zero elevation

1. For an elevated zero range, the amount the measured variable

zero is above the lower range value. It may be expressed either in
units of the measured variable or in percent of span [S51.1]. 2.
Biasing the zero output signal to raise the zero to a higher starting
point. Usually used in liquid level measurement for starting
measurement above the vessel connection point.

zero suppression
1. For a suppressed zero range, the amount the measured variable
zero is below the lower range value. It may be expressed either in units
of the measured variable or in percent of span [S51.1]. 2. The
elimination of nonsignificant zeros in a numeral. 3. Biasing the zero
output signal to produce the desired measurement. Used in level
measurement to counteract the zero elevation caused by a wet leg.

Basics.
Level is measured at the position of the interface between phases,
where the phases are liquid/gas, solid/gas, or immiscible liquid/liquid.
Level is simply a measure of height. It defines the position of the
interface, that is, the surface where the two phases meet with respect
to a reference point. This measurement is often converted to a
volumetric or gravimetric quantity.

· Direct Level Measurement

Direct methods employ physical properties such as fluid motion and

buoyancy, as well as optical, thermal, and electrical properties. Direct
level measurement does not require compensation for changes in level
caused by changes in temperature. Direct level measurements show
the actual level of the interface.

· Indirect Level Measurement

Indirect level measurement involves converting measurements of

some other quantity, such as pressure to level by determining how
much pressure is exerted over a given area at a specific measuring
point, the height of the substance above that measuring point can also
be determined. For example, the formula used to determine the height
of water in an open tank is:
h = P / .433 psi

where:

h = height,

p = pressure indicated on a gage,

.433 psi = pressure exerted by one square inch of water, one foot high.

For substances other than water, the liquid's specific gravity (the ratio
of the liquid's density to water's density) must be factored into the
level calculation:

h = P / .433 psi (G)

where:

G = specific gravity

Temperature can also affect the accuracy of indirect level

measurement. Substances have a tendency to expand when heated
and contract when cooled. Gases are greatly affected by changes in
temperature, while solids are affected very little. Because indirect level
measurement is sensitive to specific gravity and the effects of
temperature, it is necessary to compensate for these factors to ensure
accurate measurement.

· Continuous Level Measurement

In many processes, continuous level measurement is required because

it is necessary to know at all times the exact position of the interface in
relation to one or more specific reference points. A gage or sight glass,
can be used to continuously observe the position of the interface.

· Point-to-Point Level Measurement

Certain processes require only that the level of a substance be
maintained between two points. Frequently these two points are a high
level and a low level. When this is required, a point-to-point level
measurement system is used. Such a system activates control devices
only when predetermined levels are reached.

· Selecting Measurement Devices

Some level measurement methods and devices are better suited to
point measurement. When selecting a measuring device, it is
important to consider the operating parameters and the physical and
chemical properties of the process materials.

Visual sensors.
· Dip Sticks and Lead Lines
A dip stick is essentially a stick or rod that is calibrated to indicate
level. The dip stick is lowered vertically into a tank or vessel until it
reaches a reference point. Usually the bottom of the tank is used to
ensure that the dip stick is inserted to the correct depth. The dip stick
is then withdrawn and the level is ready by determining where the
interface last made contact with the dip stick. Reading the scale on the
dip stick indicates the level measurement. A lead line acts in the same
way as a dip stick. A steel measuring tape with a weight attached, the
lead line can be used in most places that the dip stick can. Since the
lead line can be rolled up into a smaller, compact unit, it is often easier
to handle than a dip stick.

· Sight Glasses and Gage Glasses

The sight glass is an important method for visually determining level.
The sight glass is a transparent tube of glass or plastic mounted
outside the vessel and connected to the vessel with pipes. The liquid
level in the sight glass matches the level of liquid in the process tank.

In process systems that contain a liquid under high pressure a reflex

sight glass is used. This device is armored, to permit it to tolerate
higher temperatures and higher pressures. Gage glasses are typically
glass covered ports in a vessel that make it possible to observe the
level of the substance in the vessel. Many gage glasses will have a
scale mounted on the tank that allows the level to be read.

· Float Devices
These devices operate by float movement with a change in level. This
movement is then used to convey a level measurement. An object of
lower density than the process liquid is placed in the vessel, causing it
to float on the surface. The float rises and falls with the level, and its
position is sensed outside the vessel to indicate level measurement.

· Magnetic-Type Float Devices

Floats can also be used with magnets to detect and indicate level. This
type of measurement system uses the attraction between two
magnets to follow the level of a process liquid.

Variable displacement sensors.

When a body is immersed or partly immersed in a liquid, it loses
weight equal to the liquid weight displaced. Variable displacement
level devices utilize this principle by measuring the weight of the
immersed displacer.

· Archimedes' Principle
Archimedes' Principle states that a body immersed in a liquid will be
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces. This
upward pressure acting on the area of the displacer creates the force
called buoyancy.

