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Impact of Coal Characteristics

on Coal Gasification
Navin Kumar Singh 1, Varun Kumar Panghal 2 , Anunay Jain 2 , Trilok Nath 2

ABSTRACT
Coal is an important source that can play critical role in boosting any countries economy. India is among
one of the few countries that has vast coal reserves. Utilizing this resource in the best possible manner can only
be achieved by exploring alternative use of coal applying Clean Coal Technologies. Its importance increases
manifolds considering India’s commitment to Paris Climate Treaty to reduce the carbon emissions intensity
by 30%-35% below the 2005 level by 2030. The country’s dependence on coal as primary source of energy will
continue in the future as India plans to produce 1.5 Billion Tonne of coal by 2020 and increase it to 2.5 billion
by 2032. In view of such increase in coal production and consumption, India’s commitment to Paris Climate
Change Agreement and Make in India Programme of Government of India for import substitution adoption
of clean coal technologies for production of chemicals (through gasification route) and to improve efficiency in
power generation should be a part of our energy security plan.
Coal gasification is a proven Clean Coal Technology which not only captures the CO2 emissions but also
helps in chemical production along with carbon sequestration. Coal gasification is the process to utilize coal
for production of chemicals, fertilizers, petrochemicals and many other applications particularly methanol
which is a building block for many chemicals and can also be blended with gasoline pool to replace naptha
and also attracts the business in our country. The process is regulated by several operating parameters. In
order to select an optimum technology for surface coal gasification, it is important to study the various
coal characteristics which affect the gasification process. Therefore, laboratory applications become vital in
understanding these coal characteristics. A number of investigations have been carried out in this direction.
The effect of several operating parameters such as, pressure, temperature, porosity, coal rank reaction time and
catalyst on gasification has been discussed in this article.

Introduction & gas price scenario these options especially Coal

India is one of the country having vast coal Gasification have been found to be challenging
reserves and utilizing the source in the best in terms of investment required. However, with
possible manner can prove to be highly significant respect to nation’s energy security these are
by producing Ammonia, Fertilizers, Chemicals the tried and tested options which cannot be
and Petrochemicals in addition to conventional overlooked. The syngas from Coal gasification
use as an energy source either for electricity or is still competitive given the low price of coal
heat at present. India has very limited gas and with respect to petcoke. Past couple of years,
oil reserves. Currently coal is primarily used for even the government has been promoting Coal
power generation. Considering the current crude gasification as the alternate feedstock for the
fertilizer industry, methanol etc for developing
1
Senior Manager (Env./CT), 2 Assistant Manager (CP), CT & Labs Division, CMPDI (HQ), Ranchi (Jharkhand)
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self-reliance, apart from the domestic gas. coals is the higher porosity, the larger number of
Globally syngas is also being used to make active sites, and higher content & dispersion of
valuable chemicals at competitive price. catalytic metals such as calcium, potassium, and
Coal gasification is considered an important sodium. The organic matrix in low rank coals have
strategy towards Clean Coal Technology with a carboxylic acid and other heteroatomic (Oxygen,
goal of reducing its environmental footprints/low Sulphur, and Nitrogen) functional groups that
carbon energy development. The product of the have exchanged hydrogen ions with these cations
coal gasification process is a syn-gas, which is a producing ideal catalytic sites which lowers the
mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, activation energy for gasification reactions.
carbon dioxide gases, unsaturated carbon etc.
with associated Gross Calorific Value (energy Reactivity Measurement
content). The composition of the gas mixture and Thermogravimetric analysis is used to measure
its calorific values depend on the type of coal fuel, the reactivity of materials and can be operated
gasifying media and operating parameters of the under isothermal and non-isothermal conditions.
gasifiers. It can be utilized just like natural gas This technique is particularly employed in coal
in an eco-friendly manner. Gasifiers are designed research to determine the rate of mass loss in
according to coal characteristics. an oxidizing/ inert atmosphere under dynamic
Coal characteristics are the most important heating conditions.
factors that influence the gasification process
selection and design. Generally, low-rank
coals are the preferable feedstocks for the
commercially available gasification processes, in
comparison to the caking bituminous coals. The
main properties of low-rank coals, which impact
the choice of gasifier or process application, are
the reactivity, the moisture and oxygen content,
the volatiles content, the caking properties, the
ash characteristics and the sulfur content.
Major Coal Characteristics
affecting Gasification
1) Reactivity
Figure 1 : HP-TGA
Reactivity is defined as relative degree of
ease with which coal undergoes gasification
reaction. The major property which governs the 2) Moisture and Oxygen
ease of conversion is the rank of coal, which in The moisture present in the coal acts as a
turn reflects its volatile matter content, oxygen diluting agent. Higher moisture contents reduce
content, level of maturity, extent of aromatic ring the thermal efficiency of gasifier and leads to low
condensation, and porosity. Low ranked coal has gas heating values. Igniting the fuel with higher
high volatile matter content and more porous moisture content becomes increasingly difficult,
structure. As the rank increases the carbon lattice which results in poor gas quality & poor yield.
becomes better aligned and the porosity reduces High moisture content of the feed lowers
and the carbon structure becomes less reactive internal gasifier temperatures through evaporation
developing the flat basal structures. The low rank and the endothermic reaction of steam and char.
coal is more reactive than that of high rank coal. Therefore, a limit must be set on the moisture
The cause of the higher reactivity in low rank

