE BASES
HAS TO BE LEFT TO OTHER INSURGENT FORCES TO THE POPULATION ITSELF WITH ITS MILI
TIAS TO THE GUERRILLA UNITS AND TO THE LOCAL TROOPS WHICH PROVIDE A CORE FOR
THE DEFENSE )N OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS THESE SECOND
RATE UNITS WILL ALSO RELIEVE
THE REGULAR TROOPS FROM THE TASK OF COVERING AND RECONNOITERING
4HE TERRITORIAL PATTERN OF THE INSURGENTS STRATEGY IS REmECTED IN THE VARI
OUS TYPES OF AREAS HE SETS UP
2EGULAR BASES AREAS GARRISONED BY REGULAR TROOPS AT REST IN TRAINING OR
IN THE PROCESS OF BEING ORGANIZED AND LOCAL TROOPS WITH AN OPENLY FUNC
TIONING GOVERNMENT CARRYING OUT ADMINISTRATION ECONOMIC POLICY TAXA
TION JUSTICE EDUCATION AND PUBLIC SERVICES SAFE FROM ENEMY PENETRATION
UNLESS THE COUNTERINSURGENT MOBILIZES FORCES FROM OTHER PARTS OF THE COUN
TRY FOR A MAJOR CAMPAIGN
'UERRILLA BASES WITH ACTIVE REGULAR TROOPS IN ADDITION TO THE OTHER TYPES
FULLY ORGANIZED UNDER THE INSURGENTS POLITICAL CONTROL WITH ADMINISTRATIVE
ORGANS DEVISED TO FUNCTION EITHER OPENLY OR UNDERGROUND AS CIRCUMSTANCES
DICTATE 4HEY ARE SUBJECT TO MORE FREQUENT ENEMY PENETRATIONS BUT THE
ENEMY IS GENERALLY UNABLE TO REMAIN IN THEM
'UERRILLA AREAS WHERE THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES AND GOVERNMENTS ARE
CONSTANTLY CONTENDING WITH THE INSURGENTS
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
/CCUPIED AREAS UNDER THE COUNTERINSURGENTS POLITICAL AND MILITARY CON
TROL WHERE THE INSURGENT WORKS ONLY UNDERGROUND
4HE AIM OF THE INSURGENT IS TO CHANGE THE OCCUPIED AREAS INTO GUERRILLA
AREAS GUERRILLA AREAS INTO GUERRILLA BASES AND THESE INTO REGULAR BASES
)N ORDER TO MOBILIZE THE POPULATION FOR A TOTAL WAR EFFORT EVERY INHAB
ITANT UNDER THE INSURGENTS CONTROL IS MADE TO BELONG SIMULTANEOUSLY TO
AT LEAST TWO ORGANIZATIONS ONE HORIZONTAL IS A GEOGRAPHIC ORGANIZATION
BY HAMLET VILLAGE OR DISTRICT THE OTHER VERTICAL GROUPS THE INHABITANTS
BY CATEGORIES OF EVERY KIND BY AGE BY SEX BY PROFESSION 4HE PARTY
CELLS CRISSCROSS THE WHOLE STRUCTURE AND PROVIDE THE CEMENT !N ADDI
TIONAL ORGANIZATION HELPS TO KEEP EVERYBODY IN LINE THE PARTYS SECRET
SERVICE WHOSE MEMBERS REMAIN UNKNOWN TO THE LOCAL CADRES AND ANSWER
ONLY TO THE TOP HIERARCHY WHICH IS THUS IN A POSITION TO CONTROL THOSE
WHO CONTROL THE MASSES )N WHEN THE AUTHOR WAS CAPTURED BY THE
#HINESE #OMMUNISTS IN (SINKIANG IN 3HANSI 0ROVINCE HE NOTICED THAT
A TEAM OF #OMMUNIST CIVIL SERVANTS IMMEDIATELY TOOK OVER THE ADMINIS
TRATION OF THE TOWN WHICH WAS THE SEAT OF A HSIEN COUNTY 4HESE OFl
CIALS HE WAS TOLD HAD LONG BEFORE BEEN DESIGNATED FOR THE TASK AND HAD
BEEN FUNCTIONING AS A SHADOW GOVERNMENT WITH THE GUERRILLA UNITS ACTIVE
IN THE AREA
h9OUR FORCES ARE NOT GOING TO OCCUPY (SINKIANG PERMANENTLY 7HAT WILL
HAPPEN TO YOUR CIVIL OFlCIALS WHEN YOUR ARMY LEAVES v ) ASKED THE POLITICAL
COMMISSAR OF 'ENERAL #HEN +ENGS ARMY
h4HEY WILL LEAVE TOO AND RESUME THEIR CLANDESTINE WORK v HE REPLIED
h!RE YOU NOT AFRAID THAT THEY WILL LOSE THEIR VALUE NOW THAT THEY HAVE
REVEALED THEMSELVES v
h7E HAVE SECRET AGENTS IN THIS TOWN WHO DID NOT COME OUT WHEN WE
TOOK IT 7E DONT EVEN KNOW WHO THEY ARE 4HEY WILL STILL BE HERE WHEN
WE GOv
4HE EXPANSION OF THE INSURGENT MOVEMENT RAISES THE PROBLEM OF POLITICAL
AND MILITARY CADRES 4HEY ARE SELECTED ON THE BASIS ABOVE ALL OF THEIR LOY
ALTY AND SECONDLY OF THEIR CONCRETE ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE lELD (OW IMPOR
TANT THE #OMMUNISTS CONSIDER THE LOYALTY OF THEIR PERSONNEL CADRES AND
TROOPS CAN BE SEEN FROM THE FOLLOWING STORY )N A 6IETMINH REGIMEN
TAL COMMANDER HARD PRESSED BY &RENCH TROOPS IN THE 2ED 2IVER $ELTA
PLEADED FOR REPLACEMENTS 4HE ANSWER FROM THE 6IETMINH COMMAND
h)MPOSSIBLE TO SEND YOU REPLACEMENTS NOW THEY HAVE NOT YET RECEIVED FULL
POLITICAL INDOCTRINATIONv
4HE #OMMUNIST OFlCERS BOTH #HINESE AND 6IETMINH WERE THE PROD
UCT OF NATURAL SELECTION 4HEY HAD SHOWN THEIR METTLE IN THE lELD BEFORE
THEY WERE SELECTED FOR HIGHER RESPONSIBILITIES 4HEORETICAL STUDIES AND
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
POSTGRADUATE WORK IN THE NEXT HIGHER ECHELON COMPLETED THEIR EDUCA
TION #OMPARE THE #OMMUNIST PRODUCTS WITH THE OFlCERS IN THE 3OUTH
6IETNAMESE !RMY TODAYPICKED ACCORDING TO ACADEMIC STANDARDS AND
THEREFORE GENERALLY SONS OF URBAN PETTY BOURGEOIS 4HEY ARE JUST AS ALIEN
TO AND LOST IN THE PADDY lELDS AS THE WHITE OFlCERS ARE AND POSSIBLY
LESS ADAPTABLE
4HE &IFTH 3TEP !NNIHILATION #AMPAIGN
!S THE OVER
ALL STRENGTH OF THE INSURGENT GROWS WHILE HIS OPPONENTS
DECREASES A BALANCE OF FORCES IS REACHED AT SOME POINT )N THE ASSESSMENT
OF THE INSURGENTS STRENGTH MUST BE INCLUDED NOT ONLY HIS MILITARY ASSETS BUT
THE SOLIDITY OF HIS POLITICAL STRUCTURE THE FACT THAT THE POPULATION IS MOBI
LIZED IN HIS AREAS THE SUBVERSIVE ACTIVITY OF HIS UNDERGROUND AGENTS IN
THE COUNTERINSURGENTS AREAS AND lNALLY THE INSURGENTS PSYCHOLOGICAL
SUPERIORITY
&ROM THEN ON THE SCOPE AND SCALE OF THE INSURGENTS OPERATIONS WILL
INCREASE SWIFTLY A SERIES OF OFFENSIVES AIMING AT THE COMPLETE DESTRUCTION
OF THE ENEMY WILL CONSTITUTE THE LAST AND lNAL STEP
!T ANY TIME DURING THE PROCESS THE INSURGENT MAY MAKE PEACE OFFERS
PROVIDED THERE IS MORE TO GAIN BY NEGOTIATING THAN BY lGHTING
4(% "/52'%/)3
.!4)/.!,)34 0!44%2.
! 3(/24#54
4HE GOAL OF THE INSURGENT IN THIS CASE IS GENERALLY LIMITED TO THE SEI
ZURE OF POWER POSTINSURGENCY PROBLEMS AS SECONDARY PREOCCUPATIONS
ARE SHELVED FOR THE TIME BEING 4HE PRECISE AND IMMEDIATE AIM OF THE
INITIAL CORE OF INSURGENTS A DEDICATED BUT INEVITABLY SMALL GROUP OF MEN
WITH NO BROAD ORGANIZATION TO BACK THEM IS TO SET UP A REVOLUTIONARY
PARTY RAPIDLY
4HE &IRST 3TEP "LIND 4ERRORISM
4HE PURPOSE IS TO GET PUBLICITY FOR THE MOVEMENT AND ITS CAUSE AND BY
FOCUSING ATTENTION ON IT TO ATTRACT LATENT SUPPORTERS 4HIS IS DONE BY RAN
DOM TERRORISM BOMBINGS ARSON ASSASSINATIONS CONDUCTED IN AS SPECTACU
LAR A FASHION AS POSSIBLE BY CONCENTRATED COORDINATED AND SYNCHRONIZED
WAVES &EW MEN ARE NEEDED FOR THIS SORT OF OPERATION !CCORDING TO
-OHAMED "OUDIAF ONE OF THE EARLY &,. LEADERS NO MORE THAN OR
!LGERIAN .ATIONALISTS TOOK PART IN THE TERRORIST ACTIONS ON $ DAY
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE HIJACKING OF A 0ORTUGUESE SHIP BY AN OPPONENT OF 0REMIER 3ALAZAR
THE TEMPORARY ABDUCTION OF A WORLD
FAMOUS RACING
CAR CHAMPION BY #AS
TROS MEN IN (AVANA HAD NO PURPOSE OTHER THAN TO ATTRACT HEADLINES
4HE 3ECOND 3TEP 3ELECTIVE 4ERRORISM
4HIS QUICKLY FOLLOWS THE lRST 4HE AIMS ARE TO ISOLATE THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT FROM THE MASSES TO INVOLVE THE POPULATION IN THE STRUGGLE AND TO
OBTAIN AS A MINIMUM ITS PASSIVE COMPLICITY
4HIS IS DONE BY KILLING IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE COUNTRY SOME OF THE
LOW
RANKING GOVERNMENT OFlCIALS WHO WORK MOST CLOSELY WITH THE POP
ULATION SUCH AS POLICEMEN MAILMEN MAYORS COUNCILMEN AND TEACH
ERS +ILLING HIGH
RANKING COUNTERINSURGENT OFlCIALS SERVES NO PURPOSE
SINCE THEY ARE TOO FAR REMOVED FROM THE POPULATION FOR THEIR DEATHS TO
SERVE AS EXAMPLES
4HE EARLY SUPPORTERS ARE SET TO WORK COLLECTING MONEY FROM THE POPULA
TION !LTHOUGH MONEY THE SINEW OF WAR IS INTERESTING IN ITSELF THIS OPERA
TION HAS IMPORTANT SIDE EFFECTS 4HE AMOUNT OF MONEY COLLECTED PROVIDES A
SIMPLE STANDARD TO GAUGE THE EFlCIENCY OF THE SUPPORTERS AND TO SELECT
LEADERS ACCORDINGLY )T ALSO IMPLICATES THE MASS AND FORCES IT TO SHOW ITS
REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT h9OU GIVE MONEY YOU ARE WITH US 9OU REFUSE MONEY
YOU ARE A TRAITORv ! FEW OF THOSE UNWILLING TO PAY ARE EXECUTED )N ORDER TO
INVOLVE THE POPULATION FURTHER SIMPLE MOTS DORDRES ARE CIRCULATED SUCH AS
hBOYCOTT TOBACCOv A FEW VIOLATORS CAUGHT SMOKING ARE EXECUTED 4HESE
ASSASSINATIONS HAVE VALUE ONLY IF THEY SERVE AS EXAMPLES THEREFORE THEY
MUST NOT BE HIDDEN OR COMMITTED ON THE SLY 4HE VICTIMS ARE GENERALLY
FOUND WITH A TAG EXPLAINING THAT THEY HAVE BEEN CONDEMNED BY A REVOLU
TIONARY TRIBUNAL AND EXECUTED FOR SUCH AND SUCH A CRIME
4HE INSURGENT HAS TO DESTROY ALL BRIDGES LINKING THE POPULATION WITH THE
COUNTERINSURGENT AND HIS POTENTIAL ALLIES !MONG THESE PEOPLE GENERALLY
THE LIBERAL
MINDED INCLINED TO SEEK A COMPROMISE WITH THE INSURGENTS WILL
BE TARGETS OF TERRORIST ATTACKS
7HEN ALL THIS IS ACHIEVED CONDITIONS ARE RIPE FOR THE INSURGENT GUERRILLAS
TO OPERATE AND FOR THE POPULATION TO BE MOBILIZED EFFECTIVELY &ROM THERE
ON THIS PATTERN REJOINS THE ORTHODOX ONE IF NECESSARY
)LLEGAL AND VIOLENT AT THE OUTSET DANGEROUS FOR THE INSURGENT BECAUSE TER
RORISM MAY BACKlRE THIS PATTERN MAY SAVE YEARS OF TEDIOUS ORGANIZATIONAL
WORK "Y TERRORISM SMALL GROUPS OF INSURGENTS HAVE BEEN CATAPULTED OVER
NIGHT TO THE TOP OF LARGE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS AND SOME HAVE WON
THEIR VICTORY AT THAT VERY TIME WITHOUT NEED FOR FURTHER ACTION (OWEVER
THE BILL IS PAID AT THE END WITH THE BITTERNESS BRED BY TERRORISM AND WITH THE
USUAL POSTVICTORY DISINTEGRATION OF A PARTY HASTILY THROWN TOGETHER
4(% ).352'%.#9 $/#42).%
65,.%2!"),)49 /& 4(% ).352'%.4 ). 4(%
/24(/$/8 0!44%2.
,ET US FOLLOW THE INSURGENT WHO HAS SELECTED THE ORTHODOX PATTERN AS HIS
COURSE OF ACTION (E OPERATES NECESSARILY IN A COUNTRY WHERE POLITICAL
OPPOSITION IS TOLERATED
$URING THE lRST TWO STEPSCREATION OF A PARTY AND ORGANIZATION OF A
UNITED FRONTHIS VULNERABILITY DEPENDS DIRECTLY ON THE TOLERANCE OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENT AND CAN BE CORRESPONDINGLY LOW OR HIGH 3OONER OR LATER
THE COUNTERINSURGENT REALIZES THE DANGER AND STARTS REACTING 4HE INSURGENTS
VULNERABILITY RISES BECAUSE HE HAS NOT YET ACQUIRED MILITARY POWER AND IS IN
NO POSITION TO RESIST BY FORCE IF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS REACTION IS FEEBLE
ENOUGH THE INSURGENT HAS SURVIVED HIS lRST TEST HAS LEARNED HOW FAR HE CAN
GO AND HIS VULNERABILITY DECREASES
)F ALL HAS PROCEEDED WELL THE INSURGENT HAS CREATED HIS PARTY AND ORGA
NIZED A POPULAR FRONT (E DECIDES NOW TO INITIATE A GUERRILLA WARFARE 3TEP
(IS MILITARY POWER IS STILL NIL OR FEEBLE WHEREAS THE FULL WEIGHT OF HIS
OPPONENTS MAY BE BROUGHT TO BEAR AGAINST HIM #ONSEQUENTLY THE INSUR
GENTS VULNERABILITY RISES SHARPLY TO ITS HIGHEST LEVEL AND HE MAY WELL BE
DESTROYED )F HE SURVIVES HIS VULNERABILITY GOES DOWN AGAIN UNTIL HE STARTS
&IGURE 6ULNERABILITY OF THE )NSURGENT IN THE #OURSE OF THE
2EVOLUTIONARY 7AR
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
ORGANIZING A REGULAR ARMY 3TEP (IS UNITS NO LONGER SMALL ELUSIVE
GUERRILLA GROUPS THEN OFFER BETTER TARGETS FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENTS CON
VENTIONAL FORCES 6ULNERABILITY INCREASES ONCE MORE !FTER THIS LAST HURDLE
IS CLEARED THE INSURGENT IS NO LONGER VULNERABLE
)F VULNERABILITY COULD BE MEASURED IT MIGHT BE GRAPHICALLY REPRESENTED
AS SHOWN IN &IGURE
65,.%2!"),)49 /& 4(% ).352'%.4 ). 4(%
3(/24#54 0!44%2.
)N THE CASE WHEN THE INSURGENT HAS CHOSEN TO FOLLOW THE BOURGEOIS
NATIONALIST PATTERN HIS VULNERABILITY STARTS FROM A LOWER LEVEL SINCE HIS
ACTION IS CLANDESTINE AT THE OUTSET )T CLIMBS RAPIDLY BECAUSE OF THE DANGER
INHERENT IN TERRORISM WHICH THE NORMAL POLICE FORCE MAY BE ABLE TO SUP
PRESS IF IT HAS NOT BEEN PLANNED AND CONDUCTED ON A SUFlCIENT SCALE 4HE
INSURGENT WHO NEEDS PUBLICITY ABOVE EVERYTHING ELSE AT THIS STAGE IS ALSO
AT THE MERCY OF A TIGHT AND PROMPT CENSORSHIP
(OWEVER SURPRISE PLAYS IN HIS FAVOR AND HE CAN COUNT ON THE FACT THAT THE
COUNTERINSURGENTS REACTION IS NEVER IMMEDIATE )F THE INSURGENT HAS SUR
VIVED THE lRST FEW DAYS OF BLIND TERRORISM HIS VULNERABILITY DECREASES
)T SOON RISES AGAIN BECAUSE THE FULL POWER OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT BEGINS
TO BE MOBILIZED AGAINST HIM THE ARMED FORCES PARTICULARLY GO INTO ACTION
MUCH SOONER THAN IN THE ORTHODOX PATTERN 6ULNERABILITY GOES UP TO A NEW
HEIGHT )F THE INSURGENT SURVIVES IT DIMINISHES PROGRESSIVELY
7HEN THE INSURGENT REACHES 3TEP GUERRILLA WARFARE AND REJOINS THE
ORTHODOX PATTERN HE IS LESS VULNERABLE THAN HE WOULD HAVE BEEN HAD HE
CHOSEN THE ORTHODOX PATTERN AT THE START BECAUSE HE HAS ALREADY SUCCESS
FULLY WITHSTOOD THE FULL BRUNT OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT REACTION
./4%3
!DDRESS AT THE 4RADE
5NION #ONFERENCE OF !SIAN AND !USTRALASIAN #OUNTRIES
0EKING .OVEMBER 4HE COLONIAL AND SEMICOLONIAL COUNTRIES COMPRISE ALL
!SIA WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE #OMMUNIST STATES ALL !FRICA AND ALL ,ATIN
!MERICA 3EE MAPS PP AND
7ITH THE RESERVATION EXPRESSED ON P ! #OMMUNIST INSURGENT MOVEMENT
MAY BE ORDERED BY THE #OMMUNIST )NTERNATIONAL TO STEP UP OR TO SLOW DOWN ITS
ACTION
4RYING TO CHEW OFF TOO MUCH TOO SOON WAS THE MISTAKE MADE BY 'ENERAL
'IAP IN 4ONKIN IN WHEN HE ATTEMPTED TO FORCE A SHOWDOWN WITH THE &RENCH
FORCES UNDER 'ENERAL DE ,ATTRE DE 4ASSIGNY 4HE RESULT WAS A COSTLY DEFEAT FOR THE
INSURGENTS
#HAPTER
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(%
#/,$ 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
&ROM THE COUNTERINSURGENTS POINT OF VIEW A REVOLUTIONARY WAR CAN BE
DIVIDED INTO TWO PERIODS
4HE hCOLD REVOLUTIONARY WAR v WHEN THE INSURGENTS ACTIVITY REMAINS ON
THE WHOLE LEGAL AND NONVIOLENT AS IN 3TEPS AND IN THE ORTHODOX
PATTERN
4HE hHOT REVOLUTIONARY WAR v WHEN THE INSURGENTS ACTIVITY BECOMES
OPENLY ILLEGAL AND VIOLENT AS IN THE OTHER STEPS IN THE ORTHODOX PATTERN
AND IN THE ENTIRE PROCESS OF THE SHORTCUT PATTERN
4HE TRANSITIONS FROM hPEACEv TO hWAR v AS WE HAVE SEEN CAN BE VERY
GRADUAL AND CONFUSING %VEN WHEN THE INSURGENT FOLLOWS THE SHORTCUT PAT
TERN VIOLENCE IS ALWAYS PRECEDED BY A SHORT PERIOD OF STIRRINGS )N !LGERIA
FOR INSTANCE THE POLICE THE ADMINISTRATION AND THE GOVERNMENT SUSPECTED
THAT SOMETHING WAS BREWING DURING THE SUMMER OF &OR ANALYTICAL
PURPOSES WE SHALL CHOOSE AS A DIVIDING LINE BETWEEN THE TWO PERIODS THE
MOMENT WHEN THE COUNTERINSURGENT ARMED FORCES ARE ORDERED TO STEP IN
AND WE SHALL APPROACH THE STUDY OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE IN CHRONO
LOGICAL ORDER STARTING WITH THE hCOLD REVOLUTIONARY WARv
4HE SITUATION AT THIS STAGE IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE FACT THAT THE INSURGENT
OPERATES LARGELY ON THE LEGAL SIDE AND ONLY PARTLY ON THE FRINGE OF LEGALITY
THROUGH HIS SUBVERSION TACTICS (E MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE BEEN RECOGNIZED
AS AN INSURGENT IF HE HAS BEEN IDENTIlED AS SUCH ONLY THE POLICE AND A FEW
PEOPLE IN THE GOVERNMENT GENERALLY REALIZE WHAT IS LOOMING
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE ESSENTIAL PROBLEM FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT STEMS FROM THE FACT THAT
THE ACTUAL DANGER WILL ALWAYS APPEAR TO THE NATION AS OUT OF PROPORTION TO THE
DEMANDS MADE BY AN ADEQUATE RESPONSE 4HE POTENTIAL DANGER IS ENORMOUS
BUT HOW TO PROVE IT ON THE BASIS OF AVAILABLE OBJECTIVE FACTS (OW TO JUSTIFY
THE EFFORTS AND SACRIlCES NEEDED TO SMOTHER THE INCIPIENT INSURGENCY 4HE
INSURGENT IF HE KNOWS HOW TO CONDUCT HIS WAR IS BANKING ON PRECISELY THIS
SITUATION AND WILL SEE TO IT THAT THE TRANSITION FROM PEACE TO WAR IS VERY
GRADUAL INDEED 4HE CASE OF !LGERIA GIVES AN EXCELLENT ILLUSTRATION OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENTS DILEMMA BECAUSE THE INSURGENT MADE AN EFFORT TO START
WITH A BIG hBANG v AND YET THE DILEMMA PERSISTED 4HE !LGERIAN REBELS WITH
PUBLICITY FOREMOST IN THEIR MINDS SET .OVEMBER AS THEIR $ DAY
3EVENTY SEPARATE ACTIONS TOOK PLACE SCATTERED ALL OVER THE TERRITORYBOMB
THROWINGS ASSASSINATIONS SABOTAGE MINOR HARASSMENTS OF ISOLATED MILITARY
POSTSALL LARGELY INEFFECTUAL !ND THEN NOTHING !CCORDING TO -OHAMED
"OUDIAF ONE OF THE CHIEF PLANNERS OF THE INSURGENCY THE RESULTS WERE
hDISASTROUS IN A LARGE PART OF !LGERIA )N THE /RAN REGION NOTABLY THE REPRES
SION WAS EXTREMELY BRUTAL AND EFlCIENT )T WAS IMPOSSIBLE FOR ME DURING
THE lRST TWO MONTHS EVEN TO ESTABLISH A LIAISON BETWEEN THE 2IF ;IN 3PANISH
-OROCCO= AND THE /RAN REGIONv 7AS IT ENOUGH TO WARRANT A MOBILIZATION
OF &RENCH RESOURCES AND ENERGY A DISRUPTION OF THE ECONOMY THE IMPOSI
TION OF A WAR STATUS ON THE COUNTRY
&OUR GENERAL COURSES OF ACTION ARE OPEN TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT UNDER
THESE CIRCUMSTANCES AND THEY ARE NOT MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE
(E MAY ACT DIRECTLY ON THE INSURGENT LEADERS
(E MAY ACT INDIRECTLY ON THE CONDITIONS THAT ARE PROPITIOUS TO AN
INSURGENCY
(E MAY INlLTRATE THE INSURGENT MOVEMENT AND TRY TO MAKE IT INEFFECTIVE
(E MAY BUILD UP OR REINFORCE HIS POLITICAL MACHINE
$)2%#4 !#4)/. !'!).34 4(% ).352'%.4
4HE DIRECT APPROACH CONSISTS OF DEPRIVING THE INSURGENT OF ANY PHYSICAL
POSSIBILITY OF BUILDING UP HIS MOVEMENT !T THIS STAGE THE INSURGENTS
MOVEMENT GENERALLY HAS NO LIFE OF ITS OWN EVERYTHING DEPENDS ON ITS LEAD
ERS WHO ARE CONSEQUENTLY THE KEY ELEMENTS "Y ARRESTING THEM OR BY
RESTRICTING THEIR ABILITY TO CONTACT PEOPLE BY IMPEACHING THEM IN THE COURTS
BY BANNING THEIR ORGANIZATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS IF NECESSARY THE COUNTER
INSURGENT MAY NIP THE INSURGENCY IN THE BUD
3UCH A METHOD IS EASY OF COURSE IN TOTALITARIAN COUNTRIES BUT IT IS HARDLY
FEASIBLE IN DEMOCRACIES /NE OF TWO SITUATIONS MAY ARISE %ITHER THE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% #/,$ 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
COUNTERINSURGENT GOVERNMENT MAY ALREADY HAVE EQUIPPED ITSELF AS A PRE
CAUTIONARY MEASURE EVEN IN THE ABSENCE OF PRESSURE WITH SPECIAL POWERS
AND LAWS DESIGNED TO COPE WITH INSURGENCIES )N THIS CASE THE MAIN PROB
LEM IS TO ACT WITHOUT GIVING UNDUE PUBLICITY TO THE INSURGENT AN IMPORTANT
MATTER PARTICULARLY IF THE INSURGENTS CAUSE HAS A WIDE POPULAR APPEAL
4HE OTHER POSSIBILITY IS THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT MAY NOT HAVE PROVIDED
HIMSELF IN ADVANCE WITH THE NECESSARY POWERS 4HUS WHEN HE ATTEMPTS TO
ACT DIRECTLY AGAINST THE INSURGENT HE OPENS A 0ANDORAS BOX !RRESTS HAVE
TO BE JUSTIlED /N WHAT BASIS 7HERE IS THE LIMIT TO BE DRAWN BETWEEN
NORMAL POLITICAL OPPOSITION ON THE ONE HAND AND SUBVERSION WHICH IS DIF
lCULT TO DElNE UNDER THE BEST CIRCUMSTANCES 4HE ARRESTED INSURGENT CAN
COUNT ALMOST AUTOMATICALLY ON SOME SUPPORT FROM THE LEGITIMATE OPPOSI
TION PARTIES AND GROUPS 2EFERRED TO THE COURTS HE WILL TAKE REFUGE IN CHI
CANERY EXPLOIT TO THE UTMOST EVERY ADVANTAGE PROVIDED BY THE EXISTING
LAWS 7ORSE YET THE TRIAL ITSELF WILL SERVE AS A SOUNDING BOARD FOR HIS CAUSE
4HE BANNED ORGANIZATIONS WILL SPRING UP AGAIN UNDER OTHER LABELS AND THE
COUNTERINSURGENT WILL BEAR THE ONUS OF PROVING THEIR TIES TO THE OLD ONES
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WILL INEVITABLY BE IMPELLED TO AMEND NORMAL PRO
CEDURES BUT THIS TIME UNDER PRESSURE 4HE DIFlCULTY CAN BE ASSESSED EASILY
WHEN ONE RECALLS THAT IT TOOK SOME TEN YEARS IN THE 5NITED 3TATES TO BAN THE
#OMMUNIST 0ARTY WHICH DID NOT EVEN HAVE ANY SIGNIlCANT APPEAL TO THE
POPULATION 3OME CONTEND AND THEY HAVE A POINT THAT IT WOULD HAVE TAKEN
LESS TIME HAD THE 0ARTY ACTUALLY APPEARED DANGEROUS
3INCE LEGAL CHANGES ARE SLOW THE COUNTERINSURGENT MAY BE TEMPTED TO GO
A STEP FURTHER AND TO ACT BEYOND THE BORDERS OF LEGALITY ! SUCCESSION OF
ARBITRARY RESTRICTIVE MEASURES WILL BE STARTED THE NATION WILL SOON lND ITSELF
UNDER CONSTRAINT OPPOSITION WILL INCREASE AND THE INSURGENT WILL THANK HIS
OPPONENT FOR HAVING PLAYED INTO HIS HANDS
)T CAN BE THEREFORE CONCLUDED WITH RELATIVE SAFETY THAT THE DIRECT APPROACH
WORKS WELL IF
4HE INSURGENTS CAUSE HAS LITTLE APPEAL BUT WE HAVE ASSUMED THAT NO WISE
INSURGENT WOULD LAUNCH AN INSURGENCY UNLESS THE PREREQUISITE OF A GOOD
CAUSE HAD BEEN FULlLLED
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS THE LEGAL POWER TO ACT
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT CAN PREVENT THE INSURGENT FROM GAINING PUBLICITY
).$)2%#4 !#4)/. !'!).34 4(% ).352'%.4
7E HAVE SEEN IN #HAPTER THAT INSURGENCY CANNOT NORMALLY DEVELOP
UNLESS TWO ESSENTIAL PREREQUISITES ARE MET THE INSURGENTS HAVING A CAUSE
AND HIS BEING HELPED INITIALLY BY THE WEAKNESS OF HIS OPPONENT 4WO OTHER
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
CONDITIONS ALTHOUGH NOT ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY ARE ALSO HELPFUL TO THE INSUR
GENT GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS AND OUTSIDE SUPPORT "Y ACTING ON THESE CONDI
TIONS A COUNTERINSURGENT COULD HOPE TO FRUSTRATE THE GROWTH OF AN INSURGENT
MOVEMENT
'EOGRAPHIC FACTORS ARE WHAT THEY ARE AND CANNOT BE SIGNIlCANTLY CHANGED
OR INmUENCED EXCEPT BY DISPLACING THE POPULATIONAN ABSURDITY IN
PEACETIMEOR BY BUILDING ARTIlCIAL FENCES WHICH IS ALSO TOO COSTLY IN
PEACETIME 4HE QUESTION OF OUTSIDE SUPPORT OFFERS MORE LEEWAY BUT RESTS
LARGELY OUTSIDE THE COUNTERINSURGENTS REACH
4O DEPRIVE THE INSURGENT OF A GOOD CAUSE AMOUNTS TO SOLVING THE COUN
TRYS BASIC PROBLEMS )F THIS IS POSSIBLE WELL AND GOOD BUT WE KNOW NOW