· Principles of Variable Displacement

The float displaces its own weight in the liquid in which it floats. It will
sink into the liquid until a volume of liquid is displaced that is equal in
weight to that of the float. When the specific gravity of the liquid and
the cross-sectional area of the float remain constant, the float rises and
falls with the level. So, the float will assume a constant relative position
with the level and its position is a direct indication of level. The amount
of liquid displaced by variable displacers depends on how deeply the
device is submerged in the liquid. With variable displacement devices,
the amount of displacement varies with the level of the liquid.

The span of the displacer is the distance that the displacer will respond
to the forces of buoyancy. Buoyant force depends on the amount of
liquid displaced and the density of the liquid. It is important to note the
relationship of specific gravity to the change in weight of the displacer
as the level changes. Displacers used in liquids with lower specific
gravity will not change weight as dramatically as those used in liquids
with higher specific gravity. This is why displacer level measuring
systems are not used in applications where they could be immersed in
liquids of varying specific gravities.

· Liquid-Liquid Interface Measurement

An advantage of variable displacers is that they are capable of
detecting liquid-liquid interfaces as well as liquid-gas interfaces. When
a displacer is used to determine the level of an interface between two
liquids, it is always completely submerged.

· Variable Displacement Level Measuring Devices

A displacer must be connected to a measuring mechanism which,

when sensing the changes in buoyant force, converts this force into an
indication of level. A displacer body can be suspended directly in a
tank, or installed in a float chamber on the outside of the vessel.
Torque tube displacer level instrument is suspended from an arm that
is attached to a torque tube or torque rod. A knife-edge bearing
supports the movable end of the torque tube. This type of bearing
provides an almost frictionless pivot point. The torque tube must be
sufficient strength to support the full weight of the displacer in the
absence of buoyancy, or when the level is at minimum. It is a solid or
hollow tube that transfers displacer motion to an electronic instrument
or a pneumatic instrument that will produce a signal proportional to
the changes in the weight of the displacer. Spring balance displacers
are devices similar to torque tube displacers. In these devices, the
torsional spring of the torque tube is replaced by a conventional range
spring. The motion of the displacer is transferred to the indicator by
means of magnetic coupling.

· Applications
Variable displacement level devices are most often used for local level
indication or control. Because displacers are immersed in process
fluids, their material of construction must be compatible with the
process. Displacers are also extremely sensitive to changes in the
density of process liquids. Provisions must be made to measure and
compensate for such changes in density when variable displacers are
used.

Pressure sensors.
Since level can be determined by pressure, or head, many pressure
measuring devices are used for indicating level.

· Hydrostatic Pressure
A liquid at rest in a vessel exerts a pressure on the walls of the vessel.
At any given point the pressure on the wall of the vessel is proportional
to the vertical distance between that point and the surface of the
liquid, and varies with the height of the liquid. The relationship
between the weight produced by the vertical height of a column of
water and the pressure exerted on the supporting surfaces of the
vessel can be used to determine level. The relationship between
pressure and level makes it possible to convert hydrostatic
measurements directly to level in feet or inches. In the following
equations, "WC" stands for water column and is usually omitted from
equations as understood in discussions of hydrostatic pressure.

1 lb./in.2 = 2.31 feet water

= 27.7 inches water (WC)

1 psi = 2.31 feet

= 27.7 inches

· Open-Tank Head Level Measurement

If level is to be determined and indicated by measuring pressure, the
specific gravity of the liquid must be known. The specific gravity of
water is 1.00. If the liquid has a lower specific gravity, the pressure
exerted by the column of liquid will be less than that exerted by a
column of water of the same height. For liquids with a specific gravity
greater than 1.00, the pressure exerted by the column of liquid will be
greater. To compensate for the difference in specific gravity, the
following equation is used:

h = (p (2.31 ft.)) / G

where:

h = height in feet

p = pressure

G = specific gravity
· Diaphragm Box
The diaphragm box is submerged in the process liquid and connected
to a pressure gage by a gage line. The hydrostatic head produced by
the level of the liquid in the tank exerts pressure on the bottom of the
diaphragm causing it to flex upward. This action compresses the gas in
the box and the gage line. The pressure is applied to a gage or other
pressure element that is part of an indicator assembly calibrated to
indicate liquid level units.

· Air-Trap Sensors
As the liquid level rises, the hydrostatic head forces liquid up into an
air trap sensor, or inverted bell. As the level of the liquid rises, it
compresses the air trapped in the bell and the gage line until an
equilibrium between the air pressure and the pressure exerted by the
hydrostatic head is reached.