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coal

gas (120-170°C)
150°C
drying zone removal of
humidity
400°C
tar and other liquids
pyrolysis zone
are driven off
600°C
C + 2 H2 → CH4
reduction zone
C + H2O → CO + H2
950°C C + CO2 → 2 CO
combustion zone C + O2 → CO2
1300°C
Air + Seam
Gas (750°C-800°C)
ashes
Figure 2 : Different stages of mass loss of coal in Double Stage Gasifier

content of coal supplied to the gasifier, which can structure becomes weaker. The high oxygen
be done by coal drying operations. For fixed bed content of low-rank coals affects the gasification
gasifier and medium ranked coal with average ash process, in a similar way to the moisture content.
content, this limit is about 35 percent. Entrained Since low-rank coals are partially oxidized, the
flow and Fluidized bed gasifiers have a lower energy content of the product gas is lower.
tolerance for moisture, varying generally from If the moisture level of the feed is high, the
5~10 % for a similar coal feedstock. As moisture heat produced in the lower region of the reaction
or ash content of coal is increased, the oxygen will be insufficient to vaporize it. As a result, the
supplied for coal gasification will have to be bed temperature will drop and the flow of molten
increased. slag may be stopped, shutting down the unit.
The higher oxygen content in low rank coals
results in lower heating value when compared 3) Volatile Content
with higher rank coals. To minimize the Reactivity of coal char during gasification
effectively higher oxidation state of the low rank is dependent on volatile matter content in coal
coals a higher coal feed rate is required to obtain and rank of coal. Reactivity of char is directly
similar product gas quality. Due to high coal feed proportional to the volatile content of coal.
rate, larger amount of solids, liquids and gases are With the increase in volatile matter content the
generated and therefore larger process equipment reactivity of char increases. The change in volatile
is required. content of coal with respect to pressure change is
Additionally, as the oxygen and moisture well established. Total volatile content decreases
contents increase, the integrity of the coal with increasing pressure during pyrolysis. This

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400°C or 425°C.
On the other hand, low-rank coals do not have
caking properties and can be processed without
pretreatment in all types of gasifiers.

5) Mineral Matter
Gasifier performance is affected by mineral
matter. For most slagging gasifiers minerals
melt to form and provide an insulating surface
on the wall of the gasifier. Due to this, the rate
Figure 3 : Standard profile of coke for
of heat transfer decreases during the gasification
Crucible Swelling Number
reaction. Mineral matter also has an effect on the
requirements of the slag tap and the slag handling
trend is observed due to deposition of secondary system. Mineral matter also affects slagging
char on the particles and suppression of volatile efficiency, is the percentage of mineral solids
yield at higher temperature. recovered as slag out of the bottom of the gasifier
The composition of the volatiles produced from relative to the total mineral solids generated by
low-rank coals during gasification is different than the process.
that of higher rank coals. Separation, treatment Iron sulfide, or pyrite, has a high density and
and utilization of these volatile substances will relatively low melting point and is often found in
be different in plants utilizing low-rank coal than the clinkers produced by temperature excursions
in plants using high-rank coal. in fluidized bed gasifiers. Fluxing agents, such as
A large amount of tars, oils, phenols and sodium and calcium, particularly when combined
other compounds are produced in fixed-bed with the ubiquitous clays and pyrite reduce the
gasifiers. Fluidized and Entrained-bed gasifiers ash melting temperatures and are often identified
which operate above 800°C, the produced tars, as the cause for the initiation of process clinkers.
oils, phenols and other compounds are cracked As a result, coal mineral composition is
to carbon and hydrogen thus eliminating the monitored as closely as the heating value in an
requirement for complex treatment facilities. attempt to avoid operational problems. These
minerals are generally evaluated by analyzing
4) Caking Properties the oxide residue or ash produced upon burning
Most of the bituminous coals tend to swell the coal.
and agglomerate when heated between 350°C
and 550°C. Masses of coke that form during Ash Fusion Temperature
gasification cause disruptions to the uniform flow The ash fusion temperature is the temperature
of gas through the gasifier and also results in lower at which the mineral matter in the coal starts to
thermal efficiencies. These coals can be gasified melt. It is important for industrial dry-bottom
without problem in entrained-bed systems where gasifiers to operate below this temperature,
particle interactions are minimized. because when the gasification temperature rises
However, they are not suitable for use in above this temperature, the ash will melt and
fixed or fluidized-bed systems without some agglomerate, which will in-turn cause unstable
pretreatment, which will reduce their caking gasifier operation. When the minerals melt, it
tendency. The caking properties of coals could covers the external surface area of the particle.
be destroyed by fluidizing the coal with a gas This in turn results in a decrease in char reactivity
such as nitrogen, nitrogen plus carbon dioxide, or due to the decrease in the available surface area
steam, containing at least 0.2 percent oxygen at for the gasification reaction to take place, because