THAT A GOOD CAUSE FOR THE INSURGENT IS ONE THAT HIS OPPONENT CANNOT ADOPT
WITHOUT LOSING HIS POWER IN THE PROCESS !ND THERE ARE PROBLEMS THAT
ALTHOUGH PROVIDING A GOOD CAUSE TO AN INSURGENT ARE NOT SUSCEPTIBLE OF
SOLUTION )S THERE AN INTELLIGENT SOLUTION TO THE RACIAL PROBLEM IN 3OUTH
!FRICA )T WILL CONTINUE TO EXIST AS LONG AS TWO DIFFERENT RACES CONTINUE TO
LIVE IN THE SAME TERRITORY
!LLEVIATING THE WEAKNESSES IN THE COUNTERINSURGENTS RULE SEEMS MORE
PROMISING !DAPTING THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM TO THE THREAT STRENGTHENING THE
BUREAUCRACY REINFORCING THE POLICE AND THE ARMED FORCES MAY DISCOUR
AGE INSURGENCY ATTEMPTS IF THE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADERSHIP IS RESOLUTE
AND VIGILANT
).&),42!4)/. /& 4(% ).352'%.4 -/6%-%.4
!N INSURGENT MOVEMENT IN ITS INFANCY IS NECESSARILY SMALL HENCE THE
VIEWS AND ATTITUDES OF ITS MEMBERS HAVE A GREATER IMPORTANCE AT THE EARLY
PERIOD THAN AT ANY OTHER TIME 4HEY ARE ALL SO TO SPEAK GENERALS WITH NO
PRIVATES TO COMMAND (ISTORY IS FULL OF CASES OF OBSCURE POLITICAL MOVE
MENTS THAT mOUNDERED AND VANISHED SOON AFTER THEY WERE CREATED BECAUSE
THE FOUNDERS DID NOT AGREE AND SPLIT THE MOVEMENT
! YOUNG INSURGENT MOVEMENT IS NECESSARILY INEXPERIENCED AND SHOULD
BE RELATIVELY EASY TO INlLTRATE WITH AGENTS WHO WILL HELP TO DISINTEGRATE IT
FROM WITHIN AND TO DERAIL IT )F THEY DO NOT SUCCEED IN THIS THEY CAN AT LEAST
REPORT ITS ACTIVITY
4WO FAMOUS CASES OF INlLTRATION MAY BE MENTIONED )N #ZARIST 2USSIA
THE /KHRANA HAD SUCCEEDED IN INlLTRATING THE "OLSHEVIK 0ARTY TO SUCH AN
EXTENT AND WITH SUCH ZEAL THAT IT WAS SOMETIMES DIFlCULT TO TELL WHETHER THE
AGENTS WERE ACTING AS "OLSHEVIKS OR AS AGENTS ! 'RAND $UKE WAS ASSAS
SINATED IN A PROVOCATION ENGINEERED BY THE /KHRANA 7HEN THE TRIUMPHANT
"OLSHEVIKS SEIZED THE /KHRANA RECORD ,ENIN DISCOVERED THAT SOME OF HIS
MOST TRUSTED COMPANIONS HAD BEEN IN THE PAY OF THE #ZARS POLICE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% #/,$ 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
4HIS ATTEMPT WAS ULTIMATELY UNSUCCESSFUL BUT ANOTHER CASE HAS SHOWN
BETTER RESULTS SO FAR )T IS WELL KNOWN THAT THE !MERICAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY
HAS BEEN SO INlLTRATED BY THE &") AS TO HAVE BECOME INNOCUOUS
4HERE IS MUCH MERIT IN THIS IDEA BUT IT SHOULD BE REMEMBERED THAT THE
LONGER THE INSURGENT MOVEMENT LASTS THE BETTER WILL BE ITS CHANCES TO SUR
VIVE ITS INFANTILE DISEASES AND TO TAKE ROOT )T MAY OF COURSE DWINDLE BY
ITSELF WITHOUT OUTSIDE INTERVENTION 2ELYING ON LUCK HOWEVER DOES NOT
CONSTITUTE A POLICY
342%.'4(%.).' 4(% 0/,)4)#!, -!#().%
-OST OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS EFFORTS IN THE hHOTv REVOLUTIONARY WAR AS
WE SHALL SHOW TEND TO BUILD A POLITICAL MACHINE AT THE GRASS ROOTS IN ORDER
TO ISOLATE THE INSURGENT FROM THE POPULATION FOREVER
4HIS STRATEGY ON WHICH WE SHALL NOT ELABORATE NOW IS JUST AS VALID IN THE
COLD REVOLUTIONARY WAR AND IT SHOULD BE EASIER TO IMPLEMENT PREVENTIVELY
THAN WHEN THE INSURGENT HAS ALREADY SEIZED CONTROL OF THE POPULATION 3UCH
A STRATEGY TO US REPRESENTS THE PRINCIPAL COURSE OF ACTION FOR THE COUNTER
INSURGENT BECAUSE IT LEAVES THE LEAST TO CHANCE AND MAKES FULL USE OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENTS POSSIBILITIES
)T MAY BE USEFUL TO REMEMBER THAT A PEACETIME POLITICAL MACHINE IS BUILT
ESSENTIALLY ON PATRONAGE
./4%
,E -ONDE 0ARIS .OVEMBER
#HAPTER
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(%
(/4 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
&ORCE WHEN IT COMES INTO PLAY IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR HAS THE SINGULAR
VIRTUE OF CLEARING AWAY MANY DIFlCULTIES FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT NOTABLY
THE MATTER OF THE ISSUE 4HE MORAL FOG DISSIPATES SOONER OR LATER THE ENEMY
STANDS OUT MORE CONSPICUOUSLY REPRESSIVE MEASURES ARE EASIER TO JUSTIFY
"UT FORCE ADDS OF COURSE ITS OWN DIFlCULTIES
!T OUR POINT OF DEPARTURE IN THE STUDY OF THE HOT REVOLUTIONARY WARTHAT
IS THE MOMENT WHEN THE ARMED FORCES HAVE BEEN ORDERED TO STEP INTHE
SITUATION USUALLY CONFORMS TO THE FOLLOWING PATTERN
4HE INSURGENT HAS SUCCEEDED IN BUILDING HIS POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (E
DIRECTS EITHER AN ELITE PARTY LEADING A UNITED FRONT OR A LARGE REVOLUTIONARY
MOVEMENT BOUND TO THE CAUSE !LTHOUGH HIS ACTIONS OTHER THAN SUBVERSION
ARE OVERT HE OPERATES CLANDESTINELY
4HE COUNTRYS MAP REVEALS THREE SORTS OF AREAS
4HE hREDv AREAS WHERE THE INSURGENT EFFECTIVELY CONTROLS THE POPULATION
AND CARRIES OUT GUERRILLA WARFARE
4HE hPINKv AREAS IN WHICH HE ATTEMPTS TO EXPAND THERE ARE SOME EFFORTS
AT ORGANIZING THE POPULATIONS AND SOME GUERRILLA ACTIVITY
4HE hWHITEv AREAS NOT YET AFFECTED BUT NEVERTHELESS THREATENED THEY ARE
SUBJECTED TO THE INSURGENTS SUBVERSION BUT ALL SEEMS QUIET
#ONFUSION IS PREVALENT IN THE COUNTERINSURGENTS CAMP 4HERE IS A REAL
IZATION THAT AN EMERGENCY EXISTS BUT THE FEELING OF CRISIS IS MORE WIDELY
SPREAD IN GOVERNMENT CIRCLES THAN AMONG THE POPULATION OF THE WHITE AND
EVEN THE PINK AREAS 4HE TRUE ALLEGIANCE OF EVERY CITIZEN IS OPEN TO DOUBT
4HE LEADERSHIP AND ITS POLICY ARE QUESTIONED 4HE POLITICAL THE JUDICIAL THE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
MILITARY STRUCTURES GEARED FOR ORDINARY DAYS HAVE NOT YET BEEN ADAPTED TO
THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SITUATION 4HE ECONOMY IS RAPIDLY DETERIORATING
THE GOVERNMENTS EXPENSES ARE RISING WHILE ITS INCOME IS DECLINING )N THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL lELD THE INSURGENT HAS THE EDGE SINCE HE EXPLOITS A CAUSE
WITHOUT WHICH HE WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN ABLE TO DEVELOP SO FAR AS TO ENGAGE
IN GUERRILLA WARFARE OR TERRORISM 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES ARE TORN
BETWEEN THE NECESSITY OF GUARDING KEY AREAS AND lXED INSTALLATIONS OF PRO
TECTING LIVES AND PROPERTY AND THE URGE TO TRACK THE INSURGENT FORCES
7ITH THIS GENERAL PICTURE IN MIND WE SHALL NOW DISCUSS THE VARIOUS AVENUES
OPEN TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT
,!73 !.$ 02).#)0,%3 /& #/5.4%2).352'%.#9
7!2&!2%
,IMITS OF #ONVENTIONAL 7ARFARE
,ET US ASSUME THAT THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DIFlCULTIES HAVE BEEN
MAGICALLY SOLVED OR HAVE PROVED MANAGEABLE AND THAT ONLY ONE PROBLEM
REMAINS THE MILITARY ONEHOW TO SUPPRESS THE INSURGENT FORCES )T IS NOT A
PROBLEM OF MEANS SINCE THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES ARE STILL LARGELY SUPE
RIOR TO THE INSURGENTS EVEN THOUGH THEY MAY BE DISPERSED )T IS PRIMARILY A
PROBLEM OF STRATEGY AND TACTICS OF METHODS AND ORGANIZATION
4HE STRATEGY OF CONVENTIONAL WARFARE PRESCRIBES THE CONQUEST OF THE ENE
MYS TERRITORY THE DESTRUCTION OF HIS FORCES 4HE TROUBLE HERE IS THAT THE
ENEMY HOLDS NO TERRITORY AND REFUSES TO lGHT FOR IT (E IS EVERYWHERE AND
NOWHERE "Y CONCENTRATING SUFlCIENT FORCES THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAN AT
ANY TIME PENETRATE AND GARRISON A RED AREA 3UCH AN OPERATION IF WELL SUS
TAINED MAY REDUCE GUERRILLA ACTIVITY BUT IF THE SITUATION BECOMES UNTEN
ABLE FOR THE GUERRILLAS THEY WILL TRANSFER THEIR ACTIVITY TO ANOTHER AREA AND
THE PROBLEM REMAINS UNSOLVED )T MANY EVEN BE AGGRAVATED IF THE COUNTER
INSURGENTS CONCENTRATION WAS MADE AT TOO GREAT RISK FOR THE OTHER AREAS
4HE DESTRUCTION OF THE INSURGENT FORCES REQUIRES THAT THEY BE LOCALIZED
AND IMMEDIATELY ENCIRCLED "UT THEY ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SPOTTED EASILY BY
THE COUNTERINSURGENTS DIRECT MEANS OF OBSERVATION )NTELLIGENCE IS THE
PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF INFORMATION ON GUERRILLAS AND INTELLIGENCE HAS TO COME
FROM THE POPULATION BUT THE POPULATION WILL NOT TALK UNLESS IT FEELS SAFE
AND IT DOES NOT FEEL SAFE UNTIL THE INSURGENTS POWER HAS BEEN BROKEN
4HE INSURGENT FORCES ARE ALSO TOO MOBILE TO BE ENCIRCLED AND ANNIHILATED
EASILY )F THE COUNTERINSURGENT ON RECEIVING NEWS THAT GUERRILLAS HAVE BEEN
SPOTTED USES HIS READY FORCES IMMEDIATELY CHANCES ARE THEY WILL BE TOO
SMALL FOR THE TASK )F HE GATHERS LARGER FORCES HE WILL HAVE LOST TIME AND
PROBABLY THE BENElT OF SURPRISE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% (/4 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
4RUE MODERN MEANS OF TRANSPORTATIONPARTICULARLY HELICOPTERS WHEN
AVAILABLEALLOW THE COUNTERINSURGENT TO COMBINE STRENGTH WITH SWIFTNESS
4RUE SYSTEMATIC LARGE SCALE OPERATIONS BECAUSE OF THEIR VERY SIZE ALLEVI
ATE SOMEWHAT THE INTELLIGENCE AND MOBILITY DElCIENCY OF THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT .EVERTHELESS CONVENTIONAL OPERATIONS BY THEMSELVES HAVE AT BEST NO
MORE EFFECT THAN A mY SWATTER 3OME GUERRILLAS ARE BOUND TO BE CAUGHT BUT
NEW RECRUITS WILL REPLACE THEM AS FAST AS THEY ARE LOST )F THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT OPERATIONS ARE SUSTAINED OVER A PERIOD OF MONTHS THE GUERRILLA LOSSES
MAY NOT BE SO EASILY REPLACED 4HE QUESTION IS CAN THE COUNTERINSURGENT
OPERATIONS BE SO SUSTAINED
)T THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS SO STRONG AS TO BE ABLE TO SATURATE THE ENTIRE
COUNTRY WITH GARRISONS MILITARY OPERATIONS ALONG CONVENTIONAL LINES WILL
OF COURSE WORK 4HE INSURGENT UNABLE TO GROW BEYOND A CERTAIN LEVEL WILL
SLOWLY WITHER AWAY "UT SATURATION CAN SELDOM BE AFFORDED
7HY )NSURGENCY 7ARFARE $OES .OT 7ORK FOR THE
#OUNTERINSURGENT
)NSURGENCY WARFARE IS SPECIlCALLY DESIGNED TO ALLOW THE CAMP AFmICTED
WITH CONGENITAL WEAKNESS TO ACQUIRE STRENGTH PROGRESSIVELY WHILE lGHTING
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT IS ENDOWED WITH CONGENITAL STRENGTH FOR HIM TO
ADOPT THE INSURGENTS WARFARE WOULD BE THE SAME AS FOR A GIANT TO TRY TO lT
INTO A DWARFS CLOTHING (OW AGAINST WHOM FOR INSTANCE COULD HE USE HIS
ENEMYS TACTICS (E ALONE OFFERS TARGETS FOR GUERRILLA OPERATIONS 7ERE HE
TO OPERATE AS A GUERRILLA HE WOULD HAVE TO HAVE THE EFFECTIVE SUPPORT OF THE
POPULATION GUARANTEED BY HIS OWN POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AMONG THE MASSES
IF SO THEN THE INSURGENT WOULD NOT HAVE IT AND CONSEQUENTLY COULD NOT
EXIST THERE WOULD BE NO NEED FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENTS GUERRILLA OPERA
TIONS 4HIS IS NOT TO SAY THAT THERE IS NO PLACE IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE
FOR SMALL COMMANDO
TYPE OPERATIONS 4HEY CANNOT HOWEVER REPRESENT THE
MAIN FORM OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS WARFARE
)S IT POSSIBLE FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT TO ORGANIZE A CLANDESTINE FORCE
ABLE TO DEFEAT THE INSURGENT ON HIS OWN TERMS #LANDESTINITY SEEMS TO BE
ANOTHER OF THOSE OBLIGATIONS
TURNED
INTO
ASSETS OF THE INSURGENT (OW
COULD THE COUNTERINSURGENT WHOSE STRENGTH DERIVES PRECISELY FROM HIS
OPEN PHYSICAL ASSETS BUILD UP A CLANDESTINE FORCE EXCEPT AS A MINOR AND
SECONDARY ADJUNCT &URTHERMORE ROOM FOR CLANDESTINE ORGANIZATIONS IS
VERY LIMITED IN REVOLUTIONARY WAR %XPERIENCE SHOWS THAT NO RIVALNOT TO
SPEAK OF HOSTILECLANDESTINE MOVEMENTS CAN COEXIST FOR LONG ONE IS
ALWAYS ABSORBED BY THE OTHER 4HE #HINESE #OMMUNIST MAQUIS SUC
CEEDED IN SUPPRESSING ALMOST ENTIRELY THEIR .ATIONALIST COUNTERPARTS IN
THE *APANESE
OCCUPIED AREAS OF NORTH AND CENTRAL #HINA ,ATER ON DURING
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
THE lNAL ROUND OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN #HINA ORDINARY BANDITS ALMOST
A REGULAR AND CODIlED PROFESSION IN SOME PARTS OF #HINA DISAPPEARED AS
SOON AS #OMMUNIST GUERRILLAS CAME 4ITO ELIMINATED -IKHAILOVITCH )F
THE 'REEK #OMMUNIST %,!3 DID NOT ELIMINATE THE .ATIONALIST RESISTANCE
GROUPS IT WAS DUE TO THE RESTRAINT THEY HAD TO SHOW SINCE THEY WERE
ENTIRELY DEPENDENT ON THE 7ESTERN !LLIES SUPPORT -ORE RECENTLY THE
&,. IN !LGERIA ELIMINATED FOR ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES THE RIVAL AND OLDER
-.! GROUP "ECAUSE THE INSURGENT HAS lRST OCCUPIED THE AVAILABLE ROOM
ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE ANOTHER CLANDESTINE MOVEMENT HAVE LITTLE CHANCE TO
SUCCEED
#AN THE COUNTERINSURGENT USE TERRORISM TOO )T WOULD BE SELF
DEFEATING
SINCE TERRORISM IS A SOURCE OF DISORDER WHICH IS PRECISELY WHAT THE COUNTER
INSURGENT AIMS TO STOP
)F CONVENTIONAL WARFARE DOES NOT WORK IF INSURGENCY WARFARE CANNOT
WORK THE INESCAPABLE CONCLUSION IS THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST APPLY A
WARFARE OF HIS OWN THAT TAKES INTO ACCOUNT NOT ONLY THE NATURE AND CHARAC
TERISTICS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR BUT ALSO THE LAWS THAT ARE PECULIAR TO
COUNTERINSURGENCY AND THE PRINCIPLES DERIVING FROM THEM
4HE &IRST ,AW 4HE 3UPPORT OF THE 0OPULATION )S AS
.ECESSARY FOR THE #OUNTERINSURGENT AS FOR THE )NSURGENT
7HAT IS THE CRUX OF THE PROBLEM FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT )T IS NOT HOW
TO CLEAN AN AREA 7E HAVE SEEN THAT HE CAN ALWAYS CONCENTRATE ENOUGH
FORCES TO DO IT EVEN IF HE HAS TO TAKE SOME RISK IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE THE NEC
ESSARY CONCENTRATION 4HE PROBLEM IS HOW TO KEEP AN AREA CLEAN SO THAT THE
COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES WILL BE FREE TO OPERATE ELSEWHERE
4HIS CAN BE ACHIEVED ONLY WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION )F IT IS
RELATIVELY EASY TO DISPERSE AND TO EXPEL THE INSURGENT FORCES FROM A GIVEN
AREA BY PURELY MILITARY ACTION IF IT IS POSSIBLE TO DESTROY THE INSURGENT
POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS BY INTENSIVE POLICE ACTION IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO PRE
VENT THE RETURN OF THE GUERRILLA UNITS AND THE REBUILDING OF THE POLITICAL CELLS
UNLESS THE POPULATION COOPERATES
4HE POPULATION THEREFORE BECOMES THE OBJECTIVE FOR THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT AS IT WAS FOR HIS ENEMY )TS TACIT SUPPORT ITS SUBMISSION TO LAW AND
ORDER ITS CONSENSUSTAKEN FOR GRANTED IN NORMAL TIMESHAVE BEEN UNDER
MINED BY THE INSURGENTS ACTIVITY !ND THE TRUTH IS THAT THE INSURGENT WITH
HIS ORGANIZATION AT THE GRASS ROOTS IS TACTICALLY THE STRONGEST OF OPPONENTS
WHERE IT COUNTS AT THE POPULATION LEVEL
4HIS IS WHERE THE lGHT HAS TO BE CONDUCTED IN SPITE OF THE COUNTERINSUR
GENTS IDEOLOGICAL HANDICAP AND IN SPITE OF THE HEAD START GAINED BY THE
INSURGENT IN ORGANIZING THE POPULATION
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% (/4 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
4HE 3ECOND ,AW 3UPPORT )S 'AINED 4HROUGH AN !CTIVE
-INORITY
4HE ORIGINAL PROBLEM BECOMES NOW HOW TO OBTAIN THE SUPPORT OF THE
POPULATIONSUPPORT NOT ONLY IN THE FORM OF SYMPATHY AND APPROVAL BUT
ALSO IN ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE lGHT AGAINST THE INSURGENT
4HE ANSWER LIES IN THE FOLLOWING PROPOSITION WHICH SIMPLY EXPRESSES
THE BASIC TENET OF THE EXERCISE OF POLITICAL POWER
)N ANY SITUATION WHATEVER THE CAUSE THERE WILL BE AN ACTIVE MINORITY FOR
THE CAUSE A NEUTRAL MAJORITY AND AN ACTIVE MINORITY AGAINST THE CAUSE
4HE TECHNIQUE OF POWER CONSISTS IN RELYING ON THE FAVORABLE MINORITY IN
ORDER TO RALLY THE NEUTRAL MAJORITY AND TO NEUTRALIZE OR ELIMINATE THE HOSTILE
MINORITY
)N EXTREME CASES WHEN THE CAUSE AND THE CIRCUMSTANCES ARE EXTRAORDI
NARILY GOOD OR BAD ONE OF THE MINORITIES DISAPPEARS OR BECOMES NEGLIGIBLE
AND THERE MAY EVEN BE A SOLID UNANIMITY FOR OR AGAINST AMONG THE POPULA
TION "UT SUCH CASES ARE OBVIOUSLY RARE
4HIS HOLDS TRUE FOR EVERY POLITICAL REGIME FROM THE HARSHEST DICTATORSHIP
TO THE MILDEST DEMOCRACY 7HAT VARIES IS THE DEGREE AND THE PURPOSE TO
WHICH IT IS APPLIED -ORES AND THE CONSTITUTION MAY IMPOSE LIMITATIONS THE
PURPOSE MAY BE GOOD OR BAD BUT THE LAW REMAINS ESSENTIALLY VALID WHAT
EVER THE VARIATIONS AND THEY CAN INDEED BE GREAT FOR THE LAW IS APPLIED
UNCONSCIOUSLY IN MOST COUNTRIES
)T CAN NO LONGER BE IGNORED OR APPLIED UNCONSCIOUSLY IN A COUNTRY BESET
BY A REVOLUTIONARY WAR WHEN WHAT IS AT STAKE IS PRECISELY THE COUNTERINSUR
GENTS POWER DIRECTLY CHALLENGED BY AN ACTIVE MINORITY THROUGH THE USE OF
SUBVERSION AND FORCE 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WHO REFUSES TO USE THIS LAW FOR
HIS OWN PURPOSES WHO IS BOUND BY ITS PEACETIME LIMITATIONS TENDS TO DRAG
THE WAR OUT WITHOUT GETTING CLOSER TO VICTORY
(OW FAR TO EXTEND THE LIMITATIONS IS A MATTER OF ETHICS AND A VERY SERI
OUS ONE BUT NO MORE SO THAN BOMBING THE CIVILIAN POPULATION IN A CON
VENTIONAL WAR !LL WARS ARE CRUEL THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR PERHAPS MOST OF
ALL BECAUSE EVERY CITIZEN WHATEVER HIS WISH IS OR WILL BE DIRECTLY AND
ACTIVELY INVOLVED IN IT BY THE INSURGENT WHO NEEDS HIM AND CANNOT AFFORD
TO LET HIM REMAIN NEUTRAL 4HE CRUELTY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IS NOT A
MASS ANONYMOUS CRUELTY BUT A HIGHLY PERSONALIZED INDIVIDUAL ONE .O
GREATER CRIME CAN BE COMMITTED BY THE COUNTERINSURGENT THAN ACCEPTING
OR RESIGNING HIMSELF TO THE PROTRACTION OF THE WAR (E WOULD DO AS WELL
TO GIVE UP EARLY
4HE STRATEGIC PROBLEM OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT MAY BE DElNED NOW AS
FOLLOWS h4O lND THE FAVORABLE MINORITY TO ORGANIZE IT IN ORDER TO MOBILIZE
THE POPULATION AGAINST THE INSURGENT MINORITYv %VERY OPERATION WHETHER
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
IN THE MILITARY lELD OR IN THE POLITICAL SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
lELDS MUST BE GEARED TO THAT END
4O BE SURE THE BETTER THE CAUSE AND THE SITUATION THE LARGER WILL BE THE
ACTIVE MINORITY FAVORABLE TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT AND THE EASIER ITS TASK
4HIS TRUISM DICTATES THE MAIN GOAL OF THE PROPAGANDATO SHOW THAT THE
CAUSE AND THE SITUATION OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT ARE BETTER THAN THE INSUR
GENTS -ORE IMPORTANT IT UNDERLINES THE NECESSITY FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT
TO COME OUT WITH AN ACCEPTABLE COUNTERCAUSE
6ICTORY IN #OUNTERINSURGENCY 7ARFARE
7E CAN NOW DElNE NEGATIVELY AND POSITIVELY WHAT IS A VICTORY FOR THE
COUNTERINSURGENT
! VICTORY IS NOT THE DESTRUCTION IN A GIVEN AREA OF THE INSURGENTS FORCES
AND HIS POLITICAL ORGANIZATION )F ONE IS DESTROYED IT WILL BE LOCALLY RE
CREATED
BY THE OTHER IF BOTH ARE DESTROYED THEY WILL BOTH BE RE
CREATED BY A NEW
FUSION OF INSURGENTS FROM THE OUTSIDE ! NEGATIVE EXAMPLE THE NUMEROUS
MOPPING
UP OPERATIONS BY THE &RENCH IN THE 0LAIN OF 2EEDS IN #OCHINCHINA
ALL THROUGH THE )NDOCHINA 7AR
! VICTORY IS THAT PLUS THE PERMANENT ISOLATION OF THE INSURGENT FROM THE
POPULATION ISOLATION NOT ENFORCED UPON THE POPULATION BUT MAINTAINED BY
AND WITH THE POPULATION ! POSITIVE EXAMPLE THE DEFEAT OF THE &,. IN THE
/RAN REGION IN !LGERIA IN n )N THIS REGION WHICH COVERS AT LEAST A
THIRD OF THE !LGERIAN TERRITORY &,. ACTIONSCOUNTING EVERYTHING FROM A
GRENADE THROWN IN A CAFÏ TO CUTTING A TELEPHONE POLEHAD DWINDLED TO AN
AVERAGE OF TWO A DAY
3UCH A VICTORY MAY BE INDIRECT IT IS NONETHELESS DECISIVE UNLESS OF COURSE
AS IN !LGERIA THE POLITICAL GOAL OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT GOVERNMENT CHANGES
4HE 4HIRD ,AW 3UPPORT FROM THE 0OPULATION )S #ONDITIONAL
/NCE THE INSURGENT HAS ESTABLISHED HIS HOLD OVER THE POPULATION THE MINOR
ITY THAT WAS HOSTILE TO HIM BECOMES INVISIBLE 3OME OF ITS MEMBERS HAVE BEEN
ELIMINATED PHYSICALLY THEREBY PROVIDING AN EXAMPLE TO THE OTHERS OTHERS
HAVE ESCAPED ABROAD MOST HAVE BEEN COWED INTO HIDING THEIR TRUE FEELINGS
AND HAVE THUS MELTED WITHIN THE MAJORITY OF THE POPULATION A FEW ARE EVEN
MAKING A SHOW OF THEIR SUPPORT FOR THE INSURGENCY 4HE POPULATION WATCHED
BY THE ACTIVE SUPPORTERS OF THE INSURGENCY LIVES UNDER THE THREAT OF DENUNCIA
TION TO THE POLITICAL CELLS AND PROMPT PUNISHMENT BY THE GUERRILLA UNITS
4HE MINORITY HOSTILE TO THE INSURGENT WILL NOT AND CANNOT EMERGE AS LONG
AS THE THREAT HAS NOT BEEN LIFTED TO A REASONABLE EXTENT &URTHERMORE EVEN
AFTER THE THREAT HAS BEEN LIFTED THE EMERGING COUNTERINSURGENT SUPPORTERS
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% (/4 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
WILL NOT BE ABLE TO RALLY THE BULK OF THE POPULATION SO LONG AS THE POPULATION
IS NOT CONVINCED THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS THE WILL THE MEANS AND THE
ABILITY TO WIN 7HEN A MANS LIFE IS AT STAKE IT TAKES MORE THAN PROPAGANDA
TO BUDGE HIM
&OUR DEDUCTIONS CAN BE MADE FROM THIS LAW %FFECTIVE POLITICAL ACTION ON
THE POPULATION MUST BE PRECEDED BY MILITARY AND POLICE OPERATIONS AGAINST
THE GUERRILLA UNITS AND THE INSURGENT POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
0OLITICAL SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND OTHER REFORMS HOWEVER MUCH THEY OUGHT TO
BE WANTED AND POPULAR ARE INOPERATIVE WHEN OFFERED WHILE THE INSURGENT STILL
CONTROLS THE POPULATION !N ATTEMPT AT LAND REFORM IN !LGERIA IN FELL mAT