· Air Bubble or Surge Tube

Known by various names, including an air bubble, a surge tube, an air
purge and a dip tube, this type of system uses a continuous air supply
that is connected to a tube that extends into the tank to a point that
represents the minimum level line. An air regulator controls the air
flow. It increases air flow to the tube until all liquid is forced from the
tube. At this pressure and flow rate, the air begins to bubble out of the
bottom of the tube. This indicates that the air pressure forcing the
liquid out of the tube is equal to the hydrostatic head produced by the
height of the process liquid being forced into the tube. The air pressure
acting against the hydrostatic head provides the pressure indication to
the gage.

This is most useful for applications such as underground tanks and

water wells. However, as with other hydrostatic pressure systems, the
major limitation of these systems is that they are generally limited to
open-tank applications.

· Closed-Tank Applications
In open tanks, measurements are referenced to atmospheric pressure.
At atmospheric pressure, the pressure on the surface of the liquid is
equal to the pressure on the reference side of the pressure element in
the measuring instrument. When atmospheric pressure changes, the
change is equal on both the surface of the liquid and the reference side
of the measuring element. To compensate for the effects on level
measurement caused by such pressure variations in closed-tank
applications, a differential pressure (d/p) cell is often used to measure
and indicate level. The d/p cell only responds to differences in pressure
applied to two measuring taps. One pressure tap is the measuring
point on the tank, which is usually below the minimum level point for
the liquid. The other tap is usually located near the top of the tank. The
tap in the liquid region of the tank is referred to as the high-side; the
other tap, located above the level of the liquid, is referred to as the
low-side. System pressure is sensed by both the high and low sides. In
addition to system pressure, the high side also senses the pressure
exerted by the height of the liquid. Since both sides are exposed to the
same system pressure, the effects of system pressure are canceled
and the differential pressure cell only indicates liquid level.

An instrument can be calibrated to compensate for the additional static

pressure created by the condensed liquid. This compensation or
adjustment is called zero elevation. Other means are also available to
eliminate inaccuracies due to wet leg problems. For instance, in what is
referred to as a wet-leg installation, the low pressure leg is deliberately
filled with liquid. Another method involves the use of a device called a
pressure repeater or one-to-one relay. The repeater is installed at the
top of the tank and linked by pipe to an air relay. The pressure in the
tank actuates the air relay, which is connected to an air supply. When
the pressure in the tank increases, the relay increases the air pressure
on the low-pressure leg. The relay regulates the air pressure so that it
is equal to that of the tank pressure. When the pressure in the tank
decreases, the relay vents air from the low pressure leg to maintain the
equilibrium. Zero suppression, is the correction adjustment required to
compensate for error caused by the mounting position of the
instrument with respect to the level measurement reference.

Electrical sensors.
· Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two plates separated from each other by an
insulating material called a dielectric. In applications involving
capacitance measuring devices, one side of the process container acts
as one plate and an immersion electrode is used as the other. The
dielectric is either air or the material in the vessel. The dielectric varies
with the level in the vessel. This variation produces a change in
capacitance that is proportional to level. Thus, level values are inferred
from the measurement of changes in capacitance, which result from
changes in the level.

Capacitance type level measurement devices offer many advantages.

Simple in design, they contain no moving parts and require minimal
maintenance. The availability of corrosive resistant probes is also an
advantage. Measurement is subject to error caused by temperature
changes affecting the dielectric constant of the material. If the probes
should become coated with a conductive material, errors in
measurement may occur.

· Conductivity
A material's ability to conduct electric current can also be used to
detect level. This method is typically used for point measurement of
liquid interfaces of relatively high conductivity. Conductivity
applications are usually limited to alarm devices and on/off control
systems. A common arrangement is two electrodes positioned at the
top in a tank. One extends to a minimum level and the other is
positioned so that its lower edge is at the maximum level. The tank is
grounded and functions as the common, or third electrode. Usually, a
stilling well is provided to ensure that the interface is not disturbed and
to prevent false measurement.

There are limitations to the conductivity method. The first is process

substance must be conductive. Second, only point detection
measurements can be obtained. The possibility of sparking also makes
this method prohibitive for explosive or flammable process substances.

Advantages include low cost and simple design, as well as the fact that
there are no moving parts in contact with the process material. These
advantages make this type of system an effective method of detecting
and indicating level for many water-based materials.

· Resistance
Resistance type level detectors use the electrical relationship between
resistance and current flow to accurately measure level. The most
common design uses a probe consisting of two conductive strips. One
strip has a gold-plated steel base; the other is an elongated wire
resistor. The strips are connected at the bottom to form a complete
electrical circuit. The upper ends of the strips are connected to a low
voltage power supply. The probe is enclosed in a flexible plastic sheath
which isolates the strips from the process material. As the level of the
process material rises, the hydrostatic pressure forces the resistance
strips together up to the interface. This action shorts the circuit below
the interface level, and total resistance is reduced proportionately.
Resistance sensing devices can be used for liquid-gas interfaces and
for slurries or solids. As with the other electrical level sensors
discussed, resistance-type level detectors require relatively little
maintenance.