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Original Deformation Sphere Hemisphere Flow

(IT) (ST) (HT) (FT)

Figure 4 : Shapes of the AFT Measurements

the reactant gases cannot diffuse to the active increases. At lower temperature, crystallization
carbon sites on the char particle. An increase or the separation of immiscible liquids may cause
in the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio as well as the Fe2O3 a dramatic increase in viscosity, and, as a result,
concentration in the coal ash indicates a lower the slag behaves as a non-linear viscoplastic fluid.
ash fusion temperature. Slag viscosity, along with temperature of
Fouling Precursors : Fouling in Gasifiers critical viscosity (Tcv), is used to characterize
can result from constituents such as chlorine, slag flow behaviors and is the most important
sodium, potassium, and calcium. Most fouling parameter in selecting the operating temperature
indexes are based on experience with pulverized of the gasifier. Because slag viscosity strongly
coal boilers. This information is often used to depends on temperature and chemical
select conventionally high fouling coals to obtain composition, it could be optimized by raising/
fouling data on gasification units. reducing the gasifier operating temperature or
Corrosive Components : The primary coal adding a flux or blend coals with low fusibility.
properties affecting corrosion are sulfur and The chemical composition of coal ash is an
chlorine levels. Upon gasification these elements important factor in slagging gasifiers because
form acidic gases, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen it affects ash fusibility, slag viscosity, and
chloride, which are responsible for corrosion refractory life. Silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum
of metals and other materials. The formation oxide (Al2O3), ferric oxide (Fe2O3), titanium
of these corrosive species is dependent on their
content in the feed coal.
Ash Melting Point/Slag Viscosity : For
gasification technologies utilizing a slagging
gasifier, slag flow behavior is an important
parameter. To determine slag viscosity, the
viscosity of coal ash is measured in a reducing
atmosphere .Slag behavior is affected by the
properties of both gaseous and solid phases,
gasifier wall structure, fluid dynamics, and
operating conditions.
Under reducing environments (gasification),
the viscosity at a given temperature is generally
lower than under oxidizing atmospheres
(conventional combustion).
At elevated temperature, slag acts as a
Newtonian fluid, and its viscosity usually
decreases logarithmically as temperature Figure 5 : Viscometer

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oxide (TiO2), phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), log (h) = [4.468 X (S/100)2 + 1.265 (104/T) - 7.44
calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), Where, S is the silica ratio and T is the
sodium oxide (Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), and temperature given in K.
sulfur trioxide (SO3) are the major components
of coal ash. All these components, specifically 6) Porosity of Char
the calcium and iron contents are believed to Pyrolysis results in removal of volatile matters
be indicators for ash fusion properties. CaO in and yields a solid residue called char. It is important
particular is an important factor in the viscous to study the internal structure of solid residue
properties of slag. As the CaO content increases, after heat treatment because it affects the char
the viscosity of slag increases. Trace components, reactivity. There are number of randomly oriented
such as mercury, chlorine, fluorine, etc. contribute and different shapes pores with radii ranging from
greatly to the environmental issues associated one length of nanometers to tens of nanometer. To
with coal usage. Certain chemical components of explain the formation of pores during gasification,
coal ash (i.e., CaO, SiO2, Fe2O3) can attack the there are three mechanisms
refractory and cause cracks.
1. The width of existing pores,
Using an Arrhenius type equation, related
2. The formation of new pores by selective
viscosities of slags for the entire temperature
gasification of certain structural components
range to their compositions expressed in terms
and
of the percent by weight of SiO2 , Al2O3 , MgO,
CaO, and iron oxides, where viscosity equation: 3. The opening of formerly unreachable pores.
Pore structure of the coal has significant role
h = A exp (E/RT) in coal combustion and gasification. International
changed to Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry classified the
log (h) (in poise) = [(107 X m)/(t-150)2] + c pores into three categories:
• Micropores (diameter <2 nm),
(where, m and c are given in terms of
compositions (metals oxides) as defined below • Mesopores (diameter 2– 50 nm) and
and t is the temperature in degrees C). • Macropores (diameter >50 nm)
m = 0.0083 SiO2 + 0.00601 Al2O3 − 0.109 Effect of temperature on pores formation is
well established. It is learnt that as the temperature
c = 0.0415 SiO2 +0.0192 Al2O3 +0.0276 Fe2O3 increases up to a certain level (i.e.,600 0C)
+0.0160 CaO porosity increases and concentration of feeder
(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 +CaO+ MgO = 100 (wt %)) coal decreases but results in lower reactivity, with