WHEN THE &,. ASSASSINATED SOME -OSLEM PEASANTS WHO HAD RECEIVED LAND
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT NEEDS A CONVINCING SUCCESS AS EARLY AS POSSIBLE IN
ORDER TO DEMONSTRATE THAT HE HAS THE WILL THE MEANS AND THE ABILITY TO WIN
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT SAFELY ENTER INTO NEGOTIATIONS EXCEPT
FROM A POSITION OF STRENGTH OR HIS POTENTIAL SUPPORTERS WILL mOCK TO THE
INSURGENT SIDE
)N CONVENTIONAL WARFARE STRENGTH IS ASSESSED ACCORDING TO MILITARY OR
OTHER TANGIBLE CRITERIA SUCH AS THE NUMBER OF DIVISIONS THE POSITION THEY
HOLD THE INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES ETC )N REVOLUTIONARY WARFARE STRENGTH MUST
BE ASSESSED BY THE EXTENT OF SUPPORT FROM THE POPULATION AS MEASURED IN
TERMS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AT THE GRASS ROOTS 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT
REACHES A POSITION OF STRENGTH WHEN HIS POWER IS EMBODIED IN A POLITICAL
ORGANIZATION ISSUING FROM AND lRMLY SUPPORTED BY THE POPULATION
4HE &OURTH ,AW )NTENSITY OF %FFORTS AND 6ASTNESS OF
-EANS !RE %SSENTIAL
4HE OPERATIONS NEEDED TO RELIEVE THE POPULATION FROM THE INSURGENTS
THREAT AND TO CONVINCE IT THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT WILL ULTIMATELY WIN ARE
NECESSARILY OF AN INTENSIVE NATURE AND OF LONG DURATION 4HEY REQUIRE A
LARGE CONCENTRATION OF EFFORTS RESOURCES AND PERSONNEL
4HIS MEANS THAT THE EFFORTS CANNOT BE DILUTED ALL OVER THE COUNTRY BUT
MUST BE APPLIED SUCCESSIVELY AREA BY AREA
342!4%'9 /& 4(% #/5.4%2).352'%.#9
4RANSLATED INTO A GENERAL STRATEGY THE PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM THESE FEW
LAWS SUGGEST THE FOLLOWING STEP
BY
STEP PROCEDURE
)N A 3ELECTED !REA
#ONCENTRATE ENOUGH ARMED FORCES TO DESTROY OR TO EXPEL THE MAIN BODY OF
ARMED INSURGENTS
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
$ETACH FOR THE AREA SUFlCIENT TROOPS TO OPPOSE AN INSURGENTS COMEBACK
IN STRENGTH INSTALL THESE TROOPS IN THE HAMLETS VILLAGES AND TOWNS WHERE
THE POPULATION LIVES
%STABLISH CONTACT WITH THE POPULATION CONTROL ITS MOVEMENTS IN ORDER TO
CUT OFF ITS LINKS WITH THE GUERRILLAS
$ESTROY THE LOCAL INSURGENT POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
3ET UP BY MEANS OF ELECTIONS NEW PROVISIONAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES
4EST THESE AUTHORITIES BY ASSIGNING THEM VARIOUS CONCRETE TASKS 2EPLACE
THE SOFTS AND THE INCOMPETENTS GIVE FULL SUPPORT TO THE ACTIVE LEADERS
/RGANIZE SELF
DEFENSE UNITS
'ROUP AND EDUCATE THE LEADERS IN A NATIONAL POLITICAL MOVEMENT
7IN OVER OR SUPPRESS THE LAST INSURGENT REMNANTS
/RDER HAVING BEEN RE ESTABLISHED IN THE AREA THE PROCESS MAY BE REPEATED
ELSEWHERE )T IS NOT NECESSARY FOR THAT MATTER TO WAIT UNTIL THE LAST POINT HAS
BEEN COMPLETED
4HE OPERATIONS OUTLINED ABOVE WILL BE STUDIED IN MORE DETAIL BUT LET US
lRST DISCUSS THIS STRATEGY ,IKE EVERY SIMILAR CONCEPT THIS ONE MAY BE
SOUND IN THEORY BUT DANGEROUS WHEN APPLIED RIGIDLY TO A SPECIlC CASE )T IS
DIFlCULT HOWEVER TO DENY ITS LOGIC BECAUSE THE LAWSOR SHALL WE SAY THE
FACTSON WHICH IT IS BASED CAN BE EASILY RECOGNIZED IN EVERYDAY POLITICAL
LIFE AND IN EVERY RECENT REVOLUTIONARY WAR
4HIS STRATEGY IS ALSO DESIGNED TO COPE WITH THE WORST CASE THAT CAN CONFRONT
A COUNTERINSURGENT IE SUPPRESSING AN INSURGENCY IN WHAT WAS CALLED A hREDv
AREA WHERE THE INSURGENT IS ALREADY IN FULL CONTROL OF THE POPULATION 3OME OF
THE OPERATIONS SUGGESTED CAN OBVIOUSLY BE SKIPPED IN THE hPINKv AREAS MOST
CAN BE SKIPPED IN THE hWHITEv ONES (OWEVER THE GENERAL ORDER IN WHICH THEY
MUST BE CONDUCTED CANNOT BE TAMPERED WITH UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS WITHOUT
VIOLATING THE PRINCIPLES OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE AND OF PLAIN COMMON
SENSE &OR INSTANCE SMALL DETACHMENTS OF TROOPS CANNOT BE INSTALLED IN VIL
LAGES SO LONG AS THE INSURGENT IS ABLE TO GATHER A SUPERIOR FORCE AND TO OVER
POWER A DETACHMENT IN A SURPRISE ATTACK 3TEP OBVIOUSLY HAS TO COME AFTER
3TEP .OR CAN ELECTIONS BE STAGED WHEN THE INSURGENT CELLS STILL EXIST FOR THE
ELECTIONS WOULD MOST LIKELY BRING FORTH THE INSURGENTS STOOGES
%CONOMY OF &ORCES
"ECAUSE THESE OPERATIONS ARE SPREAD IN TIME THEY CAN BE SPREAD IN SPACE
4HIS STRATEGY THUS CONFORMS WITH THE PRINCIPLE OF ECONOMY OF FORCES A VITAL
ONE IN A WAR WHERE THE INSURGENT NEEDS SO LITTLE TO ACHIEVE SO MUCH WHEREAS
THE COUNTERINSURGENT NEEDS SO MUCH TO ACHIEVE SO LITTLE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% (/4 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
7HILE A MAIN EFFORT IS MADE IN THE SELECTED AREA NECESSARILY AT SOME RISK
TO THE OTHER AREAS WHAT RESULTS CAN THE COUNTERINSURGENT LEGITIMATELY EXPECT
FROM HIS OPERATIONS IN THESE OTHER AREAS 4O PREVENT THE INSURGENT FROM
DEVELOPING INTO A HIGHER FORM OF WARFARE THAT IS TO SAY FROM ORGANIZING A
REGULAR ARMY 4HIS OBJECTIVE IS FULlLLED WHEN THE INSURGENT IS DENIED SAFE
BASES AND IT CAN BE ACHIEVED BY PURELY CONVENTIONAL RAIDS THAT DO NOT TIE
DOWN LARGE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES
4HROUGH THIS STRATEGY INSURGENCY CAN BE ROLLED BACK WITH INCREASED
STRENGTH AND MOMENTUM FOR AS SOON AS AN AREA HAS BEEN MADE SAFE IMPOR
TANT FORCES CAN BE WITHDRAWN AND TRANSFERRED TO THE NEIGHBORING AREAS
SWOLLEN WITH LOCALLY RECRUITED LOYAL AND TESTED PERSONNEL 4HE TRANSFER OF
TROOPS CAN BEGIN AS SOON AS THE lRST STEP IS CONCLUDED
)RREVERSIBILITY
4HE MYTH OF 3ISYPHUS IS A RECURRENT NIGHTMARE FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT
"Y FOLLOWING THE STRATEGY JUST OUTLINED THE COUNTERINSURGENT INTRODUCES
SOME MEASURE OF IRREVERSIBILITY IN HIS OPERATIONS 7HEN TROOPS LIVE AMONG
THE POPULATION AND GIVE IT PROTECTION UNTIL THE POPULATION IS ABLE TO PROTECT
ITSELF WITH A MINIMUM OF OUTSIDE SUPPORT THE INSURGENTS POWER CANNOT
EASILY BE REBUILT AND THIS IN ITSELF IS NO MEAN ACHIEVEMENT "UT THE TURNING
POINT REALLY COMES WHEN LEADERS HAVE EMERGED FROM THE POPULATION AND
HAVE COMMITTED THEMSELVES ON THE SIDE OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT 4HEY CAN
BE COUNTED UPON BECAUSE THEY HAVE PROVED THEIR LOYALTY IN DEEDS AND NOT
IN WORDS AND BECAUSE THEY HAVE EVERYTHING TO LOSE FROM A RETURN OF THE
INSURGENTS
)NITIATIVE
4HIS IS AN OFFENSIVE STRATEGY AND IT INEVITABLY AIMS AT REGAINING THE INITIA
TIVE FROM THE INSURGENT /N THE NATIONAL SCALE THIS IS SO BECAUSE THE COUN
TERINSURGENT IS FREE TO SELECT THE AREA OF MAIN EFFORT AS SOON AS HE DOES IT HE
NO LONGER SUBMITS HIMSELF TO THE INSURGENTS WILL )T IS SO EQUALLY ON THE
LOCAL SCALE BECAUSE HE CONFRONTS THE INSURGENT WITH A DILEMMA ACCEPTING
THE CHALLENGE AND THUS A DEFENSIVE POSTURE OR LEAVING THE AREA AND BEING
POWERLESS TO OPPOSE THE COUNTERINSURGENTS ACTION ON THE POPULATION
)N CONVENTIONAL WARFARE WHEN THE "LUES ATTACK THE 2EDS ON 0OINT
! THE 2EDS CAN RELIEVE THE PRESSURE BY ATTACKING THE "LUES ON 0OINT "
AND THE "LUES CANNOT ESCAPE THE COUNTERPRESSURE )N REVOLUTIONARY WAR
FARE WHEN THE INSURGENT EXERTS PRESSURE IN !REA ! THE COUNTERINSURGENT
CANNOT RELIEVE THE PRESSURE BY ATTACKING THE INSURGENT ON !REA " 4HE
INSURGENT SIMPLY REFUSES TO ACCEPT THE lGHT AND HE CAN REFUSE BECAUSE OF
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
HIS mUIDITY 4HE #HINESE .ATIONALISTS OFFENSIVE AGAINST 9ENAN IN IS
AN EXAMPLE WHEN THE 6IETMINH STARTED PRESSING AGAINST $IEN "IEN 0HU IN
NORTHEASTERN )NDOCHINA THE &RENCH COMMAND LAUNCHED /PERATION !TLANTE
AGAINST THE 6IETMINH AREAS IN #ENTRAL 6IETNAM !TLANTE HAD NO EFFECT ON
THE OTHER BATTLE
(OWEVER WHEN THE COUNTERINSURGENT APPLIES PRESSURE NOT ON THE INSUR
GENT DIRECTLY BUT ON THE POPULATION WHICH IS THE INSURGENTS REAL SOURCE OF
STRENGTH THE INSURGENT CANNOT SO FREELY REFUSE THE lGHT BECAUSE HE COURTS
DEFEAT
&ULL 5TILIZATION OF THE #OUNTERINSURGENTS !SSETS
)F THE INSURGENT IS mUID THE POPULATION IS NOT "Y CONCENTRATING HIS
EFFORTS ON THE POPULATION THE COUNTERINSURGENT MINIMIZES HIS RIGIDITY AND
MAKES FULL USE OF HIS ASSETS (IS ADMINISTRATIVE CAPABILITIES HIS ECONOMIC
RESOURCES HIS INFORMATION AND PROPAGANDA MEDIA HIS MILITARY SUPERIORITY
DUE TO HEAVY WEAPONS AND LARGE UNITS ALL OF WHICH ARE CUMBERSOME AND
RELATIVELY USELESS AGAINST THE ELUSIVE INSURGENT RECOVER THEIR FULL VALUE
WHEN APPLIED TO THE TASK OF OBTAINING THE SUPPORT OF A STATIC POPULATION
7HAT DOES IT MATTER IF THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS UNABLE ON THE WHOLE TO RUN
AS FAST AS THE INSURGENT 7HAT COUNTS IS THE FACT THAT THE INSURGENT CANNOT
DISLODGE A BETTER
ARMED DETACHMENT OF COUNTERINSURGENTS FROM A VILLAGE OR
CANNOT HARASS IT ENOUGH TO MAKE THE COUNTERINSURGENT UNABLE TO DEVOTE
MOST OF HIS ENERGY TO THE POPULATION
3IMPLICITY
7HY IS THERE SO LITTLE INTELLECTUAL CONFUSION IN CONVENTIONAL WARFARE
WHILE THERE HAS BEEN SO MUCH IN THE PAST COUNTERINSURGENCIES 4WO EXPLA
NATIONS MAY BE ADVANCED 7HEN A CONVENTIONAL WAR STARTS THE ABRUPT TRAN
SITION FROM PEACE TO WAR AND THE VERY NATURE OF THE WAR CLARIFY MOST OF THE
PROBLEMS FOR THE CONTENDING SIDES PARTICULARLY FOR THE DEFENDER 4HE ISSUE
WHATEVER IT WAS BECOMES NOW A MATTER OF DEFEATING THE ENEMY 4HE OBJEC
TIVE INSOFAR AS IT IS ESSENTIALLY MILITARY IS THE DESTRUCTION OF HIS FORCES AND
THE OCCUPATION OF HIS TERRITORY SUCH AN OBJECTIVE PROVIDES CLEAR
CUT CRITERIA
TO ASSESS GAINS STAGNATION OR LOSSES 4HE WAY TO REACH IT IS BY MILITARY
ACTION SUPPORTED BY DIPLOMACY AND ECONOMIC BLOCKADE 4HE NATIONAL
ORGANIZATION FOR WAR IS SIMPLE 4HE GOVERNMENT DIRECTS THE MILITARY EXE
CUTES THE NATION PROVIDES THE TOOLS
7E HAVE SEEN THAT THIS CANNOT BE THE CASE IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE
4RANSITION FROM PEACE TO WAR IS VERY GRADUAL THE ISSUE IS NEVER CLEAR THE
OBJECTIVE IS THE POPULATION MILITARY AND POLITICAL ACTIONS CANNOT BE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 ). 4(% (/4 2%6/,54)/.!29 7!2
SEPARATED AND MILITARY ACTIONESSENTIAL THOUGH IT ISCANNOT BE THE MAIN
FORM OF ACTION
#ONVENTIONAL WARFARE HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY ANALYZED IN THE COURSE OF
CENTURIESINDEED FOR ALMOST THE ENTIRE EXTENT OF RECORDED HISTORYAND
THE PROCESS OF BATTLE HAS BEEN SLICED INTO DISTINCT PHASES MARCH TOWARD
THE ENEMY CONTACT WITH THE ENEMY TEST OF THE ENEMYS STRENGTH ATTACK
EXPLOITATION OF SUCCESS EVENTUALLY RETREAT ETC 4HE STUDENT LEARNS IN MIL
ITARY SCHOOLS WHAT HE HAS TO DO IN EACH PHASE ACCORDING TO THE LATEST
DOCTRINE &IELD GAMES ARE STAGED TO GIVE HIM PRACTICAL TRAINING IN THE
MANEUVERS HE MAY HAVE TO CONDUCT 7HEN HE IS IN THE lELD UNDER ACTUAL
WAR CONDITIONS HIS INTELLECTUAL PROBLEM AMOUNTS TO DETERMINING WHICH
PHASE OF THE BATTLE HE lNDS HIMSELF IN THEN HE APPLIES TO HIS PARTICULAR
SITUATION THE GENERAL RULES GOVERNING THE PHASE (IS TALENT HIS JUDGMENT
COME INTO PLAY ONLY HERE
4HIS HAS NOT YET BEEN DONE FOR COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE 7HO INDEED
HAS HEARD OF lELD GAMES INVOLVING THE TASK OF WINNING THE SUPPORT OF THE
POPULATION WHEN SUCH A TASK WHICH IN ANY EVENT REQUIRES MONTHS OF CON
TINUOUS EFFORTS HAS NO CLEAR BUILT
IN CRITERIA TO ASSESS THE RESULTS OF THE
GAMES !ND WHO IS GOING TO PLAY THE PART OF THE POPULATION
3IMPLICITY IN CONCEPT AND IN EXECUTION ARE IMPORTANT REQUIREMENTS FOR
ANY COUNTERINSURGENCY DOCTRINE 4HE PROPOSED STRATEGY APPEARS TO MEET
THEM &OR IT IS NOT ENOUGH TO GIVE A BROAD DElNITION OF THE GOAL TO GET THE
SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION IT IS JUST AS NECESSARY TO SHOW HOW TO REACH IT
BY lNDING AND ORGANIZING THE PEOPLE WHO ARE ACTIVELY IN FAVOR OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENT AND IN SUCH A WAY AS TO ALLOW A MARGIN OF INITIATIVE TO
THE COUNTERINSURGENT PERSONNEL WHO IMPLEMENT THE STRATEGYAND THEY ARE
A WIDELY MIXED GROUP OF POLITICIANS CIVIL SERVANTS ECONOMISTS SOCIAL
WORKERS SOLDIERSYET WITH ENOUGH PRECISION TO CHANNEL THEIR EFFORTS IN A
SINGLE DIRECTION 4HE DIVISION OF THE OVER
ALL ACTION INTO SUCCESSIVE STEPS
FOLLOWING EACH OTHER IN LOGICAL ORDER FACILITATES THE TACTICAL TASKS OF THE
AGENTS THEY KNOW AT EACH STEP WHAT THE INTERMEDIATE OBJECTIVE IS AND WHAT
THEY HAVE TO DO TO REACH IT
4O #OMMAND )S TO #ONTROL
7ITH THE STEP
BY
STEP APPROACH THE COUNTERINSURGENT PROVIDES HIMSELF
WITH A WAY OF ASSESSING AT ANY TIME THE SITUATION AND THE PROGRESS MADE
(E CAN THUS EXERT HIS CONTROL AND CONDUCT THE WAR BY SWITCHING MEANS
FROM AN ADVANCED AREA TO A RETARDED ONE BY GIVING LARGER RESPONSIBILITIES
TO THE SUBORDINATE LEADERS WHO HAVE PROVED SUCCESSFUL AND BY REMOVING
THOSE WHO HAVE FAILED )N OTHER WORDS HE CAN COMMAND BECAUSE HE CAN
VERIFY
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
7HAT COULD HAPPEN IN DEFAULT OF CONTROL 4HE GENERAL COUNTERINSURGENCY
EFFORT WOULD PRODUCE AN ACCIDENTAL MOSAIC A PATCHWORK OF PIECES WITH ONE
WELL PACIlED NEXT TO IT ANOTHER ONE NOT SO PACIlED OR PERHAPS EVEN UNDER
THE EFFECTIVE INSURGENTS CONTROL AN IDEAL SITUATION FOR THE INSURGENT WHO
WILL BE ABLE TO MANEUVER AT WILL AMONG THE PIECES CONCENTRATING ON SOME
TEMPORARILY VANISHING FROM OTHERS 4HE INTENTIONAL MOSAIC CREATED BY
NECESSITY WHEN THE COUNTERINSURGENT CONCENTRATES HIS EFFORTS IN A SELECTED
AREA IS IN ITSELF A GREAT ENOUGH SOURCE OF DIFlCULTIES WITHOUT ADDING TO IT IN
THE SELECTED AREA
./4%
%XCEPT OF COURSE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL HANDICAP WHICH CAN BE ALLEVIATED ONLY
BY THE PROTRACTION OF THE WAR 4O SOLVE IT WOULD REQUIRE THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT
ESPOUSE THE INSURGENTS CAUSE WITHOUT LOSING HIS POWER AT THE SAME TIME )F IT WERE
POSSIBLE TO DO SO THEN THE INSURGENTS CAUSE WAS A BAD ONE TO START WITH TACTICALLY
SPEAKING
#HAPTER
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
#/--!.$ 02/",%-3
3INGLE $IRECTION
$ESTROYING OR EXPELLING FROM AN AREA THE MAIN BODY OF THE GUERRILLA
FORCES PREVENTING THEIR RETURN INSTALLING GARRISONS TO PROTECT THE POPULA
TION TRACKING THE GUERRILLA REMNANTSTHESE ARE PREDOMINANTLY MILITARY
OPERATIONS
)DENTIFYING ARRESTING INTERROGATING THE INSURGENT POLITICAL AGENTS JUDG
ING THEM REHABILITATING THOSE WHO CAN BE WON OVERTHESE ARE POLICE AND
JUDICIAL TASKS
%STABLISHING CONTACT WITH THE POPULATION IMPOSING AND ENFORCING CON
TROL MEASURES ORGANIZING LOCAL ELECTIONS TESTING THE NEW LEADERS ORGANIZ
ING THEM INTO A PARTY DOING ALL THE CONSTRUCTIVE WORK NEEDED TO WIN THE
WHOLEHEARTED SUPPORT OF THE POPULATIONTHESE ARE PRIMARILY POLITICAL
OPERATIONS
4HE EXPECTED RESULTlNAL DEFEAT OF THE INSURGENTSIS NOT AN ADDITION
BUT A MULTIPLICATION OF THESE VARIOUS OPERATIONS THEY ALL ARE ESSENTIAL AND IF
ONE IS NIL THE PRODUCT WILL BE ZERO #LEARLY MORE THAN ANY OTHER KIND OF
WARFARE COUNTERINSURGENCY MUST RESPECT THE PRINCIPLE OF A SINGLE DIRECTION
! SINGLE BOSS MUST DIRECT THE OPERATIONS FROM BEGINNING UNTIL THE END
4HE PROBLEM UNFORTUNATELY IS NOT SIMPLE 4ASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES CAN
NOT BE NEATLY DIVIDED BETWEEN THE CIVILIAN AND THE SOLDIER FOR THEIR OPERA
TIONS OVERLAP TOO MUCH WITH EACH OTHER 4HE SOLDIER DOES NOT STAY IN HIS
GARRISON WITH NOTHING TO DO ONCE THE EARLY LARGE
SCALE OPERATIONS HAVE BEEN
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
CONCLUDED HE CONSTANTLY PATROLS AMBUSHES COMBS OUT AT SOME TIME IN THE
PROCESS HE WILL HAVE TO ORGANIZE EQUIP TRAIN AND LEAD SELF DEFENSE UNITS
4HE POLICEMAN STARTS GATHERING INTELLIGENCE RIGHT FROM THE BEGINNING HIS
ROLE DOES NOT END WHEN THE POLITICAL CELLS HAVE BEEN DESTROYED BECAUSE THE
INSURGENT WILL KEEP TRYING TO BUILD NEW ONES 4HE CIVIL SERVANT DOES NOT WAIT
TO START HIS WORK UNTIL THE ARMY HAS CLEARED AWAY THE GUERRILLAS
&URTHERMORE NO OPERATION CAN BE STRICTLY MILITARY OR POLITICAL IF ONLY
BECAUSE THEY EACH HAVE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS THAT ALTER THE OVER ALL SITUA
TION FOR BETTER OR FOR WORSE &OR INSTANCE IF THE JUDGE PREMATURELY RELEASES
UNREPENTENT INSURGENTS THE EFFECTS WILL SOON BE FELT BY THE POLICEMAN THE
CIVIL SERVANT AND THE SOLDIER
!NOTHER FACT COMPLICATES THE SITUATION (OWEVER DEVELOPED THE CIVIL
ADMINISTRATION MAY BE IN PEACETIME IT IS NEVER UP TO THE PERSONNEL REQUIRE
MENTS OF A COURTERINSURGENCY 7HEN THE BROAD OBJECTIVE OF WINNING THE
SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION IS TRANSLATED INTO CONCRETE lELD TASKS EACH MUL
TIPLIED BY THE GIVEN NUMBER OF VILLAGES TOWNS AND DISTRICTS THE NUMBER OF
RELIABLE PERSONNEL NEEDED IS STAGGERING 5SUALLY THE ARMED FORCES ALONE
CAN SUPPLY THEM PROMPTLY !S A RESULT THE COUNTERINSURGENT GOVERNMENT IS
EXPOSED TO A DUAL TEMPTATION TO ASSIGN POLITICAL POLICE AND OTHER TASKS TO
THE ARMED FORCES TO LET THE MILITARY DIRECT THE ENTIRE PROCESSIF NOT IN THE
WHOLE COUNTRY AT LEAST IN SOME AREAS
4HE lRST ONE CANNOT BE AVOIDED 4O CONlNE SOLDIERS TO PURELY MILITARY
FUNCTIONS WHILE URGENT AND VITAL TASKS HAVE TO BE DONE AND NOBODY ELSE IS
AVAILABLE TO UNDERTAKE THEM WOULD BE SENSELESS 4HE SOLDIER MUST THEN BE
PREPARED TO BECOME A PROPAGANDIST A SOCIAL WORKER A CIVIL ENGINEER A
SCHOOLTEACHER A NURSE A BOY SCOUT "UT ONLY FOR AS LONG AS HE CANNOT BE
REPLACED FOR IT IS BETTER TO ENTRUST CIVILIAN TASKS TO CIVILIANS 4HIS INCIDEN
TALLY IS WHAT THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS HAVE ALWAYS TENDED TO DO $URING
THE SPRING AND SUMMER OF ON THE EVE OF THEIR DRIVE INTO SOUTH #HINA
THEY RECRUITED AND TRAINED IN SPECIAL SCHOOLS MORE THAN STUDENTS
WHOSE MISSION WAS TO FOLLOW THE ARMY AND ASSIST IT BY TAKING OVER hARMY
SERVICING PUBLICITY WORK EDUCATION AND MOBILIZATION OF THE MASSESv 4O
IMITATE THIS EXAMPLE IS NOT EASY FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT 7HERE DOES ONE
lND SUCH A LARGE GROUP OF RELIABLE CIVILIANS WHEN THE LOYALTY OF ALMOST
EVERYONE IS OPEN TO QUESTION "UT IT WILL HAVE TO BE DONE EVENTUALLY 4HE
SECOND TEMPTATIONTO LET THE MILITARY DIRECT THE ENTIRE PROCESSON THE
OTHER HAND IS SO DANGEROUS THAT IT MUST BE RESISTED AT ALL COSTS
0RIMACY OF THE 0OLITICAL OVER THE -ILITARY 0OWER
4HAT THE POLITICAL POWER IS THE UNDISPUTED BOSS IS A MATTER OF BOTH PRIN
CIPLE AND PRACTICALITY 7HAT IS AT STAKE IS THE COUNTRYS POLITICAL REGIME AND
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
TO DEFEND IT IS A POLITICAL AFFAIR %VEN IF THIS REQUIRES MILITARY ACTION THE
ACTION IS CONSTANTLY DIRECTED TOWARD A POLITICAL GOAL %SSENTIAL THOUGH IT IS
THE MILITARY ACTION IS SECONDARY TO THE POLITICAL ONE ITS PRIMARY PURPOSE
BEING TO AFFORD THE POLITICAL POWER ENOUGH FREEDOM TO WORK SAFELY WITH THE
POPULATION
4HE ARMED FORCES ARE BUT ONE OF THE MANY INSTRUMENTS OF THE COUNTER
INSURGENT AND WHAT IS BETTER THAN THE POLITICAL POWER TO HARNESS THE NON
MILITARY INSTRUMENTS TO SEE THAT APPROPRIATIONS COME AT THE RIGHT TIME TO
CONSOLIDATE THE MILITARY WORK THAT POLITICAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS FOLLOW
THROUGH
h! REVOLUTIONARY WAR IS PER CENT MILITARY ACTION AND PER CENT POLIT
ICALv IS A FORMULA THAT REmECTS THE TRUTH 'IVING THE SOLDIER AUTHORITY OVER
THE CIVILIAN WOULD THUS CONTRADICT ONE OF THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS
TYPE OF WAR )N PRACTICE IT WOULD INEVITABLY TEND TO REVERSE THE RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF MILITARY VERSUS POLITICAL ACTION AND MOVE THE COUNTERINSUR
GENTS WARFARE CLOSER TO A CONVENTIONAL ONE 7ERE THE ARMED FORCES THE
INSTRUMENT OF A PARTY AND THEIR LEADERS HIGH
RANKING MEMBERS OF THE PARTY
CONTROLLED AND ASSISTED BY POLITICAL COMMISSARS HAVING THEIR OWN DIRECT
CHANNEL TO THE PARTYS CENTRAL DIRECTION THEN GIVING COMPLETE AUTHORITY TO
THE MILITARY MIGHT WORK HOWEVER THIS DESCRIBES THE GENERAL SITUATION OF
THE INSURGENT NOT OF HIS OPPONENT
)T WOULD ALSO BE SELF
DEFEATING FOR IT WOULD MEAN THAT THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT GOVERNMENT HAD ACKNOWLEDGED A SIGNAL DEFEAT 5NABLE TO COPE WITH
THE INSURGENCY THROUGH NORMAL GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES IT WOULD HAVE ABDI
CATED IN FAVOR OF THE MILITARY WHO AT ONCE BECOME THE PRIME AND EASY
TARGET OF THE INSURGENT PROPAGANDA )T WOULD BE A MIRACLE IF UNDER THESE
CIRCUMSTANCES THE INSURGENT DID NOT SUCCEED IN DIVORCING THE SOLDIER FROM
THE NATION
4HE INESCAPABLE CONCLUSION IS THAT THE OVER
ALL RESPONSIBILITY SHOULD STAY
WITH THE CIVILIAN POWER AT EVERY POSSIBLE LEVEL )F THERE IS A SHORTAGE OF
TRUSTED OFlCIALS NOTHING PREVENTS lLLING THE GAP WITH MILITARY PERSONNEL
SERVING IN A CIVILIAN CAPACITY )F THE WORST COMES TO THE WORST THE lCTION
AT LEAST SHOULD BE PRESERVED
#OORDINATION OF %FFORTS
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADER WHOM WE NOW ASSUME TO BE A CIVILIAN HAS
TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE PROBLEMS OF THE VARIOUS CIVILIAN AND MILITARY COM
PONENTS OF HIS FORCES BEFORE REACHING A DECISION ESPECIALLY WHEN THEIR
ACTIONS INTERRELATE INTRICATELY AND WHEN THEIR DEMANDS OFTEN CONmICT WITH
EACH OTHER (E HAS ALSO TO COORDINATE AND TO CHANNEL THEIR EFFORTS IN A SINGLE
