Highway Engineering Unit 1

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION
Darshan D. Dave
9687517456
darshan.dave@darshan.ac.in
HIGHWAY
• What is Highway?
• Roads and highways, traveled way on which people, animals, or
wheeled vehicles move.
• In modern usage the term road describes a rural, lesser traveled
way, while the word street denotes an urban roadway.
• Highway refers to a major rural traveled way; more recently it has
been used for a road, in either a rural or urban area, where points of
entrance and exit for traffic are limited and controlled.
UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

HIGHWAY
• In short, a way which provides high riding quality is called
HIGHWAY.

HISTORY OF ROAD
• The first mode of transport was by foot.
• The human pathway were developed for specific purpose leading to
camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc.
• The next major mode of transport was the use of animals for
transporting both men and materials. Since these loaded animals
required more horizontal and vertical clearances than the walking
man, track ways emerged.
• The invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the
development of animal drawn vehicles.

HISTORY OF ROAD
• Then it became necessary that the road surface should be capable
of carrying greater loads.
• Thus roads with harder surfaces emerged.
• Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient
civilization dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of
road was found from Assyrian empire constructed about 1900 BC.

EVOLUTION OF ROAD
PATHWAY
TRACKWAY

EVOLUTION OF ROAD
Dating back to between 2600 and

2200 BC, on of the world’s first paved
roads was discovered in Egypt
Running southwest out of Rome,

The Appian Way was begun in 312
BC and was one of the first and
most famous Roman Military Road

EVOLUTION OF ROAD
Romans are considered as Pioneers in

road construction. It is said that “All
Roads Lead to Rome”
Cross Section of
Roman Road

EVOLUTION OF ROAD
The next major development in the
road construction occurred during the
regime of Napoleon. The significant
contributions were given by Tresaguet
in 1764
The British government also gave

importance to road construction. The
British engineer John Macadam
introduced what can be considered as
the first scientific road construction
method.

EVOLUTION OF ROAD
Cross Section of
British Road
designed by John
Macadam

EVOLUTION OF ROAD

HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
1927 Jayakar Committee
Central Road Fund 1929
1934 Indian Roads Congress
Motor Vehicle Act 1939
1943-63 Nagpur Road Conference & Plan
Central Road Research Institute 1950
1956 National Highway Act
Bombay Road Plan 1961-81
1973 Highway Research Board

National Urban Transport Policy 1978
1981-2001 Lucknow Road Plan
National Highways Authority of India 1995
2000 National Highways Development
Projects
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak 2000
Yojana
2001-21 Road Development Plan: Vision 2021
Road Development Plan: Vision 2025 2005-25

• Jayakar Committee
• The road development in the country should be considered as a national
interest as this has become beyond capacity of provincial governments and
local bodies.
• An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road
development fund called “Central Road Fund”
• A semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how
from various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various
aspects of roads.
• A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research and
development work pertaining to roads and to be available for consultations.

• Central Road Fund (CRF)
• CRF was formed on 1st march 1929.
• The consumer of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa
per litre of petrol to build this road fund.
• 20% of annual revenue is to be retained as Central Reserve and
80% is to be allotted by Central Government to various states
based on actual petrol consumption or the levy collected on sale of
petrol.

• Indian Roads Congress (IRC)
• It’s a semi official technical body formed in 1934.
• IRC controls specifications, standards and guidelines on materials,
design and construction of roads and bridges.
• Motor Vehicle Act

• It was brought into effect by GOI in 1939 to regulate the road traffic in
the form of traffic laws, ordinances and regulations.

• Nagpur Road Plan (1943-63)
• The roads were divided into four classes:
• National Highways
• State Highways
• District Roads: MDR & ODR
• Village Roads
• The committee planned to construct 2 lakh kms of road across the country within 20
years
• The construction of star and grid pattern of roads throughout the country is
recommended
• One of the objective was that the road length be increased so as to give a road density
of 16 kms per 100 sq. km.

• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)
• It is one of the national laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR).
• The institute is mainly engaged in carrying out applied research in various aspects
of highway engineering and offers technical advice to state governments and the
industries on various problems concerning roads.
• National Highway Act

• Under this act
• Certain selected highways are declared as National Highways, responsibility of
development and maintenance of which to be with the central government.
• To enter into any land for carrying out surveys.
• To acquire land and take possession for the development of the national highway.

• Bombay Road Plan (1961-81)
• It was second twenty year road plan
• The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakhs.
• Rural roads were given specific attention.
• The road length should be increased so as to give a road density
of 32 kms per 100 sq. km.
• The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then
included in the plan

• Highway Research Board
• It gives proper direction and guidance to road research activities
in India.
• Acts as a national body for coordination and promotion of
highway research.
• National Transport Policy Committee

• NTPC recommended the inclusion of transport in the priority sector,
optimal inter-modal mix between railway and road transport based on
resources, cost & energy considerations.

• Lucknow Road Plan (1981-2001)
• It was third twenty year road plan
• It aimed at increasing the total road length from 15,02,700 km in
the year 1981 to 27,02,000 km by the year 2001.
• The road length should be increased so as to give a road density of
82 kms per 100 sq. km.
• The plan has set the target length of NH to be completed by the
end of seventh, eighth and ninth year plan periods.

• National Highways Authority of India (1995)
• It is responsible for the development, maintenance and management
of National Highways entrusted to it and for matters connected or
incidental thereto.

• National Highways Development Projects (2000)
• Phase-1: Golden quadrilateral (Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata)
• Phase-2: NS Corridor (Srinagar-Kanyakumari) & EW Corridor (Silchar-
Porbandar)
• Phase-3: Upgrade 12,109 km of NH on a BOT basis
• Phase