Isolated Pore Dead end pores Cross linked pores Throat pores

Figure 6 : Various pores distribution

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further increase in temperature. The reactivity of pyrolysis, and is capable of forming any type of
coal after certain temperature can be decreased char depending on the rank of the inertinite coal. It
because of heat treatment which promotes closing is known that low-rank inertinite-rich coals exhibit
of pores. Closing of pores caused due to presence swelling behavior during pyrolysis which results
of large molecules, compressing disorganized in a slightly more porous char with increased
carbon, cross linking and collapsing of pores at reactivity.
higher temperature due to plasticity of char. Vitrinite is shiny, glass-like material that
Porosity of the coal is usually calculated from is considered to be composed of cellular plant
the particle density (Dp) and true (Ht) density: material such as roots, bark, plant stems and tree
Porosity (%) = [(Ht - Dp) / Ht] × 100 trunks. Vitrinite-rich coals contain a higher amount
of volatile matter compared to the inertinite
7) Petrographic analysis of coal and its maceral group, but less than the liptinite group.
impact The vitrinite maceral group is rich in oxygen.
The properties associated with the petrographic Vitrinite-rich bituminous coals soften during
constituents in coal have a great influence on coal pyrolysis and expand to form cellular structures,
behaviour during heating and gasification. The which increase the internal surface area resulting in
Coal consists of maceral (organic) and mineral a porous char. It can be said that vitrinites undergo
(inorganic) constituents on microscopic level. The both a physical (porous structure) and a chemical
maceral groups refer to the various plant material (devolatilisation) change during pyrolysis.
from which the coal was derived. Liptinite macerals are considered to be
These petrographic properties include: produced from decayed leaf matter, spores, pollen
and algal matter. Resins and plant waxes can also
• Vitrinite reflectance.
be part of liptinite macerals. Liptinite macerals
• Maceral composition of the coal. tend to retain their original plant form, i.e., they
• Microlithotype composition of the coal. resemble plant fossils. These are hydrogen rich
The reflectance of a coal sample gives an and have the highest calorific values of all coal
indication of the degree to which the coal is macerals. Liptinite-rich coals have the highest
matured, which varies from brown coal to volatile content and thus also the highest hydrogen
anthracite. The reflectance value increases with an content. This maceral group has been shown to
increase in rank, and thus, also with an increase have the lowest reflectance value as well as the
in the carbon content of the coal. The vitrinite lowest aromacity. These liptinite-rich coals have
maceral group was chosen as the reference for the highest tar and gas yields during pyrolysis, due
coal reflectance measurements, as the vitrinite to the large amount of volatiles contained in the
reflectance increases with an increasing degree of coal.
coalification. It follows that the coal properties associated
The chemical make-up related to the various with microlithotypes, which are the combination
maceral constituents in the coal also influences the of maceral groups also influence the gasification
gasification behaviour of the coal. Inertinites are behaviour of the coal. When vitrinite occurs in
derived from strongly altered or degraded plant combination with another maceral group, the
material that is thought to have been produced resulting coal has a higher reflectance compared
during the formation of peat; the inertinite maceral to the pure vitrinite maceral; these coals also have
group has the highest carbon content, as well as a higher density compared to pure vitrinite. These
the lowest volatile yield; therefore it has the microlithotypes are influenced by the pyrolysis
highest carbon/hydrogen ratio compared to the temperature and have a low porosity compared
other maceral groups. Inertinite is associated with to the pure vitrinite, which also results in lower
the formation of dense, hard to ignite chars during reactivity due to the limited surface area available

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Figure 7 : Gasification Chemistry