DIRECTION (OW CAN HE DO IT !MONG THE THEORETICAL SOLUTIONS IN TERMS OF
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
ORGANIZATION TWO ARE OBVIOUS L THE COMMITTEE AS IN -ALAYA FOR EXAM
PLE WHERE CONTROL OF AN AREA AT DISTRICT LEVEL WAS INVESTED IN A COMMITTEE
UNDER THE CHAIRMANSHIP OF THE DISTRICT OFlCER WITH THE MEMBERS DRAWN
FROM THE POLICE LOCAL CIVILIANS %UROPEAN PLANTERS AND REPRESENTATIVE
#HINESE AND -ALAYANS AND THE SOLDIERS OR THE INTEGRATED CIVILIAN
MILITARY STAFF WHERE THE SOLDIER IS DIRECTLY SUBORDINATED TO THE LOCAL CIVIL
AUTHORITY THE AUTHOR KNOWS OF NO EXAMPLE OF THIS SETUP BUT THE OPPOSITE
CASEWITH THE CIVIL AUTHORITY DIRECTLY SUBORDINATED TO THE LOCAL MILITARY
ONEIS EASY TO lND AS IN THE 0HILIPPINES WHERE ARMY OFlCERS TOOK THE
PLACE OF A NONEXISTENT CIVIL ADMINISTRATION OR IN !LGERIA WHERE ALL POWERS
WERE INVESTED IN THE MILITARY FOR A BRIEF PERIOD IN n
%ACH FORMULA HAS ITS MERITS AND ITS DEFECTS ! COMMITTEE IS mEXIBLE
AFFORDS MORE FREEDOM TO ITS MEMBERS AND CAN BE KEPT SMALL BUT IT IS SLOW
!N INTEGRATED STAFF ALLOWS A MORE DIRECT LINE OF COMMAND AND IS SPEEDIER
BUT IT IS MORE RIGID AND PRONE TO BUREAUCRATISM 4HERE SEEMS TO BE ROOM FOR
BOTH IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE 4HE COMMITTEE IS BETTER FOR THE HIGHER
ECHELONS CONCERNED WITH LONG AND MEDIUM RANGE AFFAIRS THE INTEGRATED
STAFF FOR THE LOWER ECHELONS WHERE SPEED IS ESSENTIAL &OR COUNTERINSUR
GENCY AT THE BOTTOM LEVELS IS A VERY SMALL SCALE WAR WITH SMALL SCALE AND
FUGITIVE OPPORTUNITIES THAT MUST BE SEIZED UPON INSTANTLY
!T THE HIGHER ECHELONS WHERE THE COMMITTEE SYSTEM PREVAILS AND WHERE
THE CIVILIAN AND MILITARY COMPONENTS RETAIN THEIR SEPARATE STRUCTURES THEY
SHOULD EACH BE ORGANIZED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO PROMOTE THEIR COOPERATION
STILL MORE )N CONVENTIONAL WARFARE THE STAFF OF A LARGE MILITARY UNIT IS COM
POSED ROUGHLY OF TWO MAIN BRANCHEShINTELLIGENCEOPERATIONSv AND
hLOGISTICSv )N COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE THERE IS A DESPERATE NEED FOR A
THIRD BRANCHTHE hPOLITICALv ONEWHICH WOULD HAVE THE SAME WEIGHT AS
THE OTHERS 4HE OFlCER IN CHARGE OF IT WOULD FOLLOW THE DEVELOPMENTS IN ALL
MATTERS PERTAINING TO POLITICAL AND CIVIC ACTION ADVISE HIS CHIEF MAKE HIS
VOICE HEARD WHEN OPERATIONS ARE IN THE PLANNING STAGE AND NOT HAVE TO WAIT
UNTIL THEY ARE TOO ADVANCED TO BE ALTERED 3IMILARLY THE CIVILIAN STAFF WHICH
IN CONVENTIONAL WARFARE USUALLY HAS LITTLE TO DO WITH MILITARY AFFAIRS SHOULD
HAVE ITS MILITARY BRANCH WITH A CORRESPONDING ROLE TOWARD THE CIVILIAN
CHIEF 7ITH THESE TWO ORGANIC BRANCHES WORKING CLOSELY TOGETHER THE DAN
GER OF DIVERGENT EFFORTS BY THE CIVILIAN AND THE MILITARY MIGHT BE REDUCED
7HATEVER SYSTEM IS CHOSEN HOWEVER THE BEST ORGANIZATION IS ONLY AS
GOOD AS ITS MEMBERS %VEN WITH THE BEST CONCEIVABLE ORGANIZATION PERSON
ALITY CONmICTS ARE MORE THAN LIKELY TO BE THE ORDER OF THE DAY !LTHOUGH THE
WRONG MEMBER CAN SOMETIMES BE lRED AND REPLACED THIS WILL NOT SOLVE THE
PROBLEM FOR ALL COMMITTEES OR INTEGRATED STAFF
4HE QUESTION THEN IS HOW TO MAKE THESE MIXED ORGANIZATIONS WORK AT
THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECTIVENESS IN A COUNTERINSURGENCY REGARDLESS OF THE
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
PERSONALITY FACTORS !SSUMING THAT EACH OF THESE ORGANIZATIONS WORKS MORE
OR LESS WITH ITS OWN OVER
ALL PERSONALITY HOW IS THE DISJOINTED MOSAIC
EFFECT OF THEIR OPERATIONS TO BE AVOIDED )F THE INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF THE
ORGANIZATIONS WERE OF THE SAME MIND IF EVERY ORGANIZATION WORKED ACCORD
ING TO A STANDARD PATTERN THE PROBLEM WOULD BE SOLVED )S THIS NOT PRECISELY
WHAT A COHERENT WELL
UNDERSTOOD AND ACCEPTED DOCTRINE WOULD TEND TO
ACHIEVE -ORE THAN ANYTHING ELSE A DOCTRINE APPEARS TO BE THE PRACTICAL
ANSWER TO THE PROBLEM OF HOW TO CHANNEL EFFORTS IN A SINGLE DIRECTION
0RIMACY OF THE 4ERRITORIAL #OMMAND
4HE COUNTERINSURGENTS ARMED FORCES HAVE TO FULlLL TWO DIFFERENT MIS
SIONS TO BREAK THE MILITARY POWER OF THE INSURGENT AND TO ENSURE THE SAFETY
OF THE TERRITORY IN EACH AREA )T SEEMS NATURAL THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENTS
FORCES SHOULD BE ORGANIZED INTO TWO TYPES OF UNITS THE MOBILE ONES lGHT
ING IN A RATHER CONVENTIONAL FASHION AND THE STATIC ONES STAYING WITH THE
POPULATION IN ORDER TO PROTECT IT AND TO SUPPLEMENT THE POLITICAL EFFORTS
4HE STATIC UNITS ARE OBVIOUSLY THOSE THAT KNOW BEST THE LOCAL SITUATION THE
POPULATION THE LOCAL PROBLEMS IF A MISTAKE IS MADE THEY ARE THE ONES WHO
WILL BEAR THE CONSEQUENCES )T FOLLOWS THAT WHEN A MOBILE UNIT IS SENT TO
OPERATE TEMPORARILY IN AN AREA IT MUST COME UNDER THE TERRITORIAL COMMAND
EVEN IF THE MILITARY COMMANDER OF THE AREA IS THE JUNIOR OFlCER )N THE SAME
WAY AS THE 53 AMBASSADOR IS THE BOSS OF EVERY 53 ORGANIZATION OPERAT
ING IN THE COUNTRY TO WHICH HE IS ACCREDITED THE TERRITORIAL MILITARY COM
MANDER MUST BE THE BOSS OF ALL MILITARY FORCES OPERATING IN HIS AREA
!DAPTATION OF THE !RMED &ORCES TO
#OUNTERINSURGENCY 7ARFARE
!S LONG AS THE INSURGENT HAS FAILED TO BUILD A POWERFUL REGULAR ARMY THE
COUNTERINSURGENT HAS LITTLE USE FOR HEAVY SOPHISTICATED FORCES DESIGNED FOR
CONVENTIONAL WARFARE &OR HIS GROUND FORCES HE NEEDS INFANTRY AND MORE
INFANTRY HIGHLY MOBILE AND LIGHTLY ARMED SOME lELD ARTILLERY FOR OCCA
SIONAL SUPPORT ARMORED CAVALRY AND IF TERRAIN CONDITIONS ARE FAVORABLE
HORSE CAVALRY FOR ROAD SURVEILLANCE AND PATROLLING &OR HIS AIR FORCE HE
WANTS GROUND SUPPORT AND OBSERVATION PLANES OF SLOW SPEED HIGH ENDUR
ANCE GREAT lREPOWER PROTECTED AGAINST SMALL
ARMS GROUND lRE PLUS SHORT
TAKEOFF TRANSPORT PLANES AND HELICOPTERS WHICH PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN
COUNTERINSURGENCY OPERATIONS 4HE NAVYS MISSION IF ANY IS TO ENFORCE A
BLOCKADE A CONVENTIONAL TYPE OF OPERATION THAT DOES NOT REQUIRE ELABORA
TION HERE )N ADDITION THE COUNTERINSURGENT NEEDS AN EXTREMELY DENSE SIG
NAL NETWORK
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT THEREFORE HAS TO PROCEED TO A lRST TRANSFORMATION
OF HIS EXISTING FORCES ALONG THESE LINES NOTABLY TO CONVERT INTO INFANTRY
UNITS AS MANY UNNEEDED SPECIALIZED UNITS AS POSSIBLE
4HE ADAPTATION HOWEVER MUST GO DEEPER THAN THAT !T SOME POINT IN THE
COUNTERINSURGENCY PROCESS THE STATIC UNITS THAT TOOK PART INITIALLY IN LARGE
SCALE MILITARY OPERATIONS IN THEIR AREA WILL lND THEMSELVES CONFRONTED WITH
A HUGE VARIETY OF NONMILITARY TASKS WHICH HAVE TO BE PERFORMED IN ORDER TO
GET THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION AND WHICH CAN BE PERFORMED ONLY BY
MILITARY PERSONNEL BECAUSE OF THE SHORTAGE OF RELIABLE CIVILIAN POLITICAL AND
ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL -AKING A THOROUGH CENSUS ENFORCING NEW REGULA
TIONS ON MOVEMENTS OF PERSONS AND GOODS INFORMING THE POPULATION CON
DUCTING PERSON TO PERSON PROPAGANDA GATHERING INTELLIGENCE ON THE
INSURGENTS POLITICAL AGENTS IMPLEMENTING THE VARIOUS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
REFORMS ETCALL THESE WILL BECOME THEIR PRIMARY ACTIVITY 4HEY HAVE TO BE
ORGANIZED EQUIPPED AND SUPPORTED ACCORDINGLY 4HUS A MIMEOGRAPH
MACHINE MAY TURN OUT TO BE MORE USEFUL THAN A MACHINE GUN A SOLDIER
TRAINED AS A PEDIATRICIAN MORE IMPORTANT THAN A MORTAR EXPERT CEMENT MORE
WANTED THAN BARBED WIRE CLERKS MORE IN DEMAND THAN RImEMEN
!DAPTATION OF -INDS
)F THE FORCES HAVE TO BE ADAPTED TO THEIR NEW MISSIONS IT IS JUST AS IMPOR
TANT THAT THE MINDS OF THE LEADERS AND MENAND THIS INCLUDES THE CIVILIAN
AS WELL AS THE MILITARYBE ADAPTED ALSO TO THE SPECIAL DEMANDS OF COUNTER
INSURGENCY WARFARE
2EmEXES AND DECISIONS THAT WOULD BE CONSIDERED APPROPRIATE FOR THE SOL
DIER IN CONVENTIONAL WARFARE AND FOR THE CIVIL SERVANT IN NORMAL TIMES ARE
NOT NECESSARILY THE RIGHT ONES IN COUNTERINSURGENCY SITUATIONS ! SOLDIER
lRED UPON IN CONVENTIONAL WAR WHO DOES NOT lRE BACK WITH EVERY AVAILABLE
WEAPON WOULD BE GUILTY OF A DERELICTION OF HIS DUTY THE REVERSE WOULD BE
THE CASE IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE WHERE THE RULE IS TO APPLY THE MINI
MUM OF lRE h.O POLITICSv IS AN INGRAINED REACTION FOR THE CONVENTIONAL
SOLDIER WHOSE JOB IS SOLELY TO DEFEAT THE ENEMY YET IN COUNTERINSURGENCY
WARFARE THE SOLDIERS JOB IS TO HELP WIN THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION AND
IN SO DOING HE HAS TO ENGAGE IN PRACTICAL POLITICS ! SYSTEM OF MILITARY
AWARDS AND PROMOTION SUCH AS THAT IN CONVENTIONAL WARFARE WHICH WOULD
ENCOURAGE SOLDIERS TO KILL OR CAPTURE THE LARGEST NUMBER OF ENEMIES AND
THUS INDUCE HIM TO INCREASE THE SCOPE AND THE FREQUENCY OF HIS MILITARY
OPERATIONS MAY WELL BE DISASTROUS IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE
4HE ADMINISTRATOR IN PEACETIME HAS TO PRESERVE A POLITICALLY NEUTRAL ATTI
TUDE TOWARD THE POPULATION HAS TO LET hA HUNDRED mOWERS BLOSSOM A HUN
DRED SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT CONTEND v BUT NOT IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WHERE HIS
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
DUTY IS TO SEE THAT ONLY THE RIGHT mOWER BLOSSOMS AND NOT THE WEED AT LEAST
UNTIL THE SITUATION BECOMES NORMAL AGAIN
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT GOVERNMENT CLEARLY NEEDS LEADERS WHO UNDERSTAND
THE NATURE OF THE WAR 4HERE ARE TWO POSSIBLE WAYS TO GET THEM BY INDOC
TRINATION AND TRAINING IN THE TECHNIQUE OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE AND
BY A PRIORI OR NATURAL SELECTION
4HE THEORY OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE CAN BE TAUGHT LIKE THAT OF ANY
OTHER TYPE OF WAR AND OF COURSE THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST SEE THAT IT IS
TAUGHT TO THE ENTIRE PERSONNEL OF HIS MILITARY AND CIVILIAN FORCES 4HE DIF
lCULTY ARISES IN CONNECTION WITH GIVING PRACTICAL TRAINING TO THE STUDENTS
)T IS EASY TO STAGE EXERCISES AND GAMES RELATED TO THE MILITARY OPERATIONS
REQUIRED IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE BUT IT IS HARDLY POSSIBLE TO DUPLI
CATE IN A REALISTIC WAY THE SETTING FOR THE NONMILITARY OPERATIONS &OR ONE
THING THE POPULATION WITH ITS BEHAVIOR AND ITS MOOD IS THE MAJOR FACTOR IN
THESE OPERATIONS (OW CAN THIS BE INTRODUCED IN THE GAME !LSO DECISIONS
TAKEN IN THE NONMILITARY OPERATIONS SELDOM PRODUCE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
WHEREAS THE SOUNDNESS OF A MILITARY DECISION IN THE lELD CAN BE ASSESSED
ALMOST IMMEDIATELY -OST OF THE TRAINING WILL HAVE TO BE DONE ON THE JOB
-ORE WILL BE SAID ON THIS QUESTION IN THE NEXT CHAPTER
)NDOCTRINATION AND TRAINING HOWEVER ARE SLOW PROCESSES AND THE NEED
FOR ABLE LEADERS IS IMMEDIATE 4HERE ARE NO EASY CRITERIA ENABLING ONE TO
DETERMINE IN ADVANCE WHETHER A MAN WHO HAS NOT BEEN PREVIOUSLY INVOLVED
IN A COUNTERINSURGENCY WILL BE A GOOD LEADER ! WORKABLE SOLUTION IS TO
IDENTIFY THOSE WHO READILY ACCEPT THE NEW CONCEPTS OF COUNTERINSURGENCY
WARFARE AND GIVE THEM RESPONSIBILITY 4HOSE WHO THEN PROVE THEMSELVES IN
ACTION SHOULD BE PUSHED UPWARD
4HERE IS ROOM IN THE ARMED FORCES BUT NOT IN THE CIVILIAN COMPONENT OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENT FORCE FOR THE CADRES WHO CANNOT SHED THEIR CONVENTIONAL
WARFARE THINKING 4HEY CAN BE ASSIGNED TO THE MOBILE UNITS
.EEDLESS TO SAY IF POLITICAL RELIABILITY IS A PROBLEM AS IT MAY WELL BE IN
A REVOLUTIONARY WAR IT IS THE MOST RELIABLE CADRES WHO SHOULD BE ASSIGNED
TO WORK WITH THE POPULATION
3%,%#4)/. /& 4(% !2%! /& %&&/243
4HE 3TRATEGIC 0ROBLEM
4WO OPPOSITE APPROACHES ARE OPEN TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT AND A THIRD
WHICH IS A COMPROMISE BETWEEN THE OTHERS !CCORDING TO THE lRST APPROACH
ONE PROCEEDS FROM THE DIFlCULT TO THE EASY %FFORTS ARE CONCENTRATED INI
TIALLY IN THE RED AREAS AND PROGRESSIVELY EXTENDED TO THE PINK AND WHITE
ONES )T IS THE FASTEST WAY IF IT SUCCEEDS 4HE OTHER APPROACH FROM THE EASY
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
TO THE DIFlCULT REQUIRES FEWER MEANS AT THE OUTSET BUT IT IS SLOWER AND
GIVES MORE OPPORTUNITY FOR THE INSURGENT TO DEVELOP AND TO CONSOLIDATE IN
THE RED AREAS 4HE CHOICE BETWEEN THE APPROACHES DEPENDS ESSENTIALLY ON
THE RELATIVE STRENGTH OF THE OPPONENTS
$URING THE 'REEK 7AR THE .ATIONALISTS CHOSE INITIALLY A COMPROMISE
HEAVILY ACCENTED TOWARD THE lRST APPROACH 4HEY STARTED BY TACKLING THE
REGION OF 4HESSALY IN CENTRAL 'REECE IMMEDIATELY AFTER THAT THEY MOVED
EAST AND NORTH AGAINST THE #OMMUNIST STRONGHOLDS ESTABLISHED ALONG THE
BORDERS 4HE #OMMUNISTS WITHDREW SAFELY INTO SATELLITES TERRITORIES AND
REAPPEARED ELSEWHERE 4HE lRST .ATIONALIST OFFENSIVE FAILED )N THEIR SEC
OND ATTEMPT IN n THE .ATIONALISTS ADOPTED THE OPPOSITE STRATEGY
4HEY ELIMINATED THE #OMMUNISTS FROM THE 0ELOPONNESUS THEN OPERATED IN
GREATER STRENGTH IN 4HESSALY AND lNALLY CLEANED THE BORDER REGIONS 4HIS
TIME THEY SUCCEEDED THANKS IN PART TO THE DEFECTION OF 4ITO FROM THE 3OVIET
BLOC WHICH PREVENTED THE 'REEK #OMMUNISTS FROM PLAYING HIDE AND SEEK
ON HIS TERRITORY
7HEN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR RESUMED IN #HINA AFTER THE *APANESE SUR
RENDER THE .ATIONALISTS HAD THE CHOICE BETWEEN THREE COURSES OF ACTION
#ONCENTRATING THEIR EFFORTS IN -ANCHURIA THE AREA MOST REMOTE FROM THE
.ATIONALISTS CENTER OF POWER AND WHERE THE #OMMUNIST FORCES ARMED
WITH *APANESE EQUIPMENT WERE THE STRONGEST
#LEANING UP CENTRAL #HINA THEN NORTH #HINA AND lNALLY -ANCHURIA
/PERATING EVERYWHERE
7IDE IN THEORY THE CHOICE WAS NARROW IN FACT BECAUSE THE .ATIONALISTS
COULD NOT AFFORD TO LET THEIR OPPONENTS DEVELOP SAFELY IN -ANCHURIA THE
RICHEST INDUSTRIAL PART OF #HINA WHERE THE #OMMUNISTS WERE IN DIRECT CON
TACT WITH THE 3OVIET 5NION !ND AS -ANCHURIA HAD BEEN OCCUPIED BY 3OVIET
TROOPS IN THE LAST DAYS OF 7ORLD 7AR )) THE .ATIONALIST 'OVERNMENT HAD TO
REASSERT ITS SOVEREIGNTY OVER IT 4HE .ATIONALISTS FELT COMPELLED TO INVEST
THEIR BEST UNITS IN -ANCHURIA
7HETHER THE .ATIONALISTS WOULD HAVE WON HAD THEY ACTED OTHERWISE IS
RATHER DOUBTFUL FOR THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS WERE A FORMIDABLE OPPONENT
BY "UT THEIR CHANCES MIGHT HAVE BEEN BETTER IF THEY HAD ADOPTED THE
SECOND COURSE OF ACTION
)N !LGERIA WHERE THE &RENCH AS OF ENJOYED AN OVERWHELMING
MILITARY SUPERIORITY OVER THE &,. THEIR EFFORTS WERE SPREAD INITIALLY ALL
OVER THE TERRITORY WITH LARGER CONCENTRATIONS ALONG THE BORDERS WITH
4UNISIA AND -OROCCO AND IN +ABYLIA A RUGGED HEAVILY POPULATED MOUN
TAIN AREA 4HE &,. FORCES WERE SOON BROKEN UP BUT LACK OF DOCTRINE AND
EXPERIENCE IN WHAT TO DO AFTER MILITARY OPERATIONS AMONG OTHER THINGS
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
PRECLUDED A CLEAR
CUT &RENCH SUCCESS )N n THE &RENCH STRATEGY
PROCEEDED FROM 7EST TO %AST STARTING WITH THE /RAN REGION THEN TO THE
/UARSENIS -OUNTAINS TO +ABYLIA AND lNALLY TO THE #ONSTANTINE REGION
4HIS TIME THERE WAS ENOUGH EXPERIENCE THE PERIOD OF MUDDLING THROUGH
WAS OVER "Y THE END OF WHEN THE &RENCH 'OVERNMENT POLICY HAD
SWITCHED FROM hDEFEATING THE INSURGENCYv TO hDISENGAGING &RANCE FROM
!LGERIA v THE &,. FORCES IN !LGERIA WERE REDUCED TO BETWEEN AND
MEN WELL ISOLATED FROM THE POPULATION BROKEN INTO TINY INEFFEC
TIVE BANDS WITH WEAPONS MOST OF WHICH HAD BEEN BURIED FOR LACK
OF AMMUNITION NOT A SINGLE WILAYA REGION BOSS IN !LGERIA WAS IN CON
TACT WITH THE &,. ORGANIZATION ABROAD NOT EVEN BY RADIO PURGES WERE
DEVASTATING THEIR RANKS AND SOME OF THE HIGH
RANKING &,. CHIEFS IN
!LGERIA MADE OVERTURES TO SURRENDER 4HE BORDERS WERE CLOSED TO INlLTRA
TION EXCEPT VERY OCCASIONALLY BY ONE OR TWO MEN 4HE &RENCH FORCES
INCLUDED -OSLEMS NOT COUNTING SELF
DEFENSE GROUPS IN ALMOST
EVERY VILLAGE !LL THAT WOULD HAVE REMAINED TO DO IF THE POLICY HAD NOT
CHANGED WAS TO ELIMINATE THE DIEHARD INSURGENT REMNANTS A LONG TASK AT
BEST CONSIDERING THE SIZE OF !LGERIA AND ITS TERRAIN )N -ALAYA THIS lNAL
PHASE OF THE COUNTERINSURGENCY LASTED AT LEAST lVE YEARS
4HE SELECTION OF THE lRST AREA OF EFFORTS MUST OBVIOUSLY BE INmUENCED
lRST OF ALL BY THE STRATEGIC APPROACH CHOSEN )T IS WELL TO REMEMBER IN ANY
CASE THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT NEEDS A CLEAR
CUT EVEN IF GEOGRAPHICALLY
LIMITED SUCCESS AS SOON AS POSSIBLE )N TERMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL BENElT TO
THE COURSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IT IS WORTH TAKING THIS RISK EVEN IF IT
MEANS LETTING THE INSURGENT DEVELOP IN SOME OTHER AREA
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WHO USUALLY HAS NO PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN THE
NONMILITARY OPERATIONS REQUIRED IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE MUST ACQUIRE
IT FAST
4HESE TWO CONSIDERATIONS INDICATE THAT THE CHOICE OF THE lRST AREA SHOULD
PROMISE AN EASY TACTICAL VICTORY AT THE PRICE OF A STRATEGIC RISK )N OTHER
WORDS IT SEEMS BETTER TO GO FROM THE EASY TO THE DIFlCULT UNLESS THE COUN
TERINSURGENT IS SO STRONG THAT HE CAN AFFORD THE OPPOSITE STRATEGY
4HE 4ACTICAL &ACTORS
)N SELECTING THE AREA FACTORS CUSTOMARILY TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN CONVEN
TIONAL WARFARE SUCH AS TERRAIN TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES CLIMATE REMAIN
VALID )N THIS RESPECT THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST PAY PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO
WHETHER THE AREA CAN BE EASILY ISOLATED AND COMPARTMENTED BY TAKING
ADVANTAGE OF NATURAL OBSTACLES SEA RIVERS PLAINS )T MAY SEEM STRANGE THAT
PLAINS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED AS NATURAL OBSTACLES IN WAR BUT THE FACT IS THAT
MOUNTAINS FORESTS AND SWAMPS ARE NOT OBSTACLES FOR THE INSURGENT BUT
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
RATHER HIS FAVORITE GROUND .OR ARE INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES BARRIERS USU
ALLY THESE HAVE RESTRICTED ONLY THE COUNTERINSURGENT )F NATURAL OBSTACLES
ARE LACKING CONSIDERATION MUST BE GIVEN TO BUILDING ARTIlCIAL ONES AS THE
&RENCH DID ALONG THE 4UNISIAN AND -OROCCAN BORDERS 4HIS SOLUTION MAY
BE EXPENSIVE BUT IT RESULTS IN SO MUCH SECURITY AND SUCH A SAVING IN MAN
POWER THAT IT MAY BE WORTH IT
(OWEVER SINCE THE POPULATION IS THE OBJECTIVE FACTORS PERTAINING TO IT
ACQUIRE A PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE 4HERE ARE OBJECTIVE FACTORS (OW LARGE IS THE
POPULATION 4HE LARGER IT IS THE HIGHER THE STAKES )S THE POPULATION CONCEN
TRATED IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES OR DISPERSED ALL OVER THE TERRAIN ! CONCENTRATED
POPULATION IS EASIER TO PROTECT AND CONTROL THUS AN INFANTRY COMPANY CAN
EASILY CONTROL A SMALL TOWN OF n INHABITANTSSHORT OF A GEN
ERAL UPRISINGBUT IT WOULD TAKE A MUCH LARGER UNIT IF THE SAME POPULATION
WERE SPREAD OVER THE COUNTRYSIDE (OW DEPENDENT IS THE POPULATION ON OUT
SIDE SUPPLIES AND ON ECONOMIC FACILITIES PROVIDED BY THE COUNTERINSURGENT
ADMINISTRATION $OES IT HAVE TO IMPORT FOOD AND OTHER MATERIAL )S TRADE
IMPORTANT OR CAN IT LIVE IN AN AUTARCHIC ECONOMY
!BOVE ALL THERE ARE SUBJECTIVE FACTORS (OW DOES THE POPULATION VIEW
THE RESPECTIVE OPPONENTS 7HAT ARE THE PROPORTIONS OF POTENTIAL FRIENDS
NEUTRALS ENEMIES #AN THESE CATEGORIES BE DElNED IN ADVANCE #AN IT FOR
INSTANCE BE ASSUMED THAT THE BOURGEOISIE THE RICH FARMERS THE SMALL
FARMERS ETC WILL TAKE THIS ATTITUDE OR THAT )S THERE ANY LEVERAGE OVER
THEM !RE THERE ANY DIVISIVE FACTORS BY WHICH ANY OF THESE CATEGORIES CAN
FURTHER BE DISSOCIATED BY EITHER OF THE OPPONENTS 4HIS SORT OF POLITICAL
ANALYSIS IS AS IMPORTANT IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WALFARE AS MAP STUDY IS IN
CONVENTIONAL WARFARE FOR IT WILL DETERMINE HOWEVER ROUGHLY WHETHER THE
AREA CONSIDERED WILL BE EASY OR DIFlCULT TO WORK ON )N !LGERIA FOR
INSTANCE IT WAS AUTOMATICALLY ASSUMED THAT -OSLEM VETERANS WHO RECEIVED
A PENSION FROM THE &RENCH 'OVERNMENT WOULD BE HOSTILE TO THE &,. THAT
-OSLEM WOMEN LIVING IN SLAVERY UNDER )SLAMIC CUSTOMS WOULD WELCOME
THEIR EMANCIPATION )N SPITE OF PARTIAL SETBACKS THESE ASSUMPTIONS PROVED
GENERALLY TRUE
4HERE IS AN OPTIMUM DIMENSION FOR THE SIZE OF BOTH THE AREA AND THE
POPULATION !BOVE IT ISOLATION WOULD BE DIFlCULT TO MAINTAIN AND THE
EFFORTS WOULD BE TOO DILUTED "ELOW IT INSURGENT INmUENCE WOULD KEEP
PENETRATING TOO EASILY FROM THE OUTSIDE AND THE POPULATION CONSCIOUS OF
ITS SMALL NUMBER AND FEELING TOO EXPOSED AND TOO CONSPICUOUS WOULD BE
RELUCTANT TO LEAN ON THE COUNTERINSURGENT SIDE
4HE RIGHT SIZE CANNOT BE DETERMINED IN THE ABSTRACT IT VARIES TOO MUCH
FROM CASE TO CASE 4HE FACT THAT THE INSURGENT USUALLY MOVES ON FOOT PRO
VIDES HOWEVER A ROUGH YARDSTICK 4HE MINIMUM DIAMETER OF THE AREA
SHOULD BE EQUAL TO NO LESS THAN THREE DAYS MARCH SO THAT OUTSIDE GUERRILLAS
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
TRYING TO INlLTRATE DEEPLY WOULD BE FORCED TO MARCH MORE THAN ONE NIGHT
4HIS WOULD GIVE THE COUNTERINSURGENT MORE CHANCE TO CATCH THEM
0/,)4)#!, 02%0!2!4)/.
