Models of Organizational Behavior

Every organization develops a particular

model in which behaviour of the people takes
place. This model is developed on the basis of
management’s assumptions about people and
the vision of the management. Since these
assumptions vary to a great extent, these
result into the development of different
organizational behaviour models (OB models).
From the very beginning of the civilized
human society, two alternative approaches
have been adopted for placing trust on people.
One says “trust everyone unless there is a
contrary evidence”: another says “do not trust
anyone unless there is a contrary evidence”. Autocratic Model
Naturally, interpersonal interactions take In the autocratic model, managerial
place differently under these two approaches. orientation is towards power. Managers see
Following description of the organizations is authority as the only means to get the things
worth while to note here: done, and employees are expected to follow
orders. The result is high dependence on boss.
“Most of our originations tend to be arranged This dependence is possible because
on the assumption that people cannot be employees live on the subsistence level. The
trusted or relied on, even in tiny matters”. organizational process is mostly formalized;
However, this is only one side of the coin. For the authority is delegated by right of command
example, McGregor has given theories X and Y over people to whom it applies. The
and each theory makes assumptions which are management decides what is the best action
quite contrary to each other; Argyris has given for the employees. The model is largely based
the concept of immaturity and maturity of on the Theory of X assumptions of McGregor
people which also provides two opposite where the human beings are taken inherently
views about the people. Thus, OB models distasteful to work and try to avid
developed on the basis of these assumptions responsibility. A very strict and close
would show great variations. However, OB supervision is required to obtain desirable
models that are in practice show some kind of performance from them. Likert’s management
continuum between these two opposite poles, system can be compared with the model of
though they tend to lean towards a particular organizational behaviour. His system
pole. Davis has described four OB models (exploitative authoritative) in which
which are as follows: motivation depends on physical security and
some use of desire for start and better
1. autocratic performance is ensured through fear, threats,
2. custodial punishment, and occasional rewards;
3. supportive communications is mostly one-way, that is
4. collegial. downward: there is little interaction between
managers and employees.

The autocratic model represents traditional

thinking which is based on the economic
concept of the man. With the changing values
and aspiration levels of people, this model is
yielding place to others. However, this does
not mean that this model is discarded in toto. their achievement of results. The focus is
In many cases; the autocratic model of primarily on participation and involvement of
organizational behaviour may be a quite useful employees in managerial decision-making
way to accomplish performance, particularly process. The model is based on principles of
where the employees can be motivated by supportive relationship’s of Likert, which is
physiological needs. This generally happens at the basic ingredient of his system 4
lower strata of the organization. (participative). Likert states that, the
leadership and other processes of the
Custodial Model organization must be such as to ensure a
In the custodial model, the managerial maximum probability that in all interactions
orientation is towards the use of money to play and all relationships with the organizations
for employee benefits. The model depends on each member will, in the light of his
the economic resources of the organization background, values and expectation views the
and its ability to pay for the benefits. While the experience as supportive and one which builds
employees hope to obtain security, at the same and maintains, his sense of personal worth and
time they become highly dependent on the importance.28 It is quite similar to the
organization. An organizational dependence assumptions of McGregor’s Theory Y. The
reduces personal dependence on boss. The supportive model is based on the assumptions
employees are able to satisfy their security that human beings move to the maturity level
needs or in the context of Herzberg’s theory and they expect the organizational climate
only maintenance factors. These employees which supports this expectations. Various
working under custodial model feel happy, organizational processes-communication,
their level of performance is not very high. leadership, decision-making, interaction,
This resembles again to Herzberg’s satisfier control, and influence-are such that, these help
and dissatisfier. Since employee are getting employees to fulfil their higher order needs
adequate regards and organizational security, such as esteem and self-actualization.