Figure 8 : Different types of Gasifiers along with operating curves

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for the reaction to take place. N2 is simultaneously brought into the process
which results in the product gas dilution. As a
8) Gasification Chemistry: (Refer Figure-7) result product gas will have a lower calorific value
compared to that of oxygen blown which is free
9) Types of gasifiers
from diluents like N2.
Depending upon the medium of gasification,
Depending upon the contact between gas and
gasifiers can be classified into two categories
fuel, gasifiers can be further divided into following
(1) Air Blown: Air is used as a gasification three types (Refer-Table-1):
medium in this type of gasifiers.
(1) Moving or Fixed Bed Gasifier.
(2) Oxygen-Blown: Pure oxygen is used as a
gasification medium. (2) Fluidized bed Gasifier.
When air is used as gasification medium, the (3) Entrained Bed Gasifier.

Table-1 : Types of gasifiers and comparision

CATEGORY FIXED/MOVING BED FLUIDISED BED ENTRAINED BED

Ash Conditions Dry Ash Slagging Dry ash Agglomerating Slagging

KRW, U Gas, HTW, Shell, GE, CB&I (E

Typical processes Lurgi BGL Winkler
CFB, SES Gas), Neoll, KT

Bituminous coals, Lignite, coal, biomass and Lignite, bituminous

Suitable Feedstocks Wide coal
Petcoke bituminous coals (Non-caking coals) coal (all types), petcoke

Feed Characteristics

Size 6-50 mm 6-50mm 6-10mm 6-10mm < 100 um

Fines Acceptability Limited better than dry ash Good Better Unlimited
Preferred coal rank Any High Low any Any
Temperature ~ 700-1100°C ~900-1200°C ~1500°C
Operating characteristics

1300°C 1500-1800°C
Combustion temp. ~900-1200°C ~1500°C
(Slurry feed) (Dry feed)

Outlet gas temp High Moderate High

Low
(Temperature Range) (425-650°C) (900-1050°C) (1250-1600°C)

Pressure range (Atm) 1-10 10-30 30-80

Oxidant demand High Low Moderate High
Steam demand High Low Moderate Low

Medium throughput & low High throughput & high

Throughput Low throughput per gasifier
conversion per pass per pass conversion

Residence time High (1-3 hr.) Medium (20-150 min) Short (0.4-2 sec)

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Conclusion 5. Parent J.D. and Katz, S., Int. Gas Techno!.

Looking at the National Energy Security Research Bull. No 2, 110 (1948).
and import of Oil & Gas, Chemicals, Fertilizer, 6. Von Fredersdoff, C.G. and Elliot, M.A.,
Petrochemicals and vast reserve of coal in our "Coal Gasification", Chapter 20, Che-
country, this is a need of the time to use coal as mistry of Coal Utilization, Supplementary
alternative feedstock for chemical, petrochemical, Volume, Lowry, H.H., (Ed.), John Wiley
fertilizer etc. Benefits of using coal as an and Sons, Inc. N.Y.,London, 1963.
alternative feedstock to chemicals, petrochemicals 7. Gasification of coal, D. Vamvuka
and fertilizers would be beneficial for Macro 8. Effect of operating parameters on coal
Economy, Employment Generation, Make in gasification, Akanksha Mishra.,Shalini
India Program of Govt. of India, saving in foreign Gautam,Tripurari Sharma.
exchange and help in PM’s ambitious target of 9. Vyas, K.C. and Bodle, W.W., Clean
reducing 10% import dependence of oil & gas by Fuels from Coal — Technical Historical
2022 from 2014-15 levels, revenue generation- Background and Principles of Modern
taxes, duties, royalty etc., low emission of gaseous Technology, Symposium II papers, IIT
pollution, low carbon footprint, favoring energy Research Institute, 1975, pp. 53–84.
security of India etc. Recognizing the potential of
coal as game changer in the Indian Energy Sector, 10. Rudolph, P.E.H, The Lurgi Process — The
Surface Coal Gasification would be a suitable Route to SNG from Coal, presented at the
Clean Coal Technology for future. Fourth Pipeline Gas Symposium, Chicago,
IL, October 1972.
References 11. Cooper, B.R. and Ellington, W.A., The
1. Surface coal gasification, potential game Science and Technologies of Coal and Coal
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Kr. Singh. 12. Lloyd, W.G., Synfuels technology update,
2. Henning, G.R. and Smaller, B., Proc. 2nd in The Emerging Synthetic Fuel Industry,
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Buffalo, N.Y., 11-13, 1956. Press, 1981.
3. Tsai, S.c., "Fundamentals of Coal 13. Moe, J.M., SNG from Coal via the Lurgi
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