/N THE EVE OF EMBARKING ON A MAJOR EFFORT THE COUNTERINSURGENT FACES
WHAT IS PROBABLY THE MOST DIFlCULT PROBLEM OF THE WAR (E HAS TO ARM HIM
SELF WITH A COMPETING CAUSE
,ET US lRST ELIMINATE THE EASY CASESEASY AS ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS
BRIEmY DESCRIBED AS FOLLOWS
4HE INSURGENT HAS REALLY NO CAUSE AT ALL HE IS EXPLOITING THE COUNTERINSUR
GENTS WEAKNESSES AND MISTAKES 3UCH SEEMS TO BE THE SITUATION IN 3OUTH
6IETNAM TODAY 4HE 6IETCONG CANNOT CLAMOR FOR LAND WHICH IS PLENTIFUL
IN 3OUTH 6IETNAM NOR RAISE THE BANNER OF ANTICOLONIALISM FOR 3OUTH
6IETNAM IS NO LONGER A COLONY NOR OFFER #OMMUNISM WHICH DOES NOT
APPEAR TO BE VERY POPULAR WITH THE .ORTH 6IETNAMESE POPULATION 4HE
INSURGENTS PROGRAM IS SIMPLY h4HROW THE RASCALS OUTv )F THE hRASCALSv
WHOEVER IS IN POWER IN 3AIGON AMEND THEIR WAYS THE INSURGENT WOULD
LOSE HIS CAUSE
4HE INSURGENT HAS A CAUSE THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAN ESPOUSE WITHOUT
UNDULY ENDANGERING HIS POWER 4HIS WAS AS WE HAVE SEEN THE SITUATION IN
THE 0HILIPPINES DURING THE (UKS INSURGENCY !LL THE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS
TO DO IS TO PROMISE THE NECESSARY REFORMS AND PROVE THAT HE MEANS IT
7E ARE LEFT WITH THE GENERAL CASE WHEN THE INSURGENT HAS THE MONOPOLY
OF A DYNAMIC CAUSE 7HAT CAN THE COUNTERINSURGENT DO +NOWING THAT HIS
IDEOLOGICAL HANDICAP WILL SOMEWHAT SUBSIDE AS THE WAR ITSELF BECOMES THE
MAIN ISSUE IS NO CONSOLATION BECAUSE HE HAS TO LAST UNTIL THEN AND THE TIME
TO LAUNCH A COUNTEROFFENSIVE IS AT THE START
)T WOULD BE A MISTAKE TO BELIEVE THAT A COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT GET THE
POPULATIONS SUPPORT UNLESS HE CONCEDES POLITICAL REFORMS (OWEVER
UNPOPULAR HE MAY BE IF HE IS SUFlCIENTLY STRONG
WILLED AND POWERFUL IF HE
CAN RELY ON A SMALL BUT ACTIVE CORE OF SUPPORTERS WHO REMAIN LOYAL TO HIM
BECAUSE THEY WOULD LOSE EVERYTHING INCLUDING THEIR LIVES IF THE INSURGENT
WINS HE CAN MAINTAIN HIMSELF IN POWER (E MAY VERY WELL WITHDRAW WHAT
EVER BENElTS THE POPULATION RECEIVES FROM THE MERE EXISTENCE OF HIS
REGIMEA MEASURE OF LAW AND ORDER A MORE
OR
LESS RUNNING ECONOMY
FUNCTIONING PUBLIC WORKS AND SERVICES ETCAND RESTORE THEM GRADUALLY AS
A PREMIUM FOR THE POPULATIONS COOPERATION (E MAY FOR INSTANCE RATION
FOOD AND SEE THAT ONLY THOSE WHO COOPERATE RECEIVE RATION CARDS (E MAY
AT THE SAME TIME UTILIZE TO THE UTMOST THOSE WHO ARE WILLING TO SUPPORT HIM
ACTIVELY GIVING THEM INCREASED PRIVILEGES AND POWER AND RULING THROUGH
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
THEM HOWEVER DISLIKED THEY MAY BE 4HIS IS THE WAY THE +ADAR REGIME IN
(UNGARY AND OTHERS NO DOUBT KEEP THEMSELVES IN POWER "UT SUCH A POL
ICY OF PURE FORCE COULD BRING AT BEST A PRECARIOUS RETURN TO THE STATUS QUO
ANTE A STATE OF PERPETUAL TENSION NOT A LASTING PEACE
)N DEFAULT OF LIBERAL INCLINATIONS AND OF A SENSE OF JUSTICEIF THERE IS
SOME JUSTICE IN THE INSURGENTS DEMANDSWISDOM AND EXPEDIENCY DEMAND
THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT EQUIP HIMSELF WITH A POLITICAL PROGRAM DESIGNED
TO TAKE AS MUCH WIND AS POSSIBLE OUT OF THE INSURGENTS SAILS 4HIS RAISES
SERIOUS QUESTIONS OF SUBSTANCE AND TIMING
7HEN LOOKING FOR A COUNTERCAUSE THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS LEFT WITH A NAR
ROW CHOICE OF SECONDARY ISSUES THAT APPEAL ALMOST INVARIABLY TO REASON AT A
TIME WHEN PASSION IS THE PRIME MOVER !ND HOW FAR CAN HE GO IN THE WAY
OF REFORMS WITHOUT ENDANGERING HIS POWER WHICH AFTER ALL IS WHAT HE
RIGHT OR WRONGIS lGHTING TO RETAIN 7HEN THE INSURGENTS CAUSE IS AN
ALL
OR
NOTHING PROPOSITION AS IN MOST ANTICOLONIAL OR #OMMUNIST
LED
INSURGENCIES THE MARGIN FOR POLITICAL MANEUVER IS EXTREMELY LIMITED 4HE
INSURGENT WANTS INDEPENDENCE TODAY SPEAKS OF REVOLUTION PROMOTES CLASS
STRUGGLE AND THE DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT HIS OPPONENT CAN OFFER ONLY
INTERNAL AUTONOMY OR SOME VARIATION OF IT INSIST ON EVOLUTION STRESS FRATER
NITY OF ALL CLASSES
9ET KNOWING THAT HIS PROGRAM WILL HAVE NO OR LITTLE IMMEDIATE APPEAL
THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST SOMEHOW lND A SET OF REFORMS EVEN IF SECOND
ARY EVEN IF MINOR (E HAS TO GAMBLE THAT REASON IN THE LONG RUN WILL PRE
VAIL OVER PASSION
(E WOULD BE WISE ALSO TO ASCERTAIN WHETHER WHAT HE OFFERS IS REALLY
WANTED BY THE PEOPLE 2EFORMS CONCEIVED IN THE ABSTRACT AT A HIGH LEVEL
MAY OFTEN SOUND PROMISING ON PAPER BUT DO NOT ALWAYS CORRESPOND TO THE
POPULAR WISH ! PRACTICAL METHOD THEREFORE WOULD CONSIST IN INVESTIGATING
OBJECTIVELY THE PEOPLES DEMANDS MAKING A LIST OF THEM CROSSING OUT THOSE
THAT CANNOT BE GRANTED SAFELY AND PROMOTING THE REST
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST ALSO DECIDE WHEN TO PUBLICIZE HIS PROGRAM
)F HE DOES THIS TOO EARLY IT COULD BE TAKEN FOR A SIGN OF WEAKNESS RAISE THE
INSURGENTS DEMANDS EVEN ENCOURAGE THE POPULATION INTO SUPPORTING THE
INSURGENT IN THE HOPE OF MORE CONCESSIONS AND AS THE WAR LASTS THE IMPACT
OF THE PROGRAM WOULD BLUR )F THE ANNOUNCEMENT IS UNDULY DELAYED THE
TASK OF WINNING THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION WOULD BECOME MORE DIFl
CULT !PPRECIATING THE RIGHT TIME IS A MATTER OF JUDGMENT BASED ON CIRCUM
STANCES AND NO SOLUTION CAN BE SUGGESTED IN ADVANCE )T SEEMS POSSIBLE
AND JUDICIOUS HOWEVER TO SEPARATE THE POLITICAL PROGRAM FROM THE SPECIlC
CONCRETE REFORMS 4HE PROGRAM COULD BE ANNOUNCED EARLY IN GENERAL TERMS
4HE REFORMS SINCE THEY ARE MEANINGLESS UNLESS THEY CAN SAFELY BE IMPLE
MENTED COULD BE PUBLICIZED LOCALLY AS SOON AS THE PRELIMINARY MILITARY
&2/- 342!4%'9 4/ 4!#4)#3
OPERATIONS HAVE BEEN CONCLUDED THEY SHOULD BE PUBLICIZED NATIONALLY
WHEN LOCAL EXPERIENCE HAS SHOWN THEIR VALUE
)N ANY CASE NOTHING COULD BE WORSE THAN PROMISING REFORMS AND BEING
UNWILLING OR UNABLE TO IMPLEMENT THEM
4(% &)234 !2%! !3 ! 4%34 !2%!
(OWEVER PREPARED TRAINED AND INDOCTRINATED THE COUNTERINSURGENT
FORCES MAY BE REALITY WILL ALWAYS DIFFER FROM THEORY -ISTAKES ARE BOUND
TO HAPPEN BUT IT WOULD BE INEXCUSABLE NOT TO LEARN FROM THEM 4HIS IS WHY
THE lRST AREA SELECTED MUST BE CONSIDERED A TEST AREA 4HE VALUE OF THE
OPERATIONS CONDUCTED THERE LIES JUST AS MUCH IN WHAT THEY TEACH AS IN THEIR
INTRINSIC RESULTS
4ESTING MEANS EXPERIMENTING BEING INTENT ON WATCHING OBJECTIVELY WHAT
TAKES PLACE BEING PROMPT AND WILLING TO ALTER WHAT GOES WRONG !ND LEARN
ING IMPLIES DRAWING THE PROPER LESSONS FROM THE EVENTS AND SPREADING THE
EXPERIENCE AMONG OTHERS !LL THIS CANNOT BE LEFT TO CHANCE AND PERSONAL
INITIATIVE IT MUST BE ORGANIZED CAREFULLY AND DELIBERATELY
4HE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS WHO USED TO BE WELL AWARE OF THE IMPORTANCE
OF LEARNING AND COMBINING THEORY WITH PRACTICE SEEM TO HAVE APPLIED IN
THE EARLY S A METHOD THAT OWES LITTLE TO -ARXISM AND MUCH TO EXPERI
MENTAL SCIENCE AND PLAIN COMMON SENSE 4HEY NEVER EXPLICITLY EXPLAINED
THEIR METHOD SO WHAT FOLLOWS IS A RECONSTRUCTION BASED ON OBSERVATION OF
FACTS AND ON SOME LOGICAL GUESSING
7HENEVER THE TOP #HINESE #OMMUNIST LEADERSHIP IE THE TEN OR TWELVE
MEMBERS OF THE STANDING GROUP OF THE #ENTRAL #OMMITTEE CONSIDERED A
MAJOR REFORMFOR INSTANCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SEMISOCIALIST AGRICULTURAL
COOPERATIVESTHE IDEA WAS lRST DISCUSSED THOROUGHLY WITHIN THE GROUP )F
IT WAS NOT REJECTED THERE A PRELIMINARY DRAFT 0ROJECT .O WOULD BE SUB
MITTED NEXT TO THE #ENTRAL #OMMITTEE WITH ITS SEVENTY OR SO REGULAR MEM
BERS AGAIN THOROUGHLY DISCUSSED AMENDED OR PERHAPS EVEN DISCARDED
/UT OF THE DISCUSSION WOULD COME A 0ROJECT .O WHICH WOULD BE SUB
MITTED THEN TO A VERTICAL SLICE OF THE 0ARTY COMPOSED OF MEMBERS SELECTED
FROM EVERY LEVEL AND EVERY AREA OF #HINA )N TYPICAL #HINESE #OMMUNIST
FASHION OPEN AND SINCERE DISCUSSION WOULD BE COMPULSORY ONE COULD NOT
JUST APPROVE WITHOUT GIVING PERSONAL AND CONVINCING REASONS 3UCH A
BROADENING OF VIEWPOINTS WOULD OF COURSE PRODUCE FURTHER MODIlCATIONS
OF THE PROJECT OR AGAIN REVEAL ITS IMPRACTICALITY /UT OF THIS WOULD COME
0ROJECT .O
4HE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS HAD EARLY DESIGNATED CERTAIN AREAS OF EVERY
SIZE AS TEST AREAS 4HUS -ANCHURIA AS A WHOLE WAS A TEST REGION BECAUSE IT
WAS CONSIDERED THE VANGUARD FOR THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF #HINA A PROVINCE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
HERE AND THERE ONE OR SEVERAL DISTRICTS IN EACH PROVINCE ONE OR SEVERAL VIL
LAGES IN EACH DISTRICT HAD BEEN SELECTED FOR VARIOUS REASONS BECAUSE THEY
WERE IDEOLOGICALLY ADVANCED OR AVERAGE OR BACKWARD BECAUSE THEY WERE
CLOSE TO A LARGE CITY OR WERE POPULATED BY ETHNIC MINORITIES 0ROJECT .O
WOULD BE IMPLEMENTED SECRETLY IN THE TEST AREAS WITH A MINIMUM OF LOCAL
PUBLICITY 4HE OPERATIONS WOULD BE WATCHED BY CADRES OF EVERY LEVEL
COMING FROM THE NONTEST AREAS
!T THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT A THOROUGH CRITIQUE WOULD BE MADE AND THE
PROJECT REJECTED ALTOGETHER OR MODIlED ACCORDING TO THE LESSONS OF THE
EXPERIMENT )F KEPT IT WOULD BE NOW ANNOUNCED AS AN OFlCIAL DECISION AND
APPLIED WITH FANFARE ALL OVER THE COUNTRY 4HE OBSERVERS WOULD RETURN TO
THEIR POSTS NOT TO CARRY OUT THE REFORM BY THEMSELVES BUT TO SERVE AS TEACH
ERS AND INSPECTORS AT THEIR RESPECTIVE LEVELS FOR THE MASS OF LOCAL CADRES
4HIS IS HOW 0EKING WAS ABLE TO CONDUCT IN A FEW WEEKS THE lRST RELA
TIVELY THOROUGH CENSUS OF #HINA OR IMPOSE WITHIN A MONTH A TIGHT RATION
ING OF GRAIN 4HE FACT THAT THE #OMMUNIST REGIME LITERALLY RAN AMUCK IN THE
SUBSEQUENT PERIOD OF THE h'REAT ,EAP &ORWARDv DOES NOT DESTROY THE VALID
ITY OF THE PRINCIPLE !ND ALTHOUGH THE ABOVE EXAMPLE IS NOT DRAWN FROM A
COUNTERINSURGENCY SITUATION THE PRINCIPLE COULD INDEED BE USED WITH PROlT
IN ANY COUNTERINSURGENCY
./4%3
'ENERAL #HANG 4ING
CHEN CHIEF OF THE 3OUTH #HINA 3ERVICE #ORPS MEMBER
OF THE #ENTRAL #OMMITTEE AS QUOTED IN 4HE .EW 9ORK 4IMES *ULY
!FTER THE ABOVE STRESS ON THE NECESSITY FOR A BOSS AT EVERY LEVEL IN COUNTER
INSURGENCY WARFARE A COMMITTEE MUST BE SEEN IN THIS CASE NOT AS AN ORGANIZATION
WHERE DECISIONS ARE REACHED BY VOTE BUT MERELY AS A CONVENIENT PLACE TO AIR PROB
LEMS FOR THE BENElT OF THE BOSS
)F THE THOROUGHNESS OF THE CENSUS CANNOT BE DOUBTED THE VERACITY OF THE
PUBLISHED RESULTS IS ANOTHER AFFAIR /NLY THE 2ED #HINESE KNOW THE EXACT TRUTH
#HAPTER
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
7E SHALL STUDY HERE THE TACTICAL PROBLEMS NORMALLY ARISING WITH THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRATEGY OUTLINED IN #HAPTER $EALING WITH AND IN
THE ABSTRACT WE SHALL OF COURSE BE MORE CONCERNED WITH PRINCIPLES THAN
WITH ACTUAL RECIPES
4(% &)234 34%0 $%3425#4)/. /2 %805,3)/.
/& 4(% ).352'%.4 &/2#%3
4HE DESTRUCTION OF THE GUERRILLA FORCES IN THE SELECTED AREA IS OBVIOUSLY
HIGHLY DESIRABLE AND THIS IS WHAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST STRIVE FOR /NE
THING SHOULD BE CLEAR HOWEVER 4HIS OPERATION IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF FOR
GUERRILLAS LIKE THE HEADS OF THE LEGENDARY HYDRA HAVE THE SPECIAL ABILITY TO
GROW AGAIN IF NOT ALL DESTROYED AT THE SAME TIME 4HE REAL PURPOSE OF THE
lRST OPERATION THEN IS TO PREPARE THE STAGE FOR THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF
THE COUNTERINSURGENT ACTION
4HE GOAL IS REACHED WHEN STATIC UNITS LEFT TO GARRISON THE AREA CAN SAFELY
DEPLOY TO THE EXTENT NECESSARY #ONSEQUENTLY IF MOST OF THE GUERRILLAS ARE
MERELY EXPELLED THE RESULT IS STILL GOOD )F THEY DISBAND INTO VERY SMALL
GROUPS AND STAY HIDDEN IN THE AREA THE SITUATION IS STILL ACCEPTABLE AS LONG
AS THE COUNTERINSURGENT SEES TO IT THAT THEY CANNOT REGROUP 4O THIS EFFECT IN
THIS CASE SOME OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT MOBILE FORCES WILL HAVE TO REMAIN IN
THE AREA UNTIL THE STATIC UNITS HAVING BECOME WELL ESTABLISHED AND HAVING
IMPOSED ENOUGH PHYSICAL CONTROL OVER THE POPULATION ARE IN A POSITION TO
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
COPE WITH THE DISPERSED GUERRILLAS AND TO PREVENT THEIR REGROUPING INTO
LARGER MORE DANGEROUS GANGS
4HE lRST STEP IN THE COUNTERINSURGENTS OPERATIONS SHOULD NOT BE ALLOWED
TO DRAG ON FOR THE SAKE OF ACHIEVING BETTER MILITARY RESULTS
4ACTICS FOR THIS OPERATION ARE SIMPLE IN ESSENCE
-OBILE UNITS PLUS UNITS EARMARKED TO STAY IN THE AREA IN ORDER TO REIN
FORCE WHATEVER STATIC UNITS WERE ORIGINALLY THERE ARE SUDDENLY CONCEN
TRATED AROUND THE AREA 4HEY START OPERATING FROM THE OUTSIDE IN AIMING
AT CATCHING THE GUERRILLAS IN A RING !T THE SAME TIME UNITS GARRISONING
THE ADJOINING AREAS ARE ORDERED TO INTENSIFY THEIR ACTIVITY ON THE PERIPHERY
OF THE SELECTED AREA
4HE SWEEP IS NEXT CONDUCTED FROM THE INSIDE OUT AIMING AT LEAST AT EXPEL
LING THE GUERRILLAS
4HE OVER ALL OPERATION IS lNALLY BROKEN DOWN INTO SEVERAL SMALL SCALE
ONES !LL THE STATIC UNITS THE ORIGINAL AS WELL AS THE NEW ONES ARE ASSIGNED
TO THEIR PERMANENT SECTORS ! PART OF THE MOBILE UNITS OPERATES AS A BODY
CENTRALLY CONTROLLED THE REST IS LENT TO THE SECTORS !LL THE FORCES WORK ON
WHAT IS LEFT OF THE GUERRILLAS AFTER THE TWO EARLIER SWEEPS
4HE OPERATIONS ARE SUPPLEMENTED DURING THIS STEPAS IN ALL THE OTHERS
BY TACTICAL INFORMATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE DIRECTED AT THE INSUR
GENT THE COUNTERINSURGENTS OWN FORCES AND THE POPULATION
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE #OUNTERINSURGENT &ORCES
4HE OPERATIONS DURING THIS STEP BEING PREDOMINANTLY OF A MILITARY
NATURE WILL INEVITABLY CAUSE SOME DAMAGE AND DESTRUCTION 4HE INSURGENT
ON HIS PART WILL STRIVE TO PROVOKE CLASHES BETWEEN THE POPULATION AND THE
COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES
3INCE ANTAGONIZING THE POPULATION WILL NOT HELP IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT
HARDSHIPS FOR IT AND RASH ACTIONS ON THE PART OF THE FORCES BE KEPT TO A
MINIMUM 4HE UNITS PARTICIPATING IN THE OPERATIONS SHOULD BE THOROUGHLY
INDOCTRINATED TO THAT EFFECT THE MISDEEDS PUNISHED SEVERELY AND EVEN PUB
LICLY IF THIS CAN SERVE TO IMPRESS THE POPULATION !NY DAMAGE DONE SHOULD
BE IMMEDIATELY COMPENSATED WITHOUT RED TAPE
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE 0OPULATION
4O ASK THE LOCAL PEOPLE TO COOPERATE EN MASSE AND OPENLY AT THIS STAGE
WOULD BE USELESS AND EVEN SELF
DEFEATING FOR THEY CANNOT DO IT BEING STILL
UNDER THE INSURGENTS CONTROL 0ROMOTING SUCH A LINE WOULD EXPOSE THE
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
COUNTERINSURGENT TO A PUBLIC FAILURE &URTHERMORE IF SOME LOCAL CIVILIANS
WERE TO COOPERATE PREMATURELY AND BE PUNISHED FOR IT BY THE INSURGENT THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL SETBACK WOULD BE DISASTROUS
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WOULD BE WISER TO LIMIT HIS GOAL TO OBTAINING THE
NEUTRALITY OF THE POPULATION IE ITS PASSIVITY TOWARD BOTH SIDES 4HE GEN
ERAL LINE COULD BE h3TAY NEUTRAL AND PEACE WILL SOON RETURN TO THE AREA
(ELP THE INSURGENT AND WE WILL BE OBLIGED TO CARRY ON MORE MILITARY OPER
ATIONS AND THUS INmICT MORE DESTRUCTIONv
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE )NSURGENT
4HE INSURGENTS WORST MISTAKE AT THIS STAGE WOULD BE TO ACCEPT THE lGHT
TO REMAIN ACTIVE WHILE THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS VERY STRONG 4HE GOAL OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE IS TO PROD HIM INTO IT
/NCE THE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS LOST THE BENElT OF SURPRISEIF ANY
ACHIEVED DURING THE CONCENTRATION AND AFTER THE lRST OPERATIONS IF HE THEN
PROCLAIMS HIS INTENTION TO REMAIN IN THE AREA IN ORDER TO WORK WITH THE
POPULATION AND TO WIN ITS SUPPORT THE INSURGENT FEARING THE LOSS OF FACE AS
WELL AS THE EVENTUAL LOSS OF GENUINE STRENGTH MAY BE INCITED TO ACCEPT THE
CHALLENGE
4(% 3%#/.$ 34%0 $%0,/9-%.4 /& 4(%
34!4)# 5.)4
#OMPLETE ELIMINATION OF THE GUERRILLAS BY MILITARY ACTION BEING PRACTI
CALLY IMPOSSIBLE AT THIS STAGE REMNANTS WILL ALWAYS MANAGE TO STAY IN THE
AREA AND NEW RECRUITS WILL JOIN THEIR RANKS SO LONG AS THE POLITICAL CELLS
HAVE NOT BEEN DESTROYED 4HEY CAN BE CONCLUSIVELY WIPED OUT ONLY WITH THE
ACTIVE COOPERATION OF THE POPULATION COOPERATION WHICH WILL BE AVAILABLE
TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT IN THE LATER STEPS OF THE PROCESS IF ALL GOES WELL
4HIS IS WHY THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES MUST NOW SWITCH THEIR ATTENTION
FROM THE GUERRILLAS TO THE POPULATION
4HIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT MILITARY ACTIVITY WILL STOP /N THE CONTRARY THE
STATIC UNITS WILL CONTINUE TRACKING THE GUERRILLAS BUT NOW THROUGH SMALL
SCALE OPERATIONS AND AMBUSHES WITH THE UNDERSTANDING THAT THIS ACTIVITY
MUST NEVER DISTRACT THEM FROM THEIR PRIMARY MISSION WHICH IS TO WIN THE
SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT ALSO HAS TO SEE THAT GUERRILLA FORCES DO NOT COME
BACK IN STRENGTH FROM THE OUTSIDE /PPOSING SUCH INCURSIONS WILL BE THE
MAIN TASK OF THE AREAS OWN MOBILE FORCES
4HE PURPOSE IN DEPLOYING STATIC UNITS IS TO ESTABLISH A GRID OF TROOPS SO
THAT THE POPULATION AND THE COUNTERINSURGENT POLITICAL TEAMS ARE REASONABLY
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
WELL PROTECTED AND SO THAT THE TROOPS CAN PARTICIPATE IN CIVIC ACTION AT THE
LOWEST LEVEL JUST WHERE CIVILIAN POLITICAL PERSONNEL IS INSUFlCIENT IN NUM
BER 4HE AREA WILL BE DIVIDED INTO SECTORS AND SUBSECTORS EACH WITH ITS OWN
STATIC UNIT
4HE SUBDIVISION SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT DOWN TO THE LEVEL OF THE hBASIC
UNIT OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFAREv THE LARGEST UNIT WHOSE LEADER IS IN
DIRECT AND CONTINUOUS CONTACT WITH THE POPULATION 4HIS IS THE MOST IMPOR
TANT UNIT IN COUNTERINSURGENCY OPERATIONS THE LEVEL WHERE MOST OF THE PRAC
TICAL PROBLEMS ARISE WHERE THE WAR IS WON OR LOST 4HE SIZE VARIES FROM
CASE TO CASE AND IN EACH CASE WITH THE SITUATION THE BASIC UNIT MAY BE A
BATTALION OR A COMPANY INITIALLY A SQUAD OR EVEN A RURAL POLICEMAN AT THE
END OF THE PROCESS
#ERTAIN POINTS REQUIRE PARTICULAR ATTENTION IN THE DEPLOYMENT OF STATIC
UNITS
4HE ADMINISTRATIVE AND THE MILITARY LIMITS SHOULD COINCIDE AT EVERY LEVEL
EVEN IF THE RESULTING BORDERS SEEM NONSENSICAL FROM A STRICTLY MILITARY POINT
OF VIEW &AILURE TO OBSERVE THIS PRINCIPLE WOULD RESULT IN CONFUSION THAT
WOULD BENElT THE INSURGENT
)T SEEMS LOGICAL THAT THE GRID BE INITIALLY TIGHTER IN THE CENTER OF THE AREA
THAN AT THE PERIPHERY WHERE THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES WILL NECESSARILY
DEVOTE A GREATER PART OF THEIR ACTIVITY TO MILITARY OPERATIONS
4HE UNITS MUST BE DEPLOYED WHERE THE POPULATION ACTUALLY LIVES AND NOT
ON POSITIONS DEEMED TO POSSESS A MILITARY VALUE ! MILITARY UNIT CAN SPEND
THE ENTIRE WAR IN SO
CALLED STRATEGIC POSITIONS WITHOUT CONTRIBUTING ANY
THING TO THE INSURGENTS DEFEAT 4HIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT BRIDGES COMMUNI
CATION CENTERS AND OTHER VULNERABLE INSTALLATIONS SHOULD NOT BE PROTECTED
OF COURSE BUT RATHER THAT COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES SHOULD NOT BE WASTED IN
TRADITIONALLY COMMANDING POSITIONS FOR IN REVOLUTIONARY WARFARE THESE
POSITIONS GENERALLY COMMAND NOTHING
)F THE RURAL POPULATION IS TOO DISPERSED TO ALLOW THE STATIONING OF A MILI
TARY DETACHMENT WITH EVERY GROUP THE COUNTERINSURGENT FACES THE DECISION
OF RESETTLING IT AS WAS DONE IN -ALAYA #AMBODIA AND !LGERIA AND IS
BEING DONE TODAY IN 3OUTH 6IETNAM 3UCH A RADICAL MEASURE IS COMPLICATED
AND DANGEROUS #OMPLICATED BECAUSE THE POPULATION HAS TO BE MOVED
HOUSED AND GIVEN FACILITIES TO RETAIN ITS OLD OR TO lND NEW INDEPENDENT
MEANS OF LIVING $ANGEROUS BECAUSE NOBODY LIKES TO BE UPROOTED AND THE
OPERATION IS BOUND TO ANTAGONIZE THE POPULATION SERIOUSLY AT A CRITICAL TIME
A WELL
PLANNED AND WELL
CONDUCTED RESETTLEMENT MAY ULTIMATELY OFFER THE
POPULATION ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ADVANTAGES BUT THEY WILL NOT BECOME
APPARENT IMMEDIATELY -OREOVER REGROUPING THE POPULATION IS BASICALLY A
DEFENSIVE
MINDED ACTION )T GIVES THE INSURGENT A LARGE MEASURE OF FREEDOM
OF THE COUNTRYSIDE AT LEAST AT NIGHT AND IT IS HARDLY COMPATIBLE WITH THE
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
ULTIMATE GOAL OF ACTIVELY USING THE POPULATION BOTH AS A SOURCE OF INTELLI
GENCE AND AS A WIDESPREAD MILITIA AGAINST THE GUERRILLAS ! CURIOUS ILLUS
TRATION OF THE EFFECTS OF RESETTLING THE POPULATION IS PROVIDED BY THE !LGERIAN
7AR 7HEN THE &RENCH SEALED OFF THE 4UNISIAN BORDER THEY ACTUALLY BUILT
THE FENCE AT SOME DISTANCE FROM IT "Y REMOVING THE LOCAL POPULATION IN
SOME SECTORS BETWEEN THE FENCE AND THE BORDER THEY CREATED A NO MANS
LAND )N WHEN THE SITUATION HAD IMPROVED GREATLY THEY RESETTLED THE
POPULATION IN ITS ORIGINAL DWELLINGS BETWEEN THE FENCE AND THE BORDER 4HEN
THE &,. IN TURN FORCIBLY REMOVED THE POPULATION TO 4UNISIA BECAUSE THE
&RENCH WERE GETTING TOO MUCH INTELLIGENCE ON &,. MOVEMENTS FROM IT
2ESETTLEMENT CLEARLY IS A LAST
RESORT MEASURE BORN OUT OF THE COUNTERIN
SURGENTS WEAKNESS )T SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN ONLY IF THE TREND OF THE WAR
DElNITELY SHOWS NO PROSPECT FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES TO DEPLOY
SAFELY TO THE REQUIRED LEVEL )F SUCH IS THE CASE RESETTLEMENT MUST lRST BE
CAREFULLY TESTED IN A LIMITED WAY IN ORDER TO DETECT THE PROBLEMS ARISING
WITH THE OPERATION AND TO GET THE NECESSARY EXPERIENCE )T SHOULD BE PRE
CEDED BY INTENSIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND LOGISTICAL PREPARATION &INALLY THE
SIZES OF THE VARIOUS RESETTLEMENTS SHOULD CORRESPOND TO THE MAXIMUM POS
SIBLE DEPLOYMENT OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES IF FOR INSTANCE IN A GIVEN
AREA A BATTALION CAN SAFELY DEPLOY ITS COMPANIES SETTLEMENTS OF
PERSONS EACH SEEM PREFERABLE TO A SINGLE SETTLEMENT OF
!REAS VERY SPARSELY POPULATED AND DIFlCULT OF ACCESS BECAUSE OF TERRAIN
MAY BE TURNED INTO FORBIDDEN ZONES WHERE TRESPASSERS CAN BE ARRESTED OR
EVENTUALLY SHOT ON SIGHT BY GROUND OR AIR lRE
!T EVERY LEVEL THE TERRITORIAL COMMAND MUST HAVE ITS OWN MOBILE RESERVES
4HE MORE DISPERSED THE STATIC UNITS THE MORE IMPORTANT THE MOBILE RESERVES
ARE (OWEVER THEY SHOULD NOT BE ALLOWED TO REMAIN IDLE BETWEEN MILITARY
OPERATIONS THEY CAN AND SHOULD ALSO PARTICIPATE IN THE CIVIC
ACTION PROGRAM
)N OTHER WORDS THESE LOCAL MOBILE RESERVES ARE STATIC UNITS ON WHICH THE
LOCAL COMMAND HAS AN OPERATIONAL OPTION WITH A SPECIlED WARNING TIME OF
ONE TWO OR MORE HOURS
4HE DEPLOYMENT MUST NOT FOLLOW A SET PATTERN SUCH AS A COMPANY OR A
PLATOON FOR EVERY VILLAGE )T MUST BE mEXIBLE BECAUSE AS THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT WORK PROGRESSES AND SECURITY INCREASES IN THE AREA THE STATIC UNITS WILL
HAVE TO SPREAD OUT MORE AND MORE UNTIL ONLY A FEW MEN WILL BE LEFT TO
PROVIDE THE CORE FOR SELF
DEFENSE UNITS #ONSEQUENTLY HEAVY EXPENSIVE
CONSTRUCTIONS FOR HOUSING THE TROOPS SHOULD BE PROHIBITED NOT SO MUCH FOR
THE COST INVOLVED BUT FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL REASONS )T IS ONLY HUMAN THAT SOL
DIERS WOULD BECOME ATTACHED TO THEIR BARRACKS AND THUS BE RELUCTANT TO
MOVE TO LESS COMFORTABLE BILLETS )T IS ALSO HUMAN THAT SOLDIERS LIVING IN
BARRACKS WOULD ALWAYS APPEAR TO THE POPULATION AS OUTSIDERS AS PEOPLE
APART )F NO CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN WHAT IS STRICTLY NECESSARY IS ALLOWED
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES WILL BE FORCED TO LIVE LIKE THE POPULATION IN
SHACKS IF NECESSARY AND THIS WILL HELP TO CREATE COMMON BONDS
4HE PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST AREA APPLIES AT EVERY LEVEL 5NTIL SOME PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCE HAS BEEN ACQUIRED IT WOULD BE BEST FOR THE BASIC UNIT NOT TO
SPREAD AT ONCE ALL OVER ITS TERRITORY EVEN IF IT IS SAFE TO DO SO BUT INSTEAD TO
CONCENTRATE ITS WORK lRST ON ONE VILLAGE SO THAT THE SOLDIERS WHEN THEY
OCCUPY OTHER VILLAGES WILL KNOW WHAT TO DO AND WHAT TO AVOID
$URING THIS STEP THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVES MAY BE ASSIGNED TO THE INFOR
MATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE PROGRAM
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE #OUNTERINSURGENT &ORCES
!S THEIR MAIN EFFORTS WILL SWITCH HEREAFTER FROM MILITARY TO OTHER ACTIVI
TIES THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES NEED TO BE TOLD THE REASONS FOR THE CHANGE
AND TO HAVE THEIR FUTURE TASKS EXPLAINED TO THEM IN GENERAL TERMS 4HIS
INFORMATION PROGRAM IF CONDUCTED IN AN ATMOSPHERE OF FREE DISCUSSION
SHOULD AND COULD BE USED FOR A PRACTICAL PURPOSE !CCORDING TO THE REAC
TIONS OF THE PARTICIPANTS THE LEADER CAN SPOT THE OFlCERS AND MEN WHO SEEM
BEST lTTED TO WORK CLOSELY WITH THE POPULATION AND THOSE WHO ON THE CON
TRARY ARE MORE ATTRACTED TO THE MILITARY SIDE OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT WORK
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE 0OPULATION
4HE DEPLOYMENT OF STATIC UNITS MARKS THE BEGINNING OF A LONG CAMPAIGN
TO SHAKE THE POPULATION FROM ITS NEUTRAL IF NOT HOSTILE STAND 4HE DEPLOY
MENT IS A CONVINCING ARGUMENT TO SHOW THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENTS ARE THERE
TO STAY FOR THEY WOULD NOT SPREAD OUT IF THEY CONTEMPLATED LEAVING THE AREA
AFTER AN EXTENSIVE BUT ONE
SHOT OPERATION 4HIS SHOULD NATURALLY BE THE LINE
TO EXPLOIT AND PERHAPS THE BEST WAY MIGHT BE THE INDIRECT ONE BY LETTING
THE POPULATION MAKE ITS OWN DEDUCTIONS FROM FACTS AND RUMORS &OR
INSTANCE NEGOTIATING A TWO
OR THREE
YEAR CONTRACT FOR BILLETS OR LAND WITH A
VILLAGER WOULD SURELY PRODUCE THE RIGHT EFFECT
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE )NSURGENT
4HE DEPLOYMENT CANNOT BE INSTANTANEOUS OR EVEN SIMULTANEOUS IN ALL THE
SELECTED AREA BECAUSE THE SITUATION WILL INEVITABLY SHOW DIFFERENCES FROM
SECTOR TO SECTOR $URING THIS PERIOD THE COUNTERINSURGENTS CONCENTRATION OF
FORCES IS STILL HEAVY DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF MOBILE UNITS OPERATING IN THE AREA
AND TO THE FACT THAT STATIC UNITS ARE NOT YET DISPERSED INTO SMALL DETACHMENTS
)T IS STILL IN THE COUNTERINSURGENTS INTEREST TO PURSUE THE SAME POLICY AS
IN THE PRECEDING STEP AND TO INCITE THE GUERRILLAS TO REACT AT THE WORST
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
POSSIBLE TIME FOR THEM 4HE POINT SHOULD BE STRESSED THEREFORE THAT THEY
WILL BE LOST ONCE THEY HAVE BEEN CUT OFF FROM THE POPULATION #ALLING ON
THEM TO LEAVE THE AREA OR TO SURRENDER MAY INDUCE THEIR LEADERS TO DO THE
VERY OPPOSITE IE TO lGHT
4(% 4()2$ 34%0 #/.4!#4 7)4( !.$ #/.42/,
/& 4(% 0/05,!4)/.