they feel happy. However, they are not given
any authority to decide what benefits or Likert has shown that, supportive model is
rewards they should get. This approach is best suited in the conditions when employees
quite similar to partrimonial approach where are self-motivated. Thus, this emphasizes not
the basic assumption is that it is the on the economic resources of the organization
prerogative of management to decide what but its human aspect. Manager’s role is to help
benefits are best suited to the employees. employees to achieve their work rather than
Such an approach is still quite common in supervising them closely. This can be applied
many business organizations in India. The more fruitfully for higher level managers
phenomenon is more predominant in family- whose lower order needs are satisfied
managed business organizations where family reasonably. Organizations with sophisticated
characteristics have also been applied to the technology and employing professional people
organizational settings. The basic ingredient can also apply this model for getting best out
of the family-managed system is that, parents of their human resources. However, this does
decide what is good or bad for their children not mean that, this model can be applied in all
and managers decide what is good for their circumstances. For example Davis observes
employees. From this point of view, this model that, ‘the supportive model tends to be
is not suitable for matured employees. specially effective in nations with affluence
and complex technology, because it appeals to
Supportive Model higher order needs and provides intrinsic
The supportive model organizational motivational factors. It may not be the best
behaviour depends on managerial leadership model to apply in less developed nations.
rather than on the use of power of money. The Because their employees need structures who
aim of managers is to support employees in are often at lower levels and their social
conditions are different’. Morever, this model performance. This is why managers are taking
can be applied more fruitfully for managerial a number of steps to humanize their
levels as compared to operative levels. As organizations, such as participation, morale
such, the tendency of modern management is building, and so on to make the organizations
to move towards supportive model, especially more effective.
for their management groups.
Theories of Learning
Collegial Model
Collegial model is an extension of supportive Classical Conditioning
model. The term collegial refers to a body of Classical conditioning is the association of one
people having common purpose. Collegial event with another desired event resulting in
model is based on the team concept in which a behaviour. The most well known
each employee develops high degree of experiments on classical conditioning were
understanding towards others and shares conducted by Ivan Pavlov, the Russian
common goals. The employee response to this psychologist, who won the Nobel Prize for his
situation is responsibility. Employees need experiments on this subject. Pavlov conducted
little direction and control from management. an experiment on dogs and tried to establish a
Control is basically through selfdiscipline by Stimulus-Response (S-R) connection. He tried
the team members. The organizational to relate the dog’s salivation and the ringing of
climate is quite conductive to selffulfillment the bell. In his experiments, he put some meat
and self-actualization. Collegial model tends in front of dogs.
to be more useful with unprogrammed work
requiring behavioural flexibility, an The dogs responded to this stimulus by
intellectual environment, and considerable job salivating. This response was instinctive or
freedom. unconditioned. Pavlov next began to ring a bell
at the same time as the meat was presented.
The various models of organizational Ringing the bell in itself, without the
behaviour are based on the assumption of the presentation of meat, was not connected to
human characteristics and how they can work any responses. But by ringing the bell at the
best. Since situational variables are strong same time as presentation of meat, Pavlov
factors in determining the organizational established a relationship between the two
processes, managers cannot assume that a stimuli-the bell and the meat- in the mind of
particular model is best suitable for all the dogs. By continuing this process, the
purposes and for all situations. Rather all the ringing of bell alone was sufficient stimulus to
models will remain in practice and that too elicit a response of salivating, even when no
with considerable success. These models are meat was presented. Thus, the bell became a
basically constructed around need hierarchy. conditioned stimulus, resulting in conditioned
Since need hierarchy is not similar for all the or learned response.