4HREE MAIN OBJECTIVES ARE PURSUED IN THIS STEP
4O RE ESTABLISH THE COUNTERINSURGENTS AUTHORITY OVER THE POPULATION
4O ISOLATE THE POPULATION AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE BY PHYSICAL MEANS FROM
THE GUERRILLAS
4O GATHER THE NECESSARY INTELLIGENCE LEADING TO THE NEXT STEPELIMINATION
OF THE INSURGENT POLITICAL CELLS
4HIS IS THE MOST CRITICAL STEP IN THE PROCESS BECAUSE OF ITS TRANSITIONAL
CHARACTER MOVING FROM EMPHASIS ON MILITARY OPERATIONS TO EMPHASIS ON
POLITICAL ONES AND BECAUSE IT COMBINES A HEAVY BURDEN OF BOTH
4HE MAIN CENTER OF INTEREST SWITCHES NOW TO THE LEVEL OF THE BASIC UNIT OF
WORK WHERE THE REAL BATTLE TAKES PLACE
#ONTACT WITH THE POPULATION 4HIS PARTICULAR OPERATION CONTACT WITH
THE POPULATION IS ACTUALLY THE lRST CONFRONTATION BETWEEN THE TWO CAMPS
FOR POWER OVER THE POPULATION 4HE FUTURE ATTITUDE OF THE POPULATION HENCE
THE PROBABLE OUTCOME OF THE WAR IS AT STAKE 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT
AFFORD TO LOSE THIS BATTLE
4HE BATTLE HAPPENS BECAUSE THE POPULATION WHICH WAS UNTIL RECENTLY
UNDER THE INSURGENTS OPEN CONTROL AND PROBABLY STILL IS UNDER HIS HIDDEN
CONTROL THROUGH THE EXISTING POLITICAL CELLS CANNOT COOPERATE SPONTANE
OUSLY EVEN IF THERE IS EVERY REASON TO BELIEVE THAT A MAJORITY IS SYMPATHETIC
TO THE COUNTERINSURGENT 4HE INHABITANTS WILL USUALLY AVOID ANY CONTACT
WITH HIM 4HERE IS A BARRIER BETWEEN THEM AND THE COUNTERINSURGENT THAT
HAS TO BE BROKEN AND CAN BE BROKEN ONLY BY FORCE 7HATEVER THE COUNTER
INSURGENT WANTS THE POPULATION TO DO WILL HAVE TO BE IMPOSED 9ET THE POP
ULATION MUST NOT BE TREATED AS AN ENEMY
4HE SOLUTION IS lRST TO REQUEST AND NEXT TO ORDER THE POPULATION TO PER
FORM A CERTAIN NUMBER OF COLLECTIVE AND INDIVIDUAL TASKS THAT WILL BE PAID
FOR "Y GIVING ORDERS THE COUNTERINSURGENT PROVIDES THE ALIBI THAT THE POP
ULATION NEEDS VIS
Ë
VIS THE INSURGENT ! TERRIBLE ERROR WOULD BE OF COURSE
TO ISSUE ORDERS AND BE UNABLE TO ENFORCE THEM THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST
BE CAREFUL TO ISSUE ORDERS SPARINGLY AND ONLY AFTER MAKING SURE THAT THE
POPULATION CAN HUMANLY COMPLY WITH THEM
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
3TARTING WITH TASKS DIRECTLY BENElTING THE POPULATIONSUCH AS CLEANING THE
VILLAGE OR REPAIRING THE STREETSTHE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADS THE INHABITANTS
GRADUALLY IF ONLY IN A PASSIVE WAY TO PARTICIPATE IN THE lGHT AGAINST THE INSUR
GENT BY SUCH WORK AS BUILDING ROADS OF MILITARY INTEREST HELPING IN THE CON
STRUCTION OF THE VILLAGES DEFENSIVE INSTALLATIONS CARRYING SUPPLIES TO MILITARY
DETACHMENTS PROVIDING GUIDES AND SENTRIES
#ONTROL OF THE POPULATION #ONTROL OF THE POPULATION BEGINS OBVIOUSLY
WITH A THOROUGH CENSUS %VERY INHABITANT MUST BE REGISTERED AND GIVEN A
FOOLPROOF IDENTITY CARD &AMILY BOOKLETS SHOULD BE ISSUED TO EACH HOUSE
HOLD IN ORDER TO FACILITATE HOUSE
TO
HOUSE CONTROL AND FAMILY HEADS MADE
RESPONSIBLE FOR REPORTING ANY CHANGE AS IT OCCURS 4HIS LAST MEASURE IS USE
FUL NOT ONLY BECAUSE IT IS ESSENTIAL TO KEEP THE CENSUS UP TO DATE BUT ALSO
BECAUSE THE RESPONSIBILITY PLACED ON THE FAMILY HEAD MAKES HIM PARTICI
PATE WILLY
NILLY IN THE STRUGGLE
4HE INSURGENT CANNOT IGNORE THE CENSUS AND CAN GUESS ONLY TOO WELL ITS
IMPLICATIONS (E WILL SURELY ATTEMPT TO SABOTAGE IT /NE WAY IS TO FORCE
VILLAGERS TO DESTROY THEIR NEW IDENTITY CARDS SINCE A CIVILIAN SANS IDENTITY
CARD IS IN FOR MUCH TROUBLE IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR THIS TACTIC WILL SOON RAISE
SUCH AN OUTCRY AMONG THE POPULATION THAT THE INSURGENT WILL BE FORCED TO
DISCARD IT (E MAY INSTEAD TRY TO REGISTER HIS OWN PERSONNEL COUNTING ON
THE IGNORANCE OF THE LOCAL COUNTERINSURGENT AND ON THE SOLIDARITY OR SILENCE
OF THE POPULATION 4O OPPOSE THIS MORE INSIDIOUS TACTIC THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT CAN REQUEST THAT EVERY ABLE
BODIED MAN SUBJECT TO THE CENSUS BE
VOUCHED FOR BY TWO GUARANTORS FROM OUTSIDE HIS FAMILY WHO WOULD BE
RESPONSIBLE UNDER SEVERE PENALTY FOR THE VERACITY OF HIS STATEMENTS WHICH
SHOULD BE CHECKED ANYWAY BEFORE THE IDENTITY CARD IS ISSUED 4HIS MEASURE
ALSO WILL CONTRIBUTE TO TURN THE POPULATION AGAINST THE INSURGENT
! CENSUS IF PROPERLY MADE AND EXPLOITED IS A BASIC SOURCE OF INTELLI
GENCE )T WOULD SHOW FOR INSTANCE WHO IS RELATED TO WHOM AN IMPORTANT
PIECE OF INFORMATION IN COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE BECAUSE INSURGENT
RECRUITING AT THE VILLAGE LEVEL IS GENERALLY BASED INITIALLY ON FAMILY TIES OR
WHO OWNS PROPERTY OR WHO WORKS OUTSIDE OF THE VILLAGE AND HAS THEREFORE
LEGITIMATE REASONS TO TRAVEL OR WHAT IS EACH MANS SOURCE AND AMOUNT OF
INCOME WHICH WOULD IMMEDIATELY SEPARATE THOSE WHO CAN AFFORD TO
INDULGE IN ABNORMAL ACTIVITIES FROM THOSE WHO CANNOT 4HE CENSUS SHOULD
CONSEQUENTLY BE WELL PLANNED AND CONDUCTED IN A SYSTEMATIC FASHION SO
THAT THE FORMAT AND THE RESULTS DO NOT VARY FROM SECTOR TO SECTOR
4HE AIM OF THE CONTROL IS TO CUT OFF OR AT LEAST REDUCE SIGNIlCANTLY THE
CONTACTS BETWEEN THE POPULATION AND THE GUERRILLAS 4HIS IS DONE BY WATCH
ING THE POPULATIONS ACTIVITIES AFTER A WHILE WHEN THE COUNTERINSURGENT
PERSONNEL HAS BECOME ACQUAINTED WITH THE POPULATION AND KNOWS EACH
INHABITANT UNUSUAL BEHAVIOR CAN BE SPOTTED EASILY 4HE PROCESS OF GETTING
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
ACQUAINTED WITH THE POPULATION MAY BE SPEEDED UP IF THE OCCUPIED VILLAGES
ARE DIVIDED INTO SECTIONS AND EACH ASSIGNED TO A GROUP OF SOLDIERS WHO WILL
ALWAYS WORK THERE
#ONTROL IS ALSO ACHIEVED BY ENFORCING A CURFEW AND TWO SIMPLE RULES
CONCERNING MOVEMENTS OF PERSONS .OBODY MAY LEAVE HIS VILLAGE FOR MORE
THAN TWENTY
FOUR HOURS WITHOUT A PASS AND NOBODY MAY RECEIVE A STRANGER
FROM OUTSIDE THE VILLAGE WITHOUT PERMISSION 4HE PURPOSE IS NOT TO PREVENT
MOVEMENTUNLESS THERE ARE SPECIlC REASONS FOR DOING SOBUT TO CHECK
ON IT "Y MAKING UNCHECKED TRAVEL MORE DIFlCULT THE COUNTERINSURGENT
AGAIN PROVIDES THE POPULATION WITH A NECESSARY ALIBI FOR NOT HELPING THE
INSURGENT
4HESE RULES HOWEVER HAVE NO VALUE UNLESS THEY CAN BE STRICTLY AND SYS
TEMATICALLY ENFORCED !S THEY ARE BOUND TO CREATE OFFENDERS A FAST AND
SUMMARY SYSTEM OF lNES HAS TO BE DEVISED AND ANNOUNCED TO THE POPULA
TION 4HE PROBLEM OF lNES IS ONE THAT MERITS CONSIDERATION AT THE HIGHEST
LEVEL OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT HIERARCHY BECAUSE IT IS A SERIOUS ONE AND
BECAUSE ITS SOLUTION CANNOT BE LEFT TO THE INITIATIVE OF LOCAL LEADERS FOR IT
WOULD LEAD TO TOO LIGHT OR TOO HEAVY PUNISHMENT AND IN ANY CASE
TO CHAOS
4HE GUERRILLAS WHO REMAIN IN THE SELECTED AREA AT THE END OF THE lRST STEP
WILL BE FEW AND SCATTERED 4HEY NEED VERY LITTLE IN THE WAY OF SUPPLIES IN
ORDER TO SURVIVE #UTTING THEM OFF FROM THEIR SOURCES WOULD REQUIRE GREAT
EFFORT TO PRODUCE LITTLE RESULT )F CONTROL OF GOODS APPEARS NECESSARY IT
SHOULD BE RESTRICTED TO ITEMS THAT ARE BOTH SCARCE AND VERY USEFUL TO THE
GUERRILLAS SUCH AS CANNED FOOD RADIO BATTERIES SHOES /NE CASE WHEN FOOD
CONTROL IS EFFECTIVE AT LITTLE COST IS WHEN THE GUERRILLAS ARE GEOGRAPHICALLY
ISOLATED FROM THE POPULATION AS IN -ALAYA WHERE THEY LIVED IN THE JUNGLE
WHILE THE POPULATION HAD BEEN RESETTLED OUTSIDE
0ROTECTION OF THE POPULATION *UST AS THE COUNTERINSURGENT BY FORCIBLY
IMPOSING HIS WILL ON THE POPULATION GIVES IT AN EXCUSE FOR NOT COOPERATING
WITH THE INSURGENT THE OPPOSITE IS TRUE "Y THREATENING THE POPULATION THE
INSURGENT GIVES THE POPULATION AN EXCUSE IF NOT A REASON TO REFUSE OR REFRAIN
FROM COOPERATING WITH THE COUNTERINSURGENT
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT CANNOT ACHIEVE MUCH IF THE POPULATION IS NOT AND
DOES NOT FEEL PROTECTED AGAINST THE INSURGENT 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT NEEDS
THEREFORE TO STEP UP HIS MILITARY ACTIVITY TO MULTIPLY PATROLS AND SMALL
SCALE OPERATIONS BY DAY AND AMBUSHES BY NIGHT !BOVE ALL HE MUST AVOID
THE CLASSIC SITUATION WHERE HE RULES DURING THE DAY AND HIS OPPONENT DURING
THE NIGHT
0LANS FOR RAPID REACTION AGAINST ANY INSURGENT MOVE SHOULD BE DEVISED
INVOLVING COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES THAT CAN BE READY AT A MOMENTS
NOTICE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
)NTELLIGENCE COLLECTION 7HENEVER AN ORGANIZATION IS SET UP TO COLLECT
INTELLIGENCE INTELLIGENCE IS BOUND TO mOW IN EITHER BECAUSE INFORMERS
COME SPONTANEOUSLY TO THE ORGANIZATION OR BECAUSE IT GOES AFTER INFORMERS
4HE ONLY REAL PROBLEM IS HOW TO PRIME THE PUMP AND HASTEN THE mOW
3PONTANEOUS INFORMATION IS HARD TO COME BY AT THIS STAGE BECAUSE OF THE
POPULATIONS FEAR OF THE INSURGENT AND BECAUSE OF ITS LACK OF CONlDENCE IN
THE COUNTERINSURGENT 4O OVERCOME THIS ATTITUDE WOULD
BE INFORMERS
SHOULD BE GIVEN A SAFE ANONYMOUS WAY TO CONVEY INFORMATION -ANY SYS
TEMS CAN BE DEVISED FOR THE PURPOSE BUT THE SIMPLEST ONE IS TO MULTIPLY
OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDIVIDUAL CONTACTS BETWEEN THE POPULATION AND THE COUN
TERINSURGENT PERSONNEL EVERY ONE OF WHOM MUST PARTICIPATE IN INTELLIGENCE
COLLECTION NOT JUST THE SPECIALISTS 4HE CENSUS THE ISSUING OF PASSES THE
REMUNERATION OF WORKERS ETC ARE SUCH OPPORTUNITIES
7HEN SEEKING INFORMERS THE COUNTERINSURGENT WILL HAVE BETTER RESULTS IF
HE CONCENTRATES HIS EFFORTS ON THOSE INHABITANTS WHO BY DElNITION OUGHT
TO BE HIS POTENTIAL ALLIES IE THOSE WHO WOULD HAVE LEAST TO WIN AND MOST
TO LOSE THROUGH THE INSURGENTS VICTORY 4HE INSURGENTS PROGRAM USUALLY
INDICATES WHO THEY MAY BE
)F INTELLIGENCE IS STILL SLOW IN COMING PRESSURE MAY BE APPLIED .O CITI
ZEN EVEN IN A PRIMITIVE COUNTRY CAN WITHSTAND FOR LONG THE PRESSURE FROM
AN UNCOOPERATIVE BUREAUCRACY INSURGENCY CONDITIONS NATURALLY INCREASE
THE NUMBER OF REGULATIONS THAT HAVE TO BE COMPLIED WITH IN DAILY LIFE
"UREAUCRACY CAN BE A POWERFUL WEAPON IN THE HAND OF THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT PROVIDED IT IS USED WITH MODERATION AND RESTRAINT AND NEVER AGAINST A
COMMUNITY AS A WHOLE BUT ONLY AGAINST A FEW INDIVIDUALS
)N STILL TOUGHER CASES VISITS TO THE INHABITANTS BY PSEUDO INSURGENTS ARE
ANOTHER WAY TO GET INTELLIGENCE AND TO SOW SUSPICION AT THE SAME TIME
BETWEEN THE REAL GUERRILLAS AND THE POPULATION
3TARTING TO WIN THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION )MPLEMENTING POLITICAL
REFORMSIF THEY HAVE BEEN CONCEIVED AND ANNOUNCED BY THE GOVERNMENT
WOULD BE PREMATURE AT THIS STAGE 4HE TIME WILL BE RIGHT WHEN THE INSUR
GENT POLITICAL CELLS HAVE BEEN DESTROYED AND WHEN LOCAL LEADERS HAVE
EMERGED )N THE POLITICAL lELD THE TASK OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT LEADER IS TO
DISCOVER WHAT REFORMS ARE REALLY WANTED AND TO INFORM THE HIGHER ECHE
LONS OR TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE ANNOUNCED REFORMS CONFORM WITH THE
POPULAR WISH
/N THE OTHER HAND THE COUNTERINSURGENT CAN AT ONCE START WORKING ON
VARIOUS PROJECTS IN THE ECONOMIC SOCIAL CULTURAL AND MEDICAL lELDS WHERE
RESULTS ARE NOT ENTIRELY DEPENDENT ON THE ACTIVE COOPERATION FROM THE POPU
LATION )F THESE PROJECTS ARE DEEMED USEFUL A PRIORI FOR THE POPULATION THEY
MAY EVEN BE IMPOSED ON IT THE ACCUSATION OF PATERNALISM WILL SOON BE
FORGOTTEN WHEN RESULTS SPEAK FOR THEMSELVES
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT SHOULD ALSO SEIZE EVERY OPPORTUNITY TO HELP THE
POPULATION WITH HIS OWN RESOURCES IN PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT ,ACK OF
OSTENTATION IS THE BEST ATTITUDE AS HIS ACTIONS GOOD OR BAD WILL ALWAYS BE
COMMENTED UPON AND AMPLIlED BY THE PUBLIC RUMOR
)N THE lELD OF INFORMATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE THE PROBLEMS AND
THE TASKS ARE NUMEROUS DURING THIS THIRD STEP
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE #OUNTERINSURGENT &ORCES
7HEN FORCES ARE SCATTERED AMONG AND LIVING WITH THE POPULATION THEY
NEED NOT BE TOLD ANY LONGER THAT THEY HAVE TO WIN ITS SUPPORT "EING MORE
VULNERABLE THEY REALIZE INSTINCTIVELY THAT THEIR OWN SAFETY DEPENDS ON GOOD
RELATIONS WITH THE LOCAL PEOPLE 'OOD FRIENDLY BEHAVIOR WILL COME ABOUT
NATURALLY ON THEIR PART 4HE PROBLEM NOW IS RATHER HOW TO IMPRESS THE COUN
TERINSURGENT PERSONNEL WITH THE NECESSITY OF REMAINING INWARDLY ON GUARD
WHILE BEING OUTWARDLY FRIENDLY
!NOTHER PROBLEM IS HOW TO MAKE AN ACTIVE AND EFlCIENT AGENT OUT OF EVERY
MEMBER OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES REGARDLESS OF HIS RANK AND CAPACITY
7HERE STRICT OBEDIENCE TO ORDERS WAS SUFlCIENT IN THE PRECEDING STEPS INITIA
TIVE NOW BECOMES A MUST 9ET EVERY INDIVIDUAL EFFORT MUST BE CHANNELED
TOWARD THE SAME GOAL DEVIATIONS OR HONEST MISTAKES KEPT TO A MINIMUM
4HIS IS THE TIME WHEN THE LOCAL COMMANDER MUST ASSIGN SPECIlC TASKS TO HIS
MEN EVERY DAY PATIENTLY BRIEF THEM ON THEIR PURPOSES OUTLINE A WAY TO FULlLL
THEM ANTICIPATE THE DIFlCULTIES LIKELY TO ARISE AND PROPOSE A PROPER SOLUTION
!FTER EACH PARTICULAR OPERATION HE MUST HOLD A MEETING WITH HIS MEN LISTEN
TO THEIR COMMENTS DRAW THE LESSONS AND SPREAD THE EXPERIENCE TO OTHER
GROUPS )F THERE IS ANY WAY TO TEACH INITIATIVE THIS SHOULD DO IT
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE 0OPULATION
4HREE MAJOR GOALS ARE PURSUED DURING THIS STEP IN REGARD TO THE
POPULATION
4O GET FROM IT SOME MEASURE OF APPROVALOR AT LEAST UNDERSTANDINGFOR
THE VARIOUS ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE COUNTERINSURGENT THAT AFFECT THE POPULA
TION CENSUS CONTROL OF MOVEMENTS IMPOSITION OF TASKS ETC
4O LAY THE GROUNDWORK FOR THE EVENTUAL DISSOCIATION OF THE POPULATION
AND THE INSURGENT
4O PREPARE THE COMMITMENT OF SYMPATHETIC BUT STILL NEUTRAL ELEMENTS
4HE lRST POINT RAISES NO GREAT PROBLEM )T IS JUST A MATTER OF THE COUN
TERINSURGENTS TELLING THE POPULATION WHAT HE PROPOSES TO DO AND WHY
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE DIFlCULTY COMES WITH THE OTHER POINTS 0ROPAGANDA LIKE TERRORISM HAS
AN UNFORTUNATE TENDENCY TO BACKlRE OF ALL THE INSTRUMENTS OF WARFARE IT IS
THE MOST DELICATE AND ITS USE REQUIRES CAUTION ADHERENCE TO REALITY AND
MUCH ADVANCE PLANNING 9ET IF THE TARGET IS A RURAL POPULATION PROPAGANDA
IS MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN ITS SUBSTANCE DEALS WITH LOCAL EVENTS WITH PROBLEMS
WITH WHICH THE POPULATION IS DIRECTLY CONCERNED AND WHEN IT IS CONDUCTED
ON A PERSON TO PERSON BASIS OR ADDRESSED TO SPECIlC GROUPS THE MEN THE
WOMEN THE YOUTH THE ELDERLY ETC RATHER THAN TO THE WHOLE
)T IS HARDLY POSSIBLE TO hPRECOOKv THIS SORT OF PROPAGANDA AT A HIGH LEVEL
/NE CAN EASILY SEE THAT THE RESPONSIBILITIES PLACED UPON THE LOCAL COM
MANDER ARE EXTREMELY HEAVY ESPECIALLY WHEN HE HAS JUST BEGUN TO CONTACT
THE POPULATION AND HAS NOT YET ASSESSED ITS REACTIONS IN A GENERAL WAY (OW
CAN HE FULlLL HIS ROLE IF THE HIGHER ECHELONS DO NOT COME TO HIS AID
(E SHOULD AT LEAST BE RELIEVED OF ANY RESPONSIBILITY IN THE EXECUTION OF
THE STRATEGIC PROPAGANDA CAMPAIGN WHICH SHOULD BE THE TASK OF SPECIAL
IZED MOBILE PERSONNEL (E SHOULD BE ASSISTED AT ALL TIMES BY A DEPUTY WHO
CAN RELIEVE HIM OF MOST OF THE COMMAND ROUTINES (E SHOULD BE PROVIDED
WITH UP TO DATE GUIDELINES FOR HIS TACTICAL PROPAGANDA CONCEIVED AT THE
lRST OR SECOND HIGHER ECHELON ABOVE HIM WHERE AUTHORITIES ARE STILL CLOSE
ENOUGH TO THE LOCAL SITUATION (E SHOULD ALSO BE REINFORCED BY PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE PERSONNEL WHENEVER NECESSARY
0ROPAGANDA $IRECTED AT THE )NSURGENT
!MONG GUERRILLAS AS AMONG ANY HUMAN GROUP CAN BE FOUND A VARIETY OF
THOUGHTS FEELINGS AND DEGREES OF COMMITMENT TO THE INSURGENTS CAUSE
4REATING THEM AS A BLOC WOULD SURELY CEMENT THEIR SOLIDARITY &ROM NOW
ON THE GOAL OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE SHOULD BE ON
THE CONTRARY TO DIVIDE THEIR RANKS TO STIR UP OPPOSITION BETWEEN THE MASS
AND THE LEADERS TO WIN OVER THE DISSIDENTS
4HIS IS A TASK THAT USUALLY EXCEEDS THE POSSIBILITIES OF THE LOCAL COMMANDER
FOR HE HAS ONLY AN INDIRECT CHANNEL OF COMMUNICATION WITH THE GUERRILLAS
THROUGH THE POPULATIONAND THE SCATTERED GUERRILLAS ARE USUALLY ROVING OVER
A TERRITORY LARGER THAN HIS OWN 4HUS HE CAN PARTICIPATE IN BUT NOT CONDUCT
THE CAMPAIGN WHICH SHOULD BE DIRECTED FROM A HIGHER LEVEL
4(% &/524( 34%0 $%3425#4)/. /& 4(%
).352'%.4 0/,)4)#!, /2'!.):!4)/.
4HE NECESSITY FOR ERADICATING THE INSURGENT POLITICAL AGENTS FROM THE
POPULATION IS EVIDENT 4HE QUESTION IS HOW TO DO IT RAPIDLY AND EFlCIENTLY
WITH A MINIMUM OF ERRORS AND BITTERNESS
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
4HIS IS IN ESSENCE A POLICE OPERATION DIRECTED NOT AGAINST COMMON
CRIMINALS BUT AGAINST MEN WHOSE MOTIVATIONS EVEN IF THE COUNTERINSURGENT
DISAPPROVES OF THEM MAY BE PERFECTLY HONORABLE &URTHERMORE THEY DO
NOT PARTICIPATE DIRECTLY AS A RULE IN DIRECT TERRORISM OR GUERRILLA ACTION AND
TECHNICALLY HAVE NO BLOOD ON THEIR HANDS
!S THESE MEN ARE LOCAL PEOPLE WITH FAMILY TIES AND CONNECTIONS AND ARE
HUNTED BY OUTSIDERS A CERTAIN FEELING OF SOLIDARITY AND SYMPATHY AUTO
MATICALLY EXISTS TOWARD THEM ON THE PART OF THE POPULATION 5NDER THE BEST
CIRCUMSTANCES THE POLICE ACTION CANNOT FAIL TO HAVE UNPLEASANT ASPECTS
BOTH FOR THE POPULATION AND FOR THE COUNTERINSURGENT PERSONNEL LIVING WITH
IT 4HIS IS WHY ELIMINATION OF THE AGENTS MUST BE ACHIEVED QUICKLY AND
DECISIVELY
"UT WHO CAN EVER GUARANTEE THAT MISTAKES WILL NOT BE MADE AND INNOCENT
PEOPLE WRONGLY ARRESTED /NE OF THE INSURGENTS FAVORITE TRICKS INDEED IS
TO MISLEAD THE COUNTERINSURGENT INTO ARRESTING PEOPLE WHO ARE HOSTILE TO THE
INSURGENCY !SSUMING THAT ONLY THE RIGHT MEN HAVE BEEN ARRESTED IT WOULD
BE DANGEROUS AND INEFlCIENT TO LET THEM BE HANDLED AND INTERROGATED BY
AMATEURS !LL THESE REASONS DEMAND THAT THE OPERATION BE CONDUCTED BY
PROFESSIONALS BY AN ORGANIZATION THAT MUST IN NO WAY BE CONFUSED WITH THE
COUNTERINSURGENT PERSONNEL WORKING TO WIN THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION
)F THE EXISTING POLICE CANNOT BE TRUSTED THEN A SPECIAL POLICE FORCE MUST BE
CREATED FOR THE PURPOSE
7HEREAS ALL THE COUNTERINSURGENT PERSONNEL PARTICIPATES IN INTELLIGENCE
ACQUISITION ONLY THE POLICE SHOULD DEAL WITH THE SUSPECTED AGENTS 4HE POLICE
WORK HOWEVER DOES NOT RELIEVE THE LOCAL COUNTERINSURGENT COMMANDER OF
HIS OVERALL RESPONSIBILITY THE OPERATION IS CONDUCTED UNDER HIS GUIDANCE AND
HE MUST REMAIN IN CONSTANT LIAISON WITH THE POLICE DURING THE hPURGEv 7HEN
TO PURGE IS HIS DECISION WHICH SHOULD BE BASED ON TWO FACTORS
7HETHER ENOUGH INTELLIGENCE IS AVAILABLE TO MAKE THE PURGE SUCCESSFUL
7HETHER THE PURGE CAN BE FOLLOWED THROUGH
)N THE RED AREAS THE INTELLIGENCE SITUATION WITH REGARD TO THE INSURGENT
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION CONFORMS USUALLY TO THE FOLLOWING PATTERN 4HE BOSS
AND THE TOP CELL MEMBERS ARE TOO HEAVILY COMMITTED IN THE INSURGENCY TO
BE EXPECTED TO CHANGE THEIR ATTITUDE READILY AND TO TALK FREELY WHEN ARRESTED
-INOR SUSPECTS WHEN ARRESTED SINGLY OR IN SMALL GROUPS DO NOT TALK EITHER
BECAUSE THEY FEAR THAT THE SUBSEQUENT COUNTERINSURGENT MOVES AGAINST THE
POLITICAL AGENTS WOULD BE TRACED TO THEIR DISCLOSURES 9ET EVERY VILLAGER
NORMALLY KNOWS WHO THE CELL MEMBERS ARE OR AT LEAST KNOWS WHO IS SCREEN
ING THEM 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT AN INDIRECT APPROACH COULD BE EASIER AND MORE
CERTAIN THAN THE DIRECT ONE
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE PROCEDURE WOULD BE
4O ARREST SIMULTANEOUSLY A LARGE GROUP OF MINOR SUSPECTS
/N THE BASIS OF THEIR DISCLOSURES TO ARREST THE CELL MEMBERS
4HERE IS OF COURSE A RISK THAT THE CELL MEMBERS ALERTED BY THE lRST
MOVE WOULD VANISH 4HE RISK IS SMALL HOWEVER FOR WHAT COULD THEY DO )F
THEY JOIN THE GUERRILLA REMNANTS THEY WOULD PLACE AN ADDITIONAL BURDEN ON
THEM WITHOUT SUBSTANTIALLY INCREASING THEIR EFFECTIVENESS FOR A FEW MORE
GUERRILLAS DO NOT CHANGE THE SITUATION MUCH WHILE A POLITICAL CELL ELIMI
NATED MEANS A GREAT CHANGE )F THEY MOVE TO ANOTHER AREA WHERE THEY WOULD
BE OUTSIDERS THEIR VALUE TO THE INSURGENT AS AGENTS WOULD GREATLY DECREASE
AND THEY WOULD ALSO BE EASILY SPOTTED AND ARRESTED 4HUS IN THE SAME WAY
AS EXPULSION OF THE GUERRILLAS WAS A SATISFACTORY RESULT IN THE lRST STEP THE
EXPULSION OF THE POLITICAL AGENTS IS EQUALLY ACCEPTABLE
4HE MOMENT TO INITIATE THE PURGE THEN IS NOT WHEN THE CELL MEMBERS
HAVE BEEN POSITIVELY IDENTIlEDA PROCESS THAT WOULD TAKE MUCH TIME AND
LEAVES MUCH TO CHANCEBUT INSTEAD WHEN ENOUGH INFORMATION HAS BEEN
GATHERED ON A NUMBER OF SUSPECTED VILLAGERS
4HE OPERATION WOULD HAVE LITTLE USEFULNESS IF THE PURGED VILLAGE WERE NOT
NOW OR SOON TO BE OCCUPIED BY COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES FOR THE GUERRILLA
REMNANTS WOULD PROBABLY SUCCEED IN FORCING A RELATIVELY UNPROTECTED POPU
LATION TO CREATE ANOTHER CELL AND THE PURGE WOULD HAVE TO BE REPEATED ALL
OVER AGAIN 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT SHOULD NOT HESITATE TO TAKE RISKS IN PROVID
ING A DETACHMENT TO OCCUPY A PURGED VILLAGE BUT IF HE IS ABSOLUTELY UNABLE
TO DO SO IT WOULD BE BETTER TO DO NOTHING AND WAIT FOR A BETTER TIME
4HE ARRESTED CELL MEMBERS NORMALLY OUGHT TO BE PUNISHED ACCORDING TO
LAWS SINCE THEY HAVE TAKEN PART IN A CONSPIRACY AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT
.OTHING HOWEVER IS NORMAL IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR )F THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT WISHES TO BRING A QUICKER END TO THE WAR HE MUST DISCARD SOME OF THE
LEGAL CONCEPTS THAT WOULD BE APPLICABLE TO ORDINARY CONDITIONS !UTOMATIC
AND RIGID APPLICATION OF THE LAW WOULD mOOD THE COURTS WITH MINOR AND
MAJOR CASES lLL THE JAILS AND PRISON CAMPS WITH PEOPLE WHO COULD BE WON
OVER AS WELL AS WITH DANGEROUS INSURGENTS
,ENIENCY SEEMS IN THIS CASE A GOOD PRACTICAL POLICY BUT NOT BLIND LENI
ENCY !LTHOUGH INSURGENT AGENTS WHO REPENT SINCERELY CAN BE RELEASED
IMMEDIATELY WITH NO DANGER TO THE COUNTERINSURGENTS WAR EFFORT THOSE
WHO DO NOT SHOULD BE PUNISHED 4WO CRITERIA MAY SERVE TO TEST THEIR SINCER
ITY A FULL CONFESSION OF THEIR PAST ACTIVITY AND A WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE
ACTIVELY IN THE COUNTERINSURGENTS STRUGGLE !NOTHER ADVANTAGE OF A POLICY
OF LENIENCY IS TO FACILITATE THE SUBSEQUENT PURGES FOR SUSPECTS WHO HAVE
PREVIOUSLY SEEN ARRESTED AGENTS SET FREE WILL BE MORE INCLINED TO TALK
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
4HE MAIN CONCERN OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT IN HIS PROPAGANDA DURING THIS
STEP IS TO MINIMIZE THE POSSIBLE ADVERSE EFFECTS PRODUCED ON THE POPULATION
BY THE ARRESTS (E WILL HAVE TO EXPLAIN FRANKLY WHY IT IS NECESSARY TO DESTROY
THE INSURGENT POLITICAL CELLS AND STRESS THE POLICY OF LENIENCY TO THOSE WHO
RECOGNIZE THEIR ERROR )T DOES NOT MATTER IF HE IS NOT BELIEVED FOR THE POPU
LATIONS SHOCK WILL BE THAT MUCH GREATER WHEN THE REPENTANT AGENTS ARE
ACTUALLY RELEASED
4(% &)&4( 34%0 ,/#!, %,%#4)/.3
.OW BEGINS THE CONSTRUCTIVE PART OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT PROGRAM
7HAT WAS DONE SO FAR WAS TO REMOVE FROM THE POPULATION THE DIRECT THREAT
OF THE ARMED INSURGENTS AND THE INDIRECT THREAT OF THE POLITICAL AGENTS
(ENCEFORTH THE OBJECTIVE OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS EFFORT IS TO OBTAIN THE
ACTIVE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION WITHOUT WHICH THE INSURGENCY CANNOT BE
LIQUIDATED
4HE POPULATIONS ATTITUDE IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE PURGE GIVES A FAIR INDICA
TION OF THE DIFlCULTY OF THE TASK AHEAD )F THE PREVIOUS WORK WAS WELL CON
DUCTED THE POPULATION SHOULD NO LONGER HAVE EXCUSES FOR REFUSING ITS
COOPERATION 4HE DESTRUCTION OF THE POLITICAL CELLS SHOULD NORMALLY BRING
ABOUT A SUDDEN AND DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR THE BETTER IN THE CLIMATE PEOPLE
WILL CEASE AVOIDING CONTACT WITH COUNTERINSURGENT PERSONNEL AND WILL NO
LONGER OBEY THE VARIOUS TABOOS ORDERED BY THE INSURGENT THE FRIENDLY ELE
MENTS WILL SPONTANEOUSLY COME FORWARD
)F THE POST
PURGE BEHAVIOR REMAINS WHAT IT WAS IT MEANS
4HAT THE PURGE WAS NOT COMPLETE AND THIS CAN EASILY BE CORRECTED
4HAT THE POPULATION IS NOT YET FULLY CONVINCED OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS
WILL AND ABILITY TO WIN AND REALITY WILL SOONER OR LATER OVERCOME THE
PEOPLES RETICENCE
4HAT THE POPULATION IS DEEPLY AND GENUINELY ATTACHED TO THE INSURGENTS
CAUSE 4HIS IS FAR MORE SERIOUS FOR IT SHOWS THE EXTENT OF THE IDEOLOGICAL
HANDICAP AND HOW FAR THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST GO IN THE WAY OF REFORMS IF
HE WANTS TO WIN THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION )T DOES NOT MEAN HOWEVER
THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS CERTAIN TO LOSE THE WAR FOR HE CAN STILL GET RATHER
THAN WIN THE NEEDED SUPPORT )F HIS ENERGY MATCHES HIS UNPOPULARITY HE
MAY WAIT UNTIL PEACE BECOMES THE KEY ISSUE AND HE CAN RELY TO A GREATER
EXTENT ON HIS OWN STRENGTH AND ON HIS SMALL MINORITY OF SUPPORTERS
7HICHEVER THE CASE THE PROBLEM IS TO START ORGANIZING THE PARTICIPATION
OF THE POPULATION IN THE STRUGGLE 4HE WAY TO DO THIS IS BY PLACING LOCAL
LEADERS IN POSITIONS OF RESPONSIBILITY AND POWER
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4WO OPPOSITE APPROACHES MAY BE CONSIDERED /NE IS TO DESIGNATE MEN
WHO HAVE BEEN PREVIOUSLY IDENTIlED AS SUPPORTERS THUS IMPOSING THEM ON
THE POPULATION 4HIS SHOULD BE A LAST
RESORT APPROACH BECAUSE THE POWER
AND INmUENCE OF THESE MEN WILL ALWAYS BE DEPENDENT ON THE COUNTERINSUR
GENTS STRENGTH 4HEY WILL BE REGARDED AS PUPPETS THE POPULATION WILL NEVER
FEEL ANY REAL RESPONSIBILITY TOWARD THEM
! BETTER APPROACH WOULD BE TO CALL FOR ABSOLUTELY FREE ELECTIONS FOR
LOCAL PROVISIONAL SELF
GOVERNMENT THUS LETTING LEADERS EMERGE NATURALLY
FROM THE POPULATION WHICH WILL FEEL MORE BOUND TO THEM SINCE THEY ARE
THE PRODUCT OF ITS CHOICE 4HE DANGER THAT NEUTRALS OR EVEN UNDETECTED
INSURGENT SUPPORTERS COULD BE ELECTED IS SMALL BECAUSE THE POPULATION
WILL REALIZE THAT THE COUNTERINSURGENT KNOWS BY NOW WHO WAS FOR WHOM
ESPECIALLY IF HE HAS SPREAD THE RUMOR THAT THIS WAS PART OF THE INFORMA
TION HE SOUGHT FOR FROM THE ARRESTED AGENTS #HANCES ARE THAT THE POPULA
TION WILL ELECT PEOPLE KNOWN OR SUSPECTED TO BE COUNTERINSURGENT
SUPPORTERS
4HERE IS A FAR GREATER DANGER THAT THE POPULATION WILL ELECT NOT NATURAL
LEADERS BUT MEN CHOSEN FOR THEIR PRESUMED ABILITY TO PLACATE THE COUNTERIN
SURGENT !N OBVIOUS SIGN OF THIS WOULD BE THE ABSENCE OF YOUNG MEN AMONG
THE LOCAL LEADERS ELECTED
7HATEVER THE RESULTS OF THE ELECTIONS THE COUNTERINSURGENT MUST ACCEPT
THEM WITH THE PUBLICLY ANNOUNCED PROVISO THAT THESE NEW LOCAL LEADERS ARE
TEMPORARILY IN OFlCE UNTIL DElNITIVE ELECTIONS WHEN PEACE HAS BEEN RESTORED
ALL OVER THE COUNTRY
4HE PROPAGANDA DIRECTED TOWARD THE POPULATION DURING THIS STEP SHOULD
STRESS FOUR POINTS THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ELECTIONS COMPLETE FREEDOM FOR
THE VOTERS THE NECESSITY OF VOTING AND THE PROVISIONAL NATURE OF THE ELECTED
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
4(% 3)84( 34%0 4%34).' 4(% ,/#!, ,%!$%23
4HE ULTIMATE RESULTS OF THE COUNTERINSURGENTS EFFORTS IN REGARD TO THE
POPULATION DEPEND ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE MEN WHO HAVE JUST BEEN
ELECTED )F THEY ARE WORTHLESS THE COUNTERINSURGENT WILL HAVE TO COUNT ONLY
ON HIMSELF HE WILL THUS REMAIN AN OUTSIDER VIS
Ë
VIS THE POPULATION AND BE
UNABLE TO REDUCE SUBSTANTIALLY HIS STRENGTH IN THE SELECTED AREA IN ORDER TO
APPLY IT ELSEWHERE
4HE lRST THING TO DO THEREFORE IS TO TEST THESE NEW LOCAL LEADERS 4HE
PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST IS SIMPLE 4HEY ARE GIVEN CONCRETE TASKS AND THEY ARE
JUDGED ON THEIR ABILITY TO FULlLL THEM 4HERE ARE AT THIS STAGE ANY NUMBER
OF TASKS THAT CAN BE ASSIGNED RUNNING THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNDERTAKING
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
LOCAL PROJECTS IN THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC lELDS TAKING OVER SOME POLICE
FUNCTIONS LEVYING VOLUNTEERS FOR SELF
DEFENSE UNITS PROPAGANDIZING ETC
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WILL SOON lND WHICH LEADERS ARE LIVING UP TO EXPEC
TATIONS (IS ACTION WILL TEND TO CONSOLIDATE THEIR POSITION AND TO BUILD THEM
UP USING FOR THIS PURPOSE ALL THE AVAILABLE ASSETS AND THE POWER OF THE
COUNTERINSURGENT REGIME !S FOR THOSE WHO FAILED IN THE TEST HIS ACTION WILL
TEND TO ELIMINATE OR TO SHUNT THEM AWAY WITH THE SUPPORT OR AT LEAST THE
CONSENT OF THE POPULATION
)T MAY HAPPEN IN A FEW LOCAL ELECTIONS THAT THE MEN ELECTED ARE ALL WORTH
LESS AND NO BETTER CANDIDATES ARE AVAILABLE 4HIS WOULD BE PLAINLY A CASE OF
BAD LUCK AGAINST WHICH LITTLE CAN BE DONE ON THE LOCAL SCALE EXCEPT GERRY
MANDERING THE CONSTITUENCY TO MERGE IT WITH A NEIGHBORING ONE WHERE BET
TER MEN ARE AVAILABLE 4HIS PROBLEM IS LESS SERIOUS WHEN IT IS A MATTER OF
DISCOVERING HUNDREDS OF LOCAL LEADERS THAN WHEN IT INVOLVES lNDING THE
BEST COUNTERINSURGENT LEADER ON A NATIONAL SCALE
4HE VARIOUS TASKS ENTRUSTED TO THE LOCAL LEADERS HAVE OF COURSE MORE THAN
A TEST VALUE -OST ARE ALSO DESIGNED TO WIN THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION
THROUGH THESE LEADERS 3OME TASKS ARE CONCEIVED TO MAKE THE POPULATION TAKE
AN ACTIVE PART IN THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE INSURGENT ORGANIZING SELFDEFENSE
UNITS RECRUITING FULL
TIME AUXILIARIES FOR THE REGULAR FORCES ORGANIZING INTEL
LIGENCE AND CONTROL NETS AND PROPAGANDA TEAMS
4HREE OF THE MANY PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE COUNTERINSURGENT DURING
THIS STEP REQUIRE PARTICULAR ATTENTION
4HE ELECTED LEADERS ARE CONSPICUOUS TARGETS FOR THE INSURGENT AND THEY
SHOULD BE PROTECTED YET NOT IN SUCH A WAY THAT THEY RELY ENTIRELY ON THE COUN
TERINSURGENTS PROTECTION 4HEY SHOULD BE TOLD ON THE CONTRARY THAT THE SUP
PORT OF THE POPULATION IS THEIR BEST PROTECTION AND IT IS UP TO THEM TO GET IT
! CERTAIN DEGREE OF PATERNALISM CANNOT BE AVOIDED INITIALLY SINCE THE ELECTED
LEADERS ARE BOTH UNKNOWN AND UNTRAINED BUT A PATERNALISTIC ATTITUDE ON THE
PART OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT IS SELF
DEFEATING FOR IT WILL PROMOTE ONLY PASSIVE
YES
MEN A PLAGUE IN COUNTERINSURGENCY SITUATIONS 0ATERNALISM MUST THERE
FORE BE DISCARDED AS SOON AS POSSIBLE EVEN IF THIS INVOLVES RISKS
4HE TASKS TO BE DONE REQUIRE LOGISTICAL SUPPORT IN THE FORM OF FUNDS
EQUIPMENT AND QUALIlED PERSONNEL 4HESE SHOULD BE MADE READILY AVAIL
ABLE AND GIVEN WITH A MINIMUM OF RED TAPE -OREOVER THE MANIPULATION OF
THIS LOGISTICAL SUPPORT IS A POLITICAL ACT AND IT MUST BE ALLOCATED WITH A PRI
ORITY IN FAVOR OF VILLAGES OR DISTRICTS WHERE THE POPULATION IS MOST ACTIVE ON
THE SIDE OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT ! WEAPON THAT HAS SUCH A STIMULATING
VALUE MUST NOT BE UTILIZED INDISCRIMINATELY
7HEN IN A PART OF THE SELECTED AREA THE SITUATION HAS REACHED THE STAGE
WHERE THE POPULATION ACTIVELY HELPS THE COUNTERINSURGENT IT MEANS THAT A
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
BREAKTHROUGH HAS BEEN ACHIEVED AND IT SHOULD BE EXPLOITED AT ONCE TO
INmUENCE THE LESS
ADVANCED SECTORS 4O DO SO IS THE MAIN GOAL OF THE PRO
PAGANDA DURING THIS STEP
!S PROPAGANDA IS MUCH MORE CONVINCING WHEN IT EMANATES FROM THE
POPULATION INSTEAD OF COMING FROM THE COUNTERINSURGENT PERSONNEL LOCAL
INHABITANTS SHOULD BE PERSUADED TO ACT AS PROPAGANDISTS NOT ONLY IN THEIR
OWN AREA BUT OUTSIDE 7HEN THEY DO SO THE WAR IS VIRTUALLY WON IN THE
SELECTED AREA
!NOTHER CERTAIN SIGN THAT A BREAKTHROUGH HAS OCCURRED IS WHEN SPONTANE
OUS INTELLIGENCE INCREASES SHARPLY
4(% 3%6%.4( 34%0 /2'!.):).' ! 0!249
!S THE WORK PROCEEDS IN THE AREA TESTED LEADERS WILL lNALLY APPEAR IN
EACH VILLAGE AND TOWN 4HEY WILL EVENTUALLY HAVE TO BE GROUPED AND ORGA
NIZED WITHIN A NATIONAL COUNTERINSURGENT POLITICAL PARTY 4HERE ARE SEVERAL
REASONS FOR THIS
! PARTY IS THE INSTRUMENT OF POLITICS PARTICULARLY IN REVOLUTIONARY WAR
WHERE POLITICS COUNTS FOR SO MUCH 4HE BEST POLICY MAY BE WORTHLESS FOR
THE COUNTERINSURGENT SO LONG AS HE DOES NOT POSSESS THE NECESSARY INSTRU
MENT TO IMPLEMENT IT
4HE NEWLY FOUND LEADERS WHO EMERGED LOCALLY OPERATE WITHIN THEIR OWN
LOCAL SPHERE ISOLATED FROM THEIR NEIGHBORS 4HEY ARE ABLE AT BEST TO
OPPOSE LOCAL RESISTANCE TO THE INSURGENT WHO ON HIS PART IS ORGANIZED NOT
ONLY ON THE LOCAL BUT ALSO ON THE NATIONAL SCALE WITH ALL THE INTERMEDIATE
LEVELS 4HUS THE INSURGENT RETAINS A CONSIDERABLE POLITICAL ADVANTAGE
WHICH CANNOT BE TOLERATED
4HE NEW LEADERS POWERS OVER THE POPULATION ARE MOSTLY OF AN ADMINIS
TRATIVE NATURE )F THEIR LEADERSHIP HAS TO EXTEND TO THE POLITICAL lELD IT CAN
DO SO ONLY THROUGH A PARTY
4HEIR LINKS WITH THE POPULATION ARE BASED ON A SINGLE OFlCIAL BALLOT 4HEY
ARE FRAGILE AS LONG AS THE LEADERS ARE NOT BACKED BY A POLITICAL MACHINE
SOLIDLY ROOTED IN THE POPULATION *UST AS THE COUNTERINSURGENT HIMSELF HAS
WORKED TO DISCOVER THE LEADERS THESE MUST IN TURN lND MILITANTS AMONG
THE POPULATION TO KEEP THE MILITANTS TOGETHER THE LEADERS NEED THE FRAME
WORK THE SUPPORT AND THE GUIDANCE OF A POLITICAL PARTY
)S IT BEST TO GROUP THE LOCAL LEADERS AND THE MILITANTS WITHIN AN EXISTING
PARTY OR TO CREATE A NEW ONE 4HE ANSWER DEPENDS OBVIOUSLY ON THE PAR
TICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES THE PRESTIGE OF THE EXISTING PARTY THE QUALITY OF ITS
LEADERSHIP AND THE APPEAL OF ITS PLATFORM
4(% /0%2!4)/.3
4HE CREATION OF A NEW PARTY RAISES THE PROBLEM OF ITS POLITICAL PROGRAM
)T CANNOT BE UNDERTAKEN AS LONG AS THE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS NOT DECIDED
WHAT POLITICAL REFORMS HE INTENDS TO ACCOMPLISH
!LTHOUGH IN PEACETIME MOST POLITICAL PARTIESWITH THE NOTABLE EXCEP
TION OF THE #OMMUNISTSAIM AT EXPANDING THEIR MEMBERSHIP WITH LITTLE OR
NO REGARD TO THE CANDIDATES APTITUDES INSURGENCY CONDITIONS IMPOSE MORE
CAUTION 4HE COUNTERINSURGENT POLITICAL PARTY SHOULD SELECT ITS MEMBERS
CAREFULLY AND RELY MORE ON QUALITY THAN ON QUANTITY
4HE CREATION OF A PARTY IS NEITHER AN EASY NOR A QUICK UNDERTAKING 4HE
FACT REMAINS NEVERTHELESS THAT THE LOCAL LEADERS HAVE TO BE GROUPED IN
SOME KIND OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION AS SOON AS A SUFlCIENT NUMBER OF THEM
HAS EMERGED !T THE BEGINNING REGIONAL ASSOCIATIONS CAN SERVE TEMPORAR
ILY FOR THE PURPOSE
4(% %)'(4( 34%0 7)..).' /6%2 /2
35002%33).' 4(% ,!34 '5%22),,!3
4HE COUNTERINSURGENT WHILE CONCENTRATING ON THE TASKS NECESSARY FOR
WINNING THE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION HAS NOT NEGLECTED TO CONTINUE TRACK
ING THE GUERRILLAS LEFT IN THE SELECTED AREA AFTER THE INTENSIVE OPERATIONS
DESCRIBED IN THE lRST STEP (E MAY EVEN HAVE LIQUIDATED THEM COMPLETELY
)F NOT HE STILL HAS TO lNISH WITH THE LAST REMNANTS
4HE TACTICAL PROBLEM RESULTS FROM THEIR DILUTION FROM THEIR FEEBLE OFFEN
SIVE ACTIVITY FROM THEIR AVOIDANCE OF CONTACT WITH THE POPULATION WHICH
DRIES UP SOURCES OF INTELLIGENCE IN SOME CASES FROM TERRAIN DIFlCULTIES
5NDER THESE CONDITIONS HUNTING THE GUERRILLAS WITH THE USUAL AMBUSHES
PATROLS AND SMALL
SCALE OPERATIONS COULD BE TIME
CONSUMING AND NOT VERY
PRODUCTIVE 4HIS IS WHY IT WOULD BE MORE PROlTABLE FOR THE COUNTERINSUR
GENT TO REVERT NOW TO THE SAME MASSIVE MILITARY EFFORT THAT CHARACTERIZED
THE lRST STEP BUT THIS TIME WITH THE IMPORTANT ADDED ASSET OF THE POPULATION
PARTICIPATING EFFECTIVELY IN THE OPERATIONS
4HE MAIN DIFlCULTY IS A PSYCHOLOGICAL ONE AND IT ORIGINATES IN THE COUN
TERINSURGENTS OWN CAMP 2ESPONSIBLE PEOPLE WILL QUESTION WHY IT IS NEC
ESSARY TO MAKE SUCH AN EFFORT AT THIS STAGE WHEN EVERYTHING SEEMS TO BE
GOING SO WELL !RGUMENTS ARE NOT LACKING AGAINST THIS LINE OF REASONING
4HE FACT IS THAT GUERRILLAS WHO STILL ROAM THE AREA ARE CERTAIN TO BE A HARD
CORE A BREED PRODUCED BY NATURAL SELECTION AND THEY CAN HARDLY BE LEFT
BEHIND FOR THE POPULATION AND A SKELETON GARRISON TO COPE WITH 4HOROUGH
lNAL OPERATIONS WILL SHOW THE COUNTERINSURGENTS DETERMINATION TO SMASH
HIS OPPONENT AND SHOULD BRING VALUABLE POLITICAL BENElTS BOTH WITHIN AND
WITHOUT THE SELECTED AREA ON THE POPULATION ON THE INSURGENTS AND ON THE
COUNTERINSURGENTS OWN FORCES
#/5.4%2).352'%.#9 7!2&!2%
4HE BASIC OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLE TO ELIMINATE GUERRILLAS WHO ARE FEW IN
NUMBER AND ISOLATED FROM THE POPULATION IS TO FORCE THEM TO MOVE TO
BECOME hROVING BANDITS v AND TO CATCH THEM AS THEY ATTEMPT TO CROSS
SUCCESSIVE NETS OF COUNTERINSURGENT FORCES 3UCH WERE IN ESSENCE THE TAC
TICS FOLLOWED WITH GREAT SUCCESS BY THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS THEMSELVES IN
SOUTH #HINA IN n WHEN THEY LIQUIDATED THE .ATIONALIST REMNANTS
4HE TROOPS REQUIREMENT ARE GREAT BUT SINCE THE GUERRILLAS ARE OPERATING
IN VERY SMALL GROUPS OF A FEW MEN EACH AND ARE FEEBLY ARMED BESIDES THE
NET MAY BE ENTRUSTED TO THE POPULATION WHICH IS TEMPORARILY MOBILIZED AND
ARMED AND LED BY PROFESSIONAL CADRES DRAWN FROM THE STATIC UNITS -OBILE
RESERVES ASSIGNED TO THE AREA FOR THE OCCASION WILL BE USED TO mUSH OUT THE
GUERRILLAS
(OW LONG THIS EFFORT CAN OR SHOULD BE MAINTAINED IS A MATTER OF LOCAL
CIRCUMSTANCES THE MAIN FACTOR BEING THE DISRUPTION OF THE POPULATIONS
LIFE 4HE BEST TIME OBVIOUSLY IS WHEN FARMING IS AT A STANDSTILL
4HE MILITARY EFFORTS NEED TO BE SUPPLEMENTED BY AN INTENSIVE PSYCHO
LOGICAL OFFENSIVE AGAINST THE GUERRILLAS THE TRUMP CARD HERE IS AN AMNESTY
OFFER 4HIS PRESENTS SOME DANGER BUT LESS THAN AT ANY OTHER TIME BECAUSE THE
COUNTERINSURGENT HAS REACHED NOW A REAL POSITION OF STRENGTH IN THE SELECTED
AREA BASED ON THE EFFECTIVE SUPPORT OF THE POPULATION
%VEN SUCH A LARGE EFFORT HOWEVER CANNOT BE EXPECTED TO BRING A COMPLETE
END TO THE INSURGENCY IN THE AREA A FEW GUERRILLAS WILL STILL MANAGE TO SUR
VIVE )T MAY BE INTERESTING TO NOTE IN THIS RESPECT THAT IN 3EPTEMBER
FOURTEEN YEARS AFTER THE START OF THE INSURGENCY IN -ALAYA TO #OM
MUNIST GUERRILLAS WERE STILL HOLDING OUT IN THE DEEP JUNGLE INSIDE -ALAYA
NOT COUNTING MORE OPERATING ON THE -ALAYA