employees, the same model cannot be used for
all of them. The need hierarchy changes with The above diagram explains that the meat was
the level of a person in the organization, level an unconditioned stimulus. It caused the dog
of his education, level of maturity, personality to react in a certain way i.e. noticeable increase
factors and the type of work environment. in salivation. This reaction is called the
Considering these factors, a particular model unconditioned response. The bell was an
can be applied. Organization theorists have artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus. But
argued that there is a tendency to move when the bell was paired with the meat (an
towards the adoption of supportive model unconditioned stimulus), it eventually
because in this case people may give their best produced a response. After conditioning, the
because in other models they do not find dog started salivating in response to the
conditions conducive to give their best
ringing of the bell alone. Thus, conditioned Based upon this direct relationship between
stimulus led to conditioned response. the consequences and the behaviour, the
management can study and identify this
In an organisational setting we can see relationship and try to modify and control
classical conditioning operating. For example, behaviour. Hence, certain types of
at one manufacturing plant, every time the top consequences can be used to increase the
executive from the head office would make a occurrence of a desired behaviour and other
visit, the plant management would clean up types of consequences can be used to decrease
the administrative offices and wash the the occurrence of undesired behaviour.
windows. This went on for years.
One can see examples of operant conditioning
Eventually, employees would turn on their in the organisations. For instance, working
best behaviour and look prim and proper hard and getting the promotion will probably
whenever the windows were cleaned even on cause the person to keep working hard in the
those occasions when the cleaning was not future. On the other hand, if a boss assures his
paired with the visit from the top brass. People subordinate that he would be suitably
had learnt to associate the cleaning of the compensated in the next performance
windows with the visit from the head office. appraisal, provided the employee works over
time.
Classical conditioning represents only a very
small part of total human learning. So it has a However, when the evaluation time comes, the
limited value in the study of organisational boss does not fulfill his assurance to his
behaviour. Classical conditioning plays only a subordinate, even though the latter had
passive role. We will react in a particular way worked overtime. Next time, the subordinate
only if something happens. But in reality, the coolly declines to work overtime when the
behaviour of people in organisations is boss requests him to do so. Thus, it can be
voluntary rather than being reflexive. Their concluded that the behaviour consequences
behaviour is not elicited in response to a that are rewarding increase the rate of
specific, identifiable event but it is generally response, while the aversive consequences
emitted. The learning of complex behaviour decrease the rate of response. Operant
can be better understood by looking at conditioning techniques are extensively used
operant conditioning. in clinical and educational research, control of
alcoholism and control of deviant children in a
Operant Conditioning: class room.
Operant is defined as behaviour that produces
effect. Operant conditioning is based on the Cognitive Learning:
work of B.F. Skinner who advocated that The pioneer of cognitive learning theory is
individuals emit responses that are rewarded Edward Tolman. He developed and tested this
and will not emit responses that are either not theory through controlled experiments. Using
rewarded or are punished. Operant rats in his laboratory, he showed that they
conditioning argues that behaviour is a learnt to run through a complicated maze
function of its consequences. Behaviour is towards their goal of food. It was observed
likely to be repeated if the consequences are that rats developed expectations at every
favourable. Behaviour is not likely to be choice point in the maze. Thus, they learnt to
repeated if the consequences are unfavorable. expect that certain cognitive cues related to
Thus the relationship between behaviour and the choice point could ultimately lead to food.
consequences is the essence of the operant The learning took place when the relationship
conditioning. between the cues and expectancy was
strengthened because the cues led to expected
goals.
The cognitive theory recognizes the role of an etc. This view that we can learn through both
organism in receiving, memorizing, retrieving observation and direct experience has called
and interpreting the stimulus and reacting to social learning theory.
it. The cognitive explanation of learning differs
from classical conditioning (stimulus response This theory assumes that learning is not a case
learning) and operant conditioning (response of environmental determinism (classical and
stimulus learning). According to Tolman, operant views) or of individual determinism
cognitive approach could be termed as (The cognitive view). Rather it is a blending of
stimulus approach i.e. one stimulus leads to both. Thus, social learning theory emphasizes
another. the interactive nature of cognitive,
behavioural and environmental determinants.
Cognitive learning is achieved by thinking The influence of model is central to the social
about the perceived relationship between learning view point. Four processes have been
events and individual goals and expectations. found to determine the influence that a model
Cognitive theory of learning assumes that the will have on an individual.
organism learns the meaning of various
objects and events and learned responses
depend upon the meaning assigned to stimuli.