4HAILAND BORDER
4HESE SURVIVORS MAY GIVE UP ONE DAY IF THE INSURGENCY COLLAPSES OR THEY
MAY LEAVE THE AREA FOR GOOD OR THEY MAY HOLD OUT )N THIS LAST CASE THEY
SHOULD NO LONGER BE A PROBLEM
#/.#,5$).' 2%-!2+3
3UCH IS IN THE AUTHORS VIEW THE BASIC MECHANISM OF COUNTERINSURGENCY
WARFARE 7HETHER IN THE COLD OR IN THE HOT REVOLUTIONARY WAR ITS ESSENCE
CAN BE SUMMED UP IN A SINGLE SENTENCE "UILD OR REBUILD A POLITICAL
MACHINE FROM THE POPULATION UPWARD 4HE IDEA IS SIMPLE (OW DIFlCULT IT
MAY BE TO IMPLEMENT IT CAN BE GATHERED FROM THE FOLLOWING OBSERVATIONS
WRITTEN IN A CONTEXT UTTERLY ALIEN TO REVOLUTIONARY SITUATION IN A PEACEFUL
AND WELL DEVELOPED COUNTRY AND PRECISELY FOR THIS REASON THE MORE RELEVANT
TO OUR PROBLEM
0UBLIC INDIFFERENCE TO POLITICS IS DISHEARTENING /N THAT SNOWY &EBRUARY
MORNING WHEN ) STARTED RINGING DOORBELLS THE lRST FOUR FAMILIES VISITED SAID
BLUNTLY h7E NEVER VOTEv )N MY CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT THERE ARE ABOUT
ADULTS ELIGIBLE TO VOTE BUT OF THESE DO NOT EVEN BOTHER TO REGISTER /F
THE ONLY VOTED IN THE +ENNEDY .IXON ELECTION
! RECENT STUDY AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF -ICHIGAN SHOWS THAT OF REGISTERED
ADULTS ONLY SEVEN ATTEND POLITICAL MEETINGS OF ANY KIND ONLY FOUR HAVE EVER
GIVEN MONEY TO A CAMPAIGN ONLY THREE HAVE EVER WORKED FOR A CANDIDATE
AND ONLY TWO ACTUALLY SERVE AS WORKING MEMBERS OF ANY POLITICAL PARTY
4HE BURDEN OF RULING OUR NATION FALLS ON THE SHOULDERS OF AN APPALLINGLY
SMALL NUMBER OF PEOPLE !S ) CAMPAIGN MONTH AFTER MONTH ) SEE THESE
SAME PEOPLE AGAIN AND AGAIN 4HE OTHERS ) NEVER TOUCH
.APOLEON REMARKED THAT h7AR IS A SIMPLE ART ALL A MATTER OF EXECUTIONv
7HAT WOULD HAPPEN THE READER MAY ASK IF THE PARTY CREATED BY THE COUN
TERINSURGENT EVENTUALLY ADOPTS THE ORIGINAL INSURGENTS PROGRAM ! SIMPLE
ANSWER IS THAT WOULD BE A DIFFERENT STORY 4HE !LLIES WON THE WAR IN
hTHE WAR TO END ALL WARSv 7HAT THEY DID WITH THEIR VICTORY IS ANOTHER STORY
4HERE ARE NO lNAL SOLUTIONS IN HUMAN AFFAIRS 4HE RISK THAT A SPECIALLY CREATED
#/.#,5$).' 2%-!2+3
COUNTERINSURGENT PARTY MAY LATER ESPOUSE THE VERY CAUSE OF THE INSURGENT DOES
INDEED EXIST PARTICULARLY WHEN THE INSURGENCY WAS BASED ESSENTIALLY ON ETH
NIC OR NATIONAL DIFFERENCES AS FOR INSTANCE IN THE CURRENT CONmICT BETWEEN THE
+URDS AND )RAQIS )F THIS HAPPENS ALL THE COUNTERINSURGENT HAS REALLY WON IS A
RESPITE WHICH IS IN ITSELF A PRECIOUS COMMODITY (E CAN HOPE THAT THE LEADERS
OF THE NEW PARTY INSTEAD OF EMBARKING ON A NEW INSURGENCY WILL CHOOSE TO
FOLLOW A MORE PEACEFUL PATH (E CAN CONCEDE TO THEM REFORMS HE WAS FORCED
TO REFUSE TO AN INTRANSIGENT INSURGENT PARTY BORN OUT OF TERROR AND VIOLENCE )S
THIS NOT IN FACT WHAT OCCURRED IN -ALAYA WHERE THE "RITISH GRANTED TO OTHERS
WHAT THEY HAD REFUSED TO THE #OMMUNIST INSURGENTS !S LONG AS THE REVOLU
TIONARY SITUATION EXISTS EVEN IN A DORMANT FORM AS LONG AS THE PROBLEM THAT
GAVE RISE TO THE INSURGENCY HAS NOT BEEN ELIMINATED THE DANGER PERSISTS AND
WILL REQUIRE A VARIABLE DEGREE OF VIGILANCE FROM THE COUNTERINSURGENT
)S IT ALWAYS POSSIBLE TO DEFEAT AN INSURGENCY 4HIS WORK THROUGH A
COMMON INTELLECTUAL ACCIDENT MAY HAVE GIVEN THE IMPRESSION THAT THE
ANSWER IS A STRONG AFlRMATIVE 7HEN ONE LEARNS IN MILITARY SCHOOLS
ABOUT THE OFFENSIVE ONE GETS THE IMPRESSION THAT NOTHING CAN RESIST A
WELL
MOUNTED ATTACK WHICH APPEARS AS THE hIRRESISTIBLE FORCEv 4HEN ONE
LEARNS ABOUT THE DEFENSIVE AND GETS THE IMPRESSION THAT NOTHING CAN
BREAK THROUGH A WELL
CONCEIVED DEFENSE hTHE IMMOVABLE MASSv ,ET US
DISREGARD THE NUCLEAR
ARMED MISSILE AGAINST WHICH NO DEFENSE HAS YET
BEEN DEVISED
/BVIOUSLY IT IS NOT ALWAYS POSSIBLE TO DEFEAT AN INSURGENCY 4HE
'REEK INSURGENCY WAS DOOMED FROM THE START 3O WAS THE &RENCH COUN
TERINSURGENCY IN )NDOCHINA %XCEPT FOR THESE CLEAR CASES VICTORY IN MOST
OF THE OTHER RECENT REVOLUTIONARY WARS COULD POSSIBLY HAVE GONE TO EITHER
CAMP 4HE OUTCOME WAS NOT DECIDED IN ADVANCE FOR -AO 4SE
TUNG OR FOR
#HIANG +AI
SHEK FOR "ATISTA OR FOR #ASTRO FOR THE &,. OR FOR THE &RENCH
IN !LGERIA
)NSURGENCIES IN THE RECENT PAST HAVE STEMMED FROM TWO MAJOR CAUSES
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN COLONIAL TERRITORIES AND #OMMUNIST
PRESSURE THE LATTER SOMETIMES INSPIRING AND DIRECTING THE INSURGENCY
ALONE SOMETIMES COMBINING WITH THE FORMER BUT ALWAYS PRESENT AND
ACTIVE
#OLONIALISM IS DEAD NOW EXCEPT FOR A FEW ISOLATED INSTANCES AGAINST WHICH
THE hWIND OF CHANGEv CONCENTRATES WITH FURY /NE WOULD EXPECT THE ISSUE TO
DIE WITH IT 5NFORTUNATELY THIS HAS NOT HAPPENED FOR AFTER COLONIALISM
COMES hNEOCOLONIALISM v WHICH IS NOT MERELY A #OMMUNIST SLOGAN 4HERE
ARE NO COLONIES IN ,ATIN !MERICA APART FROM THE 'UIANAS "RITISH (ONDURAS
AND OTHER INSIGNIlCANT PLACES 9ET THE WHOLE CONTINENT IS SEETHING WITH
UNREST 4HE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN #UBAWHICH WAS NOT A COLONYWAS BUT
A SIGN h!S THINGS ARE GOING NOW THE GREATEST OUTBURST IN HISTORY IS BREWING
#/.#,5$).' 2%-!2+3
IN ,ATIN !MERICA v WARNED %DUARDO 3ANTOS THE FORMER 0RESIDENT OF
#OLOMBIA 4HE ISSUE OF NEOCOLONIALISM IS NOT CONlNED TO ,ATIN !MERICA
3INCERE AND NOT SO SINCERE COMPLAINTS AGAINST ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION BY THE
7EST CAN ALSO BE HEARD IN !FRICA AND !SIA &EW AMONG THE NEWLY EMANCI
PATED NATIONS HAVE BEEN ABLE TO RECOVER FROM THE INEVITABLE DISORDERS THAT
EVEN UNDER THE BEST CIRCUMSTANCES HAVE MARKED THE DEPARTURE OF THE FORMER
RULERS &EWER STILL HAVE BEEN ABLE TO DEMONSTRATE THAT INDEPENDENCE MEANT
IMMEDIATE PROGRESS FOR THE MASSES AS THEY WERE LED TO BELIEVE )T WOULD BE
A MIRACLE IF THE PERILS AND DIFlCULTIES OF THE TRANSITION FROM COLONIAL TO
NATIONAL RULE ACTIVELY FANNED BY THE #OMMUNISTS FAILED TO RESULT IN SCAT
TERED UNREST UPRISINGSAND INSURGENCIES
4HERE IS NO EVIDENCE THAT #OMMUNIST PRESSURE HAS ABATED THAT THE
#OMMUNIST APPARATUS FOR SPREADING REVOLUTION HAS BEEN DISMANTLED
3OVIET 2USSIAS LINE MAY CHANGE NOW BUT IT MAY SWITCH AGAIN AS IT HAS IN
THE PAST BEFORE 3TALIN UNDER 3TALIN AND AFTER 3TALIN 7HATEVER THE LATEST
3OVIET STAND 2ED #HINA CLEARLY INTENDS TO CAPITALIZE ON HER CHIEF ASSET TO
CONTINUE EXPORTING HER CHIEF PRODUCTA COHERENT DOCTRINE FOR REVOLUTION
IN hCOLONIAL AND SEMICOLONIAL COUNTRIES WHERE SIMILAR CONDITIONS PREVAIL v
AS ,IU 3HAO
CHI SAID 3HE CLAIMED LEADERSHIP OVER THESE COUNTRIES AS
EARLY AS /N *ULY OF THAT YEAR WHEN THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST 0ARTY
CELEBRATED ITS THIRTIETH ANNIVERSARY ALL THE MAJOR SPEECHES MADE ON THAT
OCCASION INSISTED ON THE WORLD
WIDE IMPORTANCE OF THE #HINESE 2EVOLU
TION /NE OF THE ORATORS IN 0EKING ,U 4ING
YI THEN HEAD OF THE PROPA
GANDA DEPARTMENT OF THE #ENTRAL #OMMITTEE SAID EXPLICITLY
4HE PROTOTYPE OF THE REVOLUTION IN CAPITALIST COUNTRIES IS THE /CTOBER
2EVOLUTION
4HE PROTOTYPE OF THE REVOLUTION IN COLONIAL AND SEMICOLONIAL COUNTRIES IS
THE #HINESE 2EVOLUTION THE EXPERIENCE OF WHICH IS INVALUABLE FOR THE PEOPLE
OF THESE COUNTRIES
!N IDEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE WORLD SEE &IGURE ALSO ISSUED IN IN #HINA
TRANSLATES VIVIDLY THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS NEW IF PERHAPS UNILATERAL VERSION OF
THE 4REATY OF 4ORDESILLAS BY WHICH 0OPE !LEXANDER 6) IN GAVE 3PAIN ALL
LANDS DISCOVERED MORE THAN LEAGUES WEST OF THE #APE 6ERDE )SLANDS AND
0ORTUGAL THE RIGHT TO EXPLORE AND ANNEX ALL LANDS IN !FRICA AND EAST OF THE 3PAN
ISH SPHERE )N THIS MAP #ANADA AND !USTRALIA WERE RIGIDLY CONSIDERED BY
THE #HINESE AS COLONIAL COUNTRIES ,ATIN !MERICA AND *APAN AS CAPITALIST TERRI
TORIES 3UBSEQUENT STATEMENTS BY #HINESE #OMMUNISTS INDICATE THAT ALL ,ATIN
!MERICA AND *APANTHIS LAST AN h!MERICAN SEMICOLONYvARE WITHIN THE
#HINESE SPHERE OF INmUENCE WHILE !USTRALIA AND #ANADA FALL WITHIN THE 3OVIET
SPHERE 3EE &IGURE
#/.#,5$).' 2%-!2+3
&IGURE )DEOLOGICAL -AP OF THE 7ORLD AS 3EEN BY THE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS
IN
&IGURE )DEOLOGICAL -AP OF THE 7ORLD AS 2EVISED !CCORDING TO
3UBSEQUENT #HINESE #OMMUNIST 3TATEMENTS
4HE WORLD IS THUS DIVIDED NEATLY INTO THREE MAJOR BLOCS ROUGHLY EQUAL IN
SIZE AND POPULATION IF NOT IN STAGE OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
4HE FRIENDS THE hSISTER COUNTRIES v IE THE #OMMUNIST STATES
4HE POTENTIAL ALLIES IE THE hCOLONIAL AND SEMICOLONIALv COUNTRIES
4HE ENEMY IE THE hCAPITALISTv COUNTRIES
(ENCE THE #HINESE #OMMUNIST STRATEGY THE PRINCIPLE OF WHICHIF NOT
THE LEADERSHIP ROLE OF #HINASEEMS TO HAVE BEEN ACCEPTED BY 3OVIET
#/.#,5$).' 2%-!2+3
2USSIA !S A lRST STEP DENY THE COLONIAL BLOC TO THE CAPITALISTS AS A SECOND
STEP GRAB CONTROL OF IT 4HEN THE #OMMUNISTS WILL HAVE A TWO
TO
ONE SUPE
RIORITY OVER THE CAPITALISTS IN AREA AND POPULATION BY THE MERE CLOSING OF
MARKETS AND DISRUPTION OF TRADE CHANNELS THEY CAN HOPE TO BRING THE CAPITAL
ISTS TO THEIR KNEES AT MINIMUM RISK PROGRESSIVELY 4HE #OMMUNIST MILITARY
STRENGTH WILL SERVE TO PROTECT REVOLUTIONARY GAINS AND TO DETER OR OVERCOME
ANY LAST
MINUTE REACTION TO THIS STRATEGY ON THE PART OF THE CAPITALISTS
(OW THE ADVENT OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND THE DANGER OF ACCIDENTAL COLLI
SION OR HOW THE CURRENT 3INO
3OVIET DISPUTE HAS AFFECTED THE CHANCES FOR
SUCCESS OF THIS STRATEGY CAN BE ENDLESSLY ARGUED 4HE FACT REMAINS NEVER
THELESS THAT EVEN IF THE 2USSIAN BEAR IS TURNING SUDDENLY INTO A HORSE
STRONG BUT PEACEFULTHE #HINESE WHOSE DETERMINATION CAN LEAVE NO DOUBT
IN THE MIND OF THOSE WHO HAVE WATCHED HOW THEY OPERATE ON THEIR OWN TER
RITORY ARE CERTAIN TO KEEP PLUGGING THEIR LINE AND THUS TO ATTRACT EXTREMISTS
THE VERY PEOPLE WHO USUALLY SPARK INSURGENCIES
4HERE IS lNALLY A FURTHER REASON TO ASSUME THAT THE LIST OF REVOLUTIONARY
WARS IS NOT CLOSED )T IS CERTAINLY EASIER TO LAUNCH AN INSURGENCY THAN TO
REPRESS IT 7E HAVE SEEN HOW MUCH DISORDER THE 'REEK #OMMUNISTS WERE
ABLE TO OCCASION EVEN THOUGH THE ESSENTIAL PREREQUISITES FOR THEIR SUCCESS
WERE NOT MET 7ITH SO MANY SUCCESSFUL INSURGENCIES IN THE RECENT YEARS THE
TEMPTATION WILL ALWAYS BE GREAT FOR A DISCONTENTED GROUP ANYWHERE TO START
THE OPERATIONS 4HEY MAY GAMBLE ON THE INHERENT WEAKNESS OF THE COUNTER
INSURGENT INHERENT BECAUSE OF THE ASYMMETRY BETWEEN ONE CAMP AND THE
OTHER THEY MAY GAMBLE ON SUPPORT FROM ONE SIDE OF THE WORLD OR THE OTHER
!BOVE ALL THEY MAY GAMBLE ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN INSURGENCY
WARFARE
DOCTRINE SO EASY TO GRASP SO WIDELY DISSEMINATED TODAY THAT ALMOST ANY
BODY CAN ENTER THE BUSINESS
)T IS SAFE TO ASSUME THAT THE 7EST ALMOST AUTOMATICALLY WILL BE INVOLVED
DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY IN THE COMING REVOLUTIONARY WARS 7ITH THE #OMMU
NISTS PULLING ONE WAY CHANCES ARE THAT THE 7EST WILL PROBABLY BE INVOLVED
ON THE SIDE OF ORDER IE ON THE SIDE OF THE COUNTERINSURGENT
4HAT IS WHY THIS BOOK HAS BEEN WRITTEN
#AMBRIDGE -ASS
/CTOBER
./4%3
*AMES ! -ICHENER h7HAT %VERY .EW #ANDIDATE 3HOULD +NOW v 4HE .EW
9ORK 4IMES -AGAZINE 3EPTEMBER
!S QUOTED IN 7ILLIAM "ENTON h4HE 6OICE OF ,ATIN !MERICA v IN "RITANNICA
"OOK OF THE 9EAR
).$%8
!CCIDENT ,IBERATION v OF 6IETMINH
!GITATION n
!IR FORCE !RRESTS n
!LBANIA !RSENALS
!LEXANDER 6) 0OPE !RSON
!LGERIA BUREAUCRACY OF n !SSASSINATIONS n
COUNTERINSURGENCYS DILEMMA IN
&RENCH STRATEGY IN n LAND "ANDITS ACTIVITY OF ROVING
REFORM IN OUTSIDE SUPPORT IN "ATISTA &ULGENCIO n
REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN RImE "LOCKADE
UNITS IN "OMBINGS
!LLIES n "ONAPARTE .APOLEON
!MERICAN 2EVOLUTION CAUSES &RENCH "ORDER DOCTRINE
)NDIAN 7ARS n PHILOSOPHICAL "OUDIAF -OHAMED
ROOTS n "OURGEOIS NATIONALIST PATTERN SHORT
!NNIHILATION CAMPAIGN CUT BLIND TERRORISM IN n
!REA OF EFFORTS lRST AREA AS TEST AREA INSURGENCYS VULNERABILITY IN
n SELECTION OF SIZE OF SELECTIVE TERRORISM IN
STRATEGIC PROBLEM OF n TACTI "ROZ *OSEP 4ITO
CAL FACTORS IN n "UCK * ,OSSING
!RMAMENT n 3EE ALSO 7EAPONS "ULGARIA
!RMED FORCES n ADAPTING TO "UREAUCRACY n
WARFARE n AS INSTRUMENT OF
COUNTERINSURGENCY MASSES AND #ALVARY
ORDERING OF TRAINING OF #ASTRO &IDEL
3EE ALSO !IR FORCE #ALVARY )NFAN #AUSE OF #HINESE #OMMUNISTS
TRY .AVY 3OLDIERS n OF COUNTERINSURGENCY
!RMED STRUGGLE n DIMINISHING IMPORTANCE OF
!RMY +WANTUNG IN *APAN LIBERA DYNAMIC OF INSURGENCY
TION NATIONAL h0EOPLES n OF +UOMINTANG n
).$%8
NATURE OF n NECESSITY OF #ONFERENCE OF 9OUTH AND 3TUDENTS OF
n STRATEGIC CRITERIA OF n 3OUTHEAST !SIA
TACTICAL MANIPULATION OF n #ONmICT
#ENSUS #ONFUSION
#HIANG +AI SHEK #ONGOLESE
#HICANERY #ONSPIRACY
#HINA #OMMUNIST PRESSURE FROM #ONVENTIONAL WARFARE ANALYSIS OF
.ATIONALISTS STRATEGY IN LIMITS OF n STRATEGY OF
OUTSIDE SUPPORT IN n REVOLU STRENGTH OF
TIONARY WAR IN #OORDINATION OF EFFORTS n
#HINESE #OMMUNISTS AREAS #OUNTERINSURGENCY ARMED FORCES
DOMINATED BY ARMED STRUGGLE AS INSTRUMENT OF ASYMMETRY
AND CAUSE OF n #ENTRAL BETWEEN INSURGENCY n CAUSE
#OMMITTEE OF CONTROL BY OF COST OF n DECLINE OF
GUERILLAS AND INSURGENCY DILEMMA IN !LGERIA ESSENTIAL
MEMBERS OF MILITARY OPERA PROBLEM FOR GOVERNMENT OF
TIONS OF PROGRAM OF TEST IDEAL GEOGRAPHY FOR KNOWL
AREA OF n WORLD VIEWED BY EDGE OF LEADERSHIP LIABILITY OF
POWER OF PROPAGANDA AT
#HINESE .ATIONALISTS PUBLICITY BY n AS
#HRISTIANS REACTION TO INSURGENCY RESPON
#IVIL ADMINISTRATION SIBILITIES OF RIGIDITY OF n
#IVILIAN POWER STRENGTH OF TERRORISM AND
#IVIL WAR DElNED INSURGENCY WARFARE n WEAKNESS OF
AND n n
#LANDESTINITY #OUNTERINSURGENCY STRATEGY ASSET
#OLLECTIVIZATION USE BY TO COMMAND IS TO CON
#OLONIALISM TROL n ECONOMY OF FORCES
#OLONISTS n INITIATIVE n IRREVERS
#OMMANDO OPERATIONS IBILITY IN SELECTED AREA n
#OMMAND PROBLEMS ADAPTATION OF SIMPLICITY n
MINDS n ARMED FORCES TO #OUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE LAWS
COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE n n CONDITIONAL POPULATION
COORDINATION OF EFFORTS n SUPPORT n INTENSITY OF EFFORTS
POLITICAL OVER MILITARY POWER VASTNESS OF MEANS SUPPORT OF
n PRIMACY OF TERRITORIAL COM POPULATION SUPPORT THROUGH
MAND SINGLE DIRECTION n ACTIVE MINORITY n
#OMMITTEE SYSTEM #OURTS
#OMMON LAW #RISIS EXPLOITATION OF INSURGENCY
#OMMUNIST 0ARTY )NDONESIAN AND n
INlLTRATION IN -ALAYAN #UBA "ATISTA REGIME IN INSUR
IN 5NITED 3TATES GENCY IN REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN
#OMMUNIST PRESSURE n FROM
#HINA IN 2USSIA #URFEW
#OMPRADORES #YPRUS
#ONDUCT
).$%8
$EMORALIZATION )DEALISM
$IPLOMACY )DENTITY CARDS
$ISCONTENT )DEOLOGY n
$ISORDER h)MMOVABLE MASS v
)MPERIALISM
%CONOMIC BLOCKADE )NDOCHINA &RENCH FORCES IN
%CONOMIC PRESSURE REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN 6IETMINH
%CONOMY OF FORCES n GEOG IN
RAPHY )NDOCTRINATION
%LECTIONS n )NDONESIAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY
%MERGENCY )NFANTRY n
%NLIGHTENMENT THINKERS n )NlLTRATION IN #OMMUNIST
%THICS 0ARTY OF INSURGENCY n IN
2USSIA
&AMILY BOOKLETS )NSURGENCY AREAS OF n ASYMME
h&EED THE 7AR BY 7AR v TRY BETWEEN COUNTERINSURGENCY n
&OOD CONTROL CAUSE OF n #HINESE
&ORCE #OMMUNIST CIVIL WAR AND n
&RANCE FORCES IN )NDOCHINA COLLAPSE OF COLONIAL #OM
STRATEGY IN !LGERIA n MUNIST n CONDUCT OF COST OF
n COUNTERINSURGENCY AS REACTION
'EOGRAPHY BORDERS TO CRISIS AND n IN #UBA
CLIMATE CONlGURATION DEFEAT OF DElNED
ECONOMY IDEAL FOR COUNTERIN DESTRUCTION OF n DEVELOPMENT
SURGENCY IDEAL FOR INSURGENCY OF DIRECT ACTION AGAINST n
LOCATION POPULATION AND DISSOCIATING FROM POPULATION
SIZE TERRAIN VEGETATION mUIDITY OF n IDEAL GEOGRAPHY FOR
IDENTIlCATION OF INDIRECT
'REECE COMMANDO OPERATIONS IN ACTION AGAINST n INlLTRATION
#OMMUNIST INSURGENCY FAILURE IN OF n LEADERS OF MILITARY
n .ATIONALISTS STRATEGY IN POWER OF MOVEMENT n
OUTSIDE SUPPORT IN REVOLU PLANNERS OF POPULATION AS
TIONARY WAR IN OBJECTIVE OF PROPAGANDA AT
'UERILLAS AREAS n BASES n SEIZING OF POWER BY
#HINESE #OMMUNISTS AND STRATEGIC PATTERNS FOR n
DESTRUCTION OF FORCES IN AS TWO DIMENSIONAL WAR VULNER
-ALAYA SCATTERING OF SUP ABILITY OF n WARFARE n
PRESSING LAST n )NTANGIBLES
'UERILLA WARFARE n )NTELLIGENCE COLLECTION OF
EXPANSION OF OPENNESS GATHERING
TO TARGETS FOR )NTERVENTION
)RAN
(IJACKING h)RRESISTIBLE FORCE v
(IT AND RUN OPERATIONS
(UKBALAHAPS *APAN +WANTUNG !RMY IN POLITI
(UNGARY CAL PROBLEMS IN
).$%8
+ADAR REGIME -OROCCO
+OREA -OSLEMS
+OREAN 7AR -OTS D ORDRES
+UOMINTANG CAUSE OF n -OVEMENT WARFARE n
#OMMUNIST ALLIANCE MEMBER
SHIP OF .ATIONAL ARMY
+URDS .ATIONAL CONSENSUS
+WANTUNG !RMY .ATIONAL GROUPS
.ATIONALISM
,AND REFORM .!4/ 3EE .ORTH !TLANTIC 4REATY
h,AND TO THE 4ILLER v /RGANIZATION
,AO $ONG #OMMUNIST 0ARTY .AVY
,APAROLE PASSE AUX ARMES .EGOTIATIONS
,EBANON .EOCOLONIALISM n
,ENIENCY .ONVIOLENCE
,ENINISM .ORTH !TLANTIC 4REATY /RGANIZATION
,ENIN 6LADIMIR .!4/
h,IBERATION v .OYAUTAGE
,IBERATION ARMY .UCLEAR AGE
,IU 3HAO CHI n
,OCAL LEADERS n /CCUPIED AREAS
,OCKE *OHN /FFENSIVE
,ONG -ARCH /PERATION !TLANTE
,U 4ING YI /PERATIONS DEPLOYMENT OF STATIC UNIT
n DESTRUCTION OF INSURGENCY
-AJORITY ACTIVE n NEUTRAL FORCES n DESTRUCTION OF POLITI
-ALAYA COORDINATION OF EFFORTS IN CAL ORGANIZATION n LOCAL ELEC
GUERILLA SUPPRESSION IN OUTSIDE TIONS n PARTY ORGANIZATION
SUPPORT IN REVOLUTIONARY WAR n POLITICS AS INSTRUMENT OF
IN POPULATION CONTACTCONTROL n
-ALAYAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY SUPPRESSING LAST GUERILLAS n
-ANCHU DYNASTY TESTING LOCAL LEADERS n 3EE
-AO 4SE TUNG ALSO #OMMANDO OPERATIONS (IT
-ARXISM AND RUN OPERATIONS -ILITARY OPERA
-ARX +ARL TIONS 0OLICE OPERATIONS 0OLITICAL
-ASSES OPERATIONS
-ILITARY ACTION CADRES /RTHODOX PATTERN #OMMUNIST ANNI
OUTSIDE SUPPORT REVOLUTIONARY HILATION CAMPAIGN n GUERILLA
WAR AND 3EE ALSO !RMED FORCES WARFARE n INSURGENCYS VUL
-ILITARY OPERATIONS OF #HINESE #OM NERABILITY IN n MOVEMENT
MUNISTS DElNED DIVERSITY WARFARE n PARTY CREATION
OF IN 0HILIPPINES n UNITED FRONT n
-ILITARY POWER OF INSURGENCY /UTSIDE SUPPORT IN !LGERIA
POLITICAL POWER OVER n IN #HINA n lNANCIAL IN
-OBILE FORCES 'REECE IN -ALAYA MILITARY
).$%8
MORAL IN 0HILIPPINES TLING OF n REVOLUTIONARY WAR
POLITICAL TECHNICAL AND n SOLIDARITY OF STAND
OF SUBJECTIVE FACTORS AND
0ARTY CREATION OF n ELITEMINOR SUPPORT OF n n
ITY AS INSTRUMENT OF POLITICS SYMPATHY OF
LEADERSHIP OF ORGANIZA 0OWER CIVILIAN OF COUNTERINSUR
TION OF n SECRET SERVICE OF GENCY POLITICAL OVER MILI
3EE ALSO #OMMUNIST 0ARTY TARY n SEIZING OF 3EE ALSO
)NDONESIAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY ,AO -ILITARY POWER
$ONG #OMMUNIST 0ARTY -ALAYAN 0REPARATION n
#OMMUNIST 0ARTY 0ROLETARIAT
0ATROLLING 0ROPAGANDA BACKlRING OF
0ATRONAGE AT COUNTERINSURGENCY
0ATTERNS BOURGEOIS NATIONALIST n AT INSURGENCY n AT
ORTHODOX n n POPULATION n n
STRATEGIC n 0ROTRACTED STRUGGLE
0EACE n n 0SYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE
0EASANTS 0UBLICITY n
0EOPLES ,IBERATION !RMYv 0URGING OF GUERILLA AREAS n
h0ERIOD OF TRANSITION v
0HILIPPINES MILITARY OPERATIONS IN 2EBELLION
OUTSIDE SUPPORT IN 2EFORMS
0LOT DElNED LUCKY 2EPRESSION
0OLICE 2ESETTLEMENT n
0OLICE OPERATIONS DElNED 2EVOLUTION
INTELLIGENCE GATHERING 2EVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT
0OLITICAL CADRES 2EVOLUTIONARY WAR IN !LGERIA
0OLITICAL MACHINE CAMPS OF IN #HINA COLD
0OLITICAL OPERATIONS DElNED NEED IN #UBA DElNED FORCE
FOR IN FUTURE IN 'REECE HIT
0OLITICAL ORGANIZATION n AND RUN OPERATIONS OF HOT
0OLITICAL PLAY n IN )NDOCHINA IN
0OLITICAL PREPARATION n -ALAYA AS MILITARYPOLITICAL
0OLITICAL REGIME n IN -OROCCO PERIODS OF AS
0OLITICS AS INSTRUMENT OF OPERATION POLITICAL WAR n POPULATION AND
AS INSTRUMENT OF WAR PARTY AS n AS PROTRACTED IN 4UNISIA
INSTRUMENT OF UNCONVENTIONALITY OF n AS WAR
0OPULATION APPROVAL FROM COM OF INFANTRY
PLICITY OF CONTACTCONTROL 2OMANOV DYNASTY
OF n DISSOCIATING FROM 2USSIA #OMMUNIST PRESSURE IN
INSURGENCY GEOGRAPHY AND INlLTRATION IN
AS INSURGENCYS OBJECTIVE
INVOLVEMENT OF OBJECTIVE FAC h3ALAMI TACTICS v
TORS AND PROPAGANDA AT n 3ANTOS %DUARDO
n PROTECTION OF RESET 3ECRET SERVICE
).$%8
3HOCK n 4REATY OF 4ORDESILLAS
3IGNAL NETWORK 4UNISIA n
3INGLE DIRECTION n
3ISYPHYS 5LTIMA RATIO REGUM
3OLDIERS FUNCTIONS OF JOB OF 5NCHECKED TRAVEL
5NITED FRONT n
3OUTH !FRICA 5NITED 3TATES
3TALIN *OSEPH
3TATIC UNIT DEPLOYMENT OF n 6IETMINH ARMY OF n FAIL
SIZE OF TRACKING BY URE IN 4ONKIN IN )NDOCHINA
3TRATEGIC INITIATIVE 6IETNAMESE
3TRATEGY OF CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 6IOLENCE
&RENCH IN !LGERIA n OF INSUR
GENCY .ATIONALIST IN #HINA 7AR CONDUCT OF CONVENTIONAL
.ATIONALIST IN 'REECE 3EE ALSO INSURGENCY AS TWO DIMENSIONAL
#OUNTERINSURGENCY STRATEGY INTERNATIONAL AS PARAMOUNT
3UBVERSION n ISSUE POLITICS AS INSTRUMENT OF
3UDDEN ATTACK TRANSITION TO PEACE n 3EE ALSO
3UN 9AT SEN #IVIL WAR +OREAN 7AR 2EVOLU
3URPRISE TIONARY WAR
3URVEILLANCE 7ARFARE !RMED FORCES ADAPTING TO
3WEEP n COUNTERINSURGENCY
3WITZERLAND n INSURGENCY n MOVE
MENT n PSYCHOLOGICAL
4ERRITORIAL COMMAND 3EE ALSO #ONVENTIONAL WARFARE
4ERRORISM BITTERNESS BRED #OUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE LAWS
BY BLIND n COUNTERINSUR 'UERILLA WARFARE
GENCY AND SELECTIVE TARGETS 7EAPONS n
OF VULNERABLE TO 7ORKING CLASS
4ONKIN
4RANSPORTATION 9UGOSLAVIA
!"/54 4(% !54(/2
$!6)$ '!,5,! WAS BORN TO &RENCH PARENTS IN 4UNI
SIA AND RAISED IN -OROCCO EARNING HIS BACCALAURÏAT IN #ASABLANCA
AND ATTENDING THE MILITARY ACADEMY AT 3AINT #YR 'RADUATED ON THE
EVE OF 7ORLD 7AR )) HE SAW ACTION IN .ORTH !FRICA )TALY AND &RANCE
!N OFlCER OF THE MARINE INFANTRY IN THE OLD COLONIAL ARMY HE WAS
ASSIGNED TO #HINA AND ALSO SERVED WITH THE 5NITED .ATIONS AS A MIL
ITARY OBSERVER IN 'REECE AND MILITARY ATTACHÏ IN (ONG +ONG #OLO
NEL 'ALULA WAS STATIONED IN !LGERIA AT THE TIME OF THE REVOLT BY THE
&RENCH ARMY 3HORTLY BEFORE RETIRING HE WROTE #OUNTERINSURGENCY
7ARFARE 4HEORY AND 0RACTICE WHILE IN RESIDENCE AT THE #ENTER FOR
)NTERNATIONAL !FFAIRS (ARVARD 5NIVERSITY
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