Cognitive theorists argue that the learner

forms a cognitive structure in memory, which
preserves and organizes information about
the various events which occur in a learning
situation. When a test is conducted to
determine how much has been learned, the
subject must encode the test stimulus and scan
it against his memory to determine an a. Attention Process
appropriate action. What is done will depend People learn from a model only when they
upon the cognitive structure retrieved from recognize and pay attention to its critical
memory. features. We tend to be most influenced by
models that are attractive, repeatedly
Today, the cognitive theory is very much alive available, important to us or similar to use in
and relevant. In organisational behaviour the our estimation.
cognitive approach has been applied mainly to
motivation theories. Expectations, b. Retention Processes
attributions and locus of control and goal A model’s influence will depend upon how
setting are all cognitive concepts and well the individual remembers the model’s
represent the purposefulness of action after the model is not longer readily
organisational behaviour. Many researchers available.
are currently concerned about the
relationship or connection between cognitions c. Motor Reproduction Processes
and organisational behaviour. After a person has seen a new behaviour by
observing the model, the watching must be
Social Learning converted to doing. This process then
Individuals can also learn by observing what demonstrates that the individual can perform
happens to other people and just by being told the modelled activities.
about something, as well as by direct
experiences. Much of what we have learned d. Reinforcement Processes
comes from observing and imitating models- Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the
parents, teachers, peers, superiors, film stars modeled behaviour if positive incentives or
rewards are provided. Behaviours that are Types of Reinforcement
positively reinforced will be given more
attention, learned better and performed more The consequences of behavior are called
often. reinforcement. Managers can use various
kinds of reinforcement to affect employee
Shaping Behaviour behavior. There are four basic forms of
The learning process of individuals takes place reinforcement—positive reinforcement,
on the job as well as prior to the job. In any avoidance, extinction, and punishment.
organisation, managers will be concerned with
how they can teach employees to behave in the Positive reinforcement is a reward or other
ways that are most beneficial to the desirable consequence that follows behavior.
organisation. When an attempt is made by the Providing positive reinforcement after a
managers to mould individuals by guiding particular behavior motivates employees to
their learning in graduated steps he is shaping maintain or increase the frequency of that
their behaviour. behavior. A compliment from the boss after an
employee has completed a difficult job and a
A manager can shape the behaviour by salary increase following a worker’s period of
systematical reinforcing each successive step high performance are examples of positive
that move the individual closer to the desired reinforcement. This type of reinforcement has
response. For example, an employee who been used at Corning’s ceramics factory in
chronically leaves the office half hour early Virginia, where workers receive bonuses for
starts leaving the office only twenty minutes pulling blemished materials from assembly
early, the manager can reinforce his behaviour lines before they go into more expensive
so that it comes more close to the desired stages of production. Intuit has started a
behaviour to leave the office in time. The first program of giving relatively small but
theoretical treatment given to reinforcement relatively frequent rewards when workers
in learning and the framework that still perform well. So, for example, rather than
dominates today is E.L. Thorndike’s classic law getting one large bonus at the end of the year,
of effect. a high performer may get several smaller ones
throughout the year.
The Law of Effect
In Thorndike’s own words, the law of effect Avoidance, also known as negative
simply states that, “Of several response made reinforcement, is another means of increasing
to the same situation, those which are the frequency of desirable behavior. Rather
accompanied or closely followed by than receiving a reward following a desirable
satisfaction (Reinforcement)-will be more behavior, the person is given the opportunity
likely to recur, those which are accompanied to avoid an unpleasant consequence. For
or more closely followed by discomfort example, suppose that a boss habitually
(Punishment- will be less likely to recur.” The criticizes employees who dress casually. To
operant conditioning or learning approach to avoid criticism, an employee may routinely
behaviour is based on the law of effect. dress to suit the supervisor’s tastes. The
employee is thus motivated to engage in
It has been demonstrated time after time in desirable behavior (at least from the
highly controlled learning experiments and is supervisor’s viewpoint) to avoid an
directly observable in everyday learning unpleasant, or aversive, consequence.
experiences. For example, if employees who
work hard to achieve the ogranisational Extinction decreases the frequency of
objectives are suitably rewarded monetarily behavior, especially behavior that was
or otherwise, they will tend to repeat their previously rewarded. If rewards are
efforts when new objectives are set. withdrawn for behaviors that were previously
reinforced, the behaviors will probably Terminal and Instrumental Values
become less frequent and eventually die out.
For example, a manager with a small staff may Instrumental Values
encourage frequent visits from subordinates core values, permanent in nature, comprise
as a way of keeping in touch with what is going personal characteristics and character traits.
on. Positive reinforcement might include
cordial conversation, attention to Instrumental Values refer to preferable modes
subordinates’ concerns, and encouragement of behaviour and include values like honesty,
to come in again soon. As the staff grows, sincerity, ambition, independence, obedience,
however, the manager may find that such
imaginativeness, courageousness,
unstructured conversations make it difficult to
competitiveness, and also some negative traits
get her own job done. She then might begin to
brush off casual conversation and reward only too.
to-the-point “business” conversations.
Withdrawing the rewards for casual chatting Organisations also have Instrumental Values
will probably extinguish that behavior. We (which can be ascertained from the
should also note that if managers, organizational culture) and these are
inadvertently or otherwise, stop rewarding permanent in nature and difficult to change.
valuable behaviors such as good performance,
those behaviors also may become extinct. For example, the instrumental values of a PSU
will differ from that of an MNC though both
Punishment, like extinction, also tends to may be in the same business.
decrease the frequency of undesirable
behaviors. Punishment is an unpleasant, or Instrumental Values are difficult to change.
aversive, consequence of a behavior. Examples
of punishment are verbal or written Terminal Values
reprimands, pay cuts, loss of privileges, layoffs, In our personal lives, Terminal Values are
and termination. Many experts question the
those things that we can work towards or we
value of punishment and believe that
think are most important and we feel are most
managers use it too often and use it
inappropriately. In some situations, however, desirable – terminal values are desirable
punishment may be an appropriate tool for states of existence.
altering behavior. Many instances of life’s
unpleasantness teach us what to do by means Terminal Values include things like happiness,
of punishment. Falling off a bike, drinking too self respect, family security, recognition,
much, or going out in the rain without an freedom, inner harmony, comfortable life,
umbrella all lead to punishing consequences professional excellence, etc
(getting bruised, suffering a hangover, and
getting wet), and we often learn to change our In a nutshell, Terminal Values signify the
behavior as a result. Furthermore, certain objectives of the life of a person – the ultimate
types of undesirable behavior may have far- things the person wants to achieve through his
reaching negative effects if they go or her behaviour (the destination he wants to
unpunished. For instance, an employee who reach in life) whereas Instrumental Values
sexually harasses a coworker, a clerk who indicate the methods an individual would like
steals money from the petty cash account, and to adopt for achieving his life’s aim (the path
an executive who engages in illegal stock
he would like to take to reach his destination).
transactions all deserve punishment.
This applies to organisations as well, and
organizations too exhibit Terminal Values.
However, Terminal Values can be changed and Dominant Values in Today’s Workforce
this can be seen when there is a change of top Just like different issues or aspects of life
management or CEO. shaped each generation's viewpoint of the
world, it also shaped and molded the values of
each generation. It is not hard to understand
that if you grew up during world war, you
would have a very different set of values than
if you grew up during the digital age and of
cellular phones. Those different values are
what make each generation unique. Some of
the values that we can identify for each
generation are:
 Traditionalists: Adherence to rules,
discipline, family focus, hard work, and
trust in the government
 Baby Boomers: Anti-war, anti-
government, equal rights,
involvement, and personal
gratification
 Generation X: Balance, diversity, lack
of loyalty to an organization, and a
global mindset
Milton Rokeach has identified 2 basic types of  Millennials: Achievement, fun, civic
values- terminal and instrumental. A terminal duty, sociability, and self-confidence
value is an ultimate goal in a desired status or
outcome. An instrumental value, on the other Hofstede’s Five Value Dimensions of
hand, is a tool or means for acquiring a National Culture
terminal value. For e.g., a person may desire
and strive to achieve happiness, a terminal The Hofstede model of national culture
value by being ambitious, independent and consists of six dimensions. The cultural
dimensions represent independent
responsible (instrumental values). Some of the
preferences for one state of affairs over
terminal values are- Equality, Freedom,
another that distinguish countries (rather
Family Security, Happiness, National security.
than individuals) from each other.
Some of the Instrumental values are —
Ambitious, Broad-minded, Capable, Cheerful, The country scores on the dimensions are
Honest. relative, in that we are all human and
simultaneously we are all unique. In other
The different values an individual has, both words, culture can only be used meaningfully
terminal and instrumental, combine to create by comparison. The model consists of the
an enduring cluster of values, a value system. following dimensions:
Our values and value system then are primary
determinants of who and what we are as
individual. POWER DISTANCE INDEX (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which

the less powerful members of a society accept
and expect that power is distributed
unequally. The fundamental issue here is how UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX (UAI)
a society handles inequalities among people.
The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension
expresses the degree to which the members of
People in societies exhibiting a large degree of
a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty
Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in
and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is
which everybody has a place and which needs
how a society deals with the fact that the
no further justification. In societies with low
future can never be known: should we try to
Power Distance, people strive to equalise the
control the future or just let it happen?
distribution of power and demand
justification for inequalities of power.
Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid
codes of belief and behaviour, and are
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas.
(IDV) Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed
attitude in which practice counts more than
The high side of this dimension, called principles.
Individualism, can be defined as a preference
for a loosely-knit social framework in which
individuals are expected to take care of only LONG TERM ORIENTATION VERSUS SHORT
themselves and their immediate families. TERM NORMATIVE ORIENTATION (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with

Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a
its own past while dealing with the challenges
preference for a tightly-knit framework in
of the present and the future. Societies
society in which individuals can expect their
prioritize these two existential goals
relatives or members of a particular ingroup to
differently.
look after them in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension
is reflected in whether people’s self-image is Societies who score low on this dimension, for
defined in terms of “I” or “we.” example, prefer to maintain time-honoured
traditions and norms while viewing societal
change with suspicion.
MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY (MAS)
Those with a culture which scores high, on the
The Masculinity side of this dimension other hand, take a more pragmatic approach:
represents a preference in society for they encourage thrift and efforts in modern
achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and education as a way to prepare for the future.
material rewards for success. Society at large
is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity,
stands for a preference for cooperation, In the business context, this dimension is
modesty, caring for the weak and quality of referred to as “(short-term) normative versus
life. Society at large is more consensus- (long-term) pragmatic” (PRA). In the academic
oriented. environment, the terminology
Monumentalism versus Flexhumility is
sometimes also used.
In the business context Masculinity versus
Femininity is sometimes also related to as
“tough versus tender” cultures.
INDULGENCE VERSUS RESTRAINT (IND) Intentions are not always translated into
actual behavior, however. If the instructor’s
Indulgence stands for a society that allows course next semester is scheduled for 8 a.m.,
relatively free gratification of basic and you may decide that another instructor is just
natural human drives related to enjoying life as good. Some attitudes, and their
and having fun. Restraint stands for a society corresponding intentions, are much more
that suppresses gratification of needs and central and significant to an individual than
regulates it by means of strict social norms. others. You may intend to do one thing (take a
particular class) but later alter your intentions
Three Components of Attitude because of a more significant and central
attitude (fondness for sleeping late).
Cognition is the knowledge a person presumes
to have about something. You may believe you
like a class because the textbook is excellent, o Affective component: this involves a
the class meets at your favorite time, the person’s feelings / emotions about the
instructor is outstanding, and the workload is attitude object. For example: “I am
light. This “knowledge” may be true, partially scared of spiders”.
true, or totally false. For example, you may
intend to vote for a particular candidate o Behavioral (or conative) component:
because you think you know where the the way the attitude we have
candidate stands on several issues. In reality, influences how we act or behave. For
depending on the candidate’s honesty and example: “I will avoid spiders and
your understanding of his or her statements, scream if I see one”.
the candidate’s thinking on the issues may be
exactly the same as yours, partly the same, or o Cognitive component: this involves a
totally different. Cognitions are based on person’s belief / knowledge about an
perceptions of truth and reality, attitude object. For example: “I believe
and, as we note later, perceptions agree with spiders are dangerous”.
reality to varying degrees.
Types of Attitudes in Relation to Work
A person’s affect is his or her feelings toward
something. In many ways, affect is Job Satisfaction
similar to emotion—it is something over Job satisfaction refers to one’s feeling towards
one’s job. An individual having satisfaction is
which we have little or no conscious control.
said to posses positive attitude towards the
job. Conversely, a dissatisfied person will have
For example, most people react to words such
negative attitude towards his orher job. When
as “love,” “hate,” “sex,” and “war” in a manner
people speak of employee attitudes they
that reflects their feelings about what those
invariably refer to job satisfaction. In fact, the
words convey. Similarly, you may like one of
two terms are used interchangeably, though
your classes, dislike another, and be
subtle difference does exist between the two.
indifferent toward a third. If the class you
dislike is an elective, you may not be
Job Involvement
particularly concerned. But if it is the first
Job involvement refers to the degree with
course in your chosen major, your affective
which an individual identifies psychologically
reaction may cause you considerable anxiety.
with his or her job and perceives his or her
perceived performance level important to self
Intention guides a person’s behavior. If you
worth. High degree of job involvement results
like your instructor, you may intend to take
in fewer absence and lower resignation rates.
another class from him or her next semester.
Organizational Commitment decision. In the extreme, some employees
The last job attitude refers to organizational might engage in counterproductive behaviors
commitment. It is understood as one’s to get attention and force changes in the
identification with his or her organization and organization.
feels proud of being its employee. Job
involvement refers to one’s attachment to a Loyalty
job whereas organizational commitment In the original version of this model, loyalty
implies an employee’s identification with a was not an outcome of dissatisfaction. Rather,
particular organization and its goals. Needless it determined whether people chose exit or
to say, it is to state that, an individual may be voice (i.e., high loyalty resulted in voice; low
attached to his or her job but may be loyalty produced exit). More recent writers
indifferent to the organization and its describe loyalty as an outcome, but in various
objectives. Turnover and absenteeism are low and somewhat unclear ways. Generally, they
when employees have organizational suggest that “loyalists” are employees who
commitment. respond to dissatisfaction by patiently
waiting—some say they “suffer in silence”—
Different Responses to Dissatisfaction for the problem to work itself out or be
resolved by others.
Exit
Exit includes leaving the organization, Neglect
transferring to another work unit, or at least Neglect includes reducing work effort, paying
trying to get away from the dissatisfying less attention to quality, and increasing
situation. The traditional theory is that job absenteeism and lateness. It is generally
dissatisfaction builds over time and is considered a passive activity that has negative
eventually strong enough to motivate consequences for the organization.
employees to search for better work
opportunities elsewhere. This is likely true to
some extent, but the most recent opinion is
that specific “shock events” quickly energize
employees to think about and engage in exit
behavior.

For example, the emotional reaction you

experience to an unfair management decision
or a conflict episode with a co-worker
motivates you to look at job ads and speak to
friends about job opportunities where they
work. This begins the process of redefining
your self-concept more in terms of another
company than in terms of your current
employer.

Voice
Voice is any attempt to change, rather than
escape from, the dissatisfying situation. Voice
can be a constructive response, such as
recommending ways for management to
improve the situation, or it can be more
confrontational, such as filing formal
grievances or forming a coalition to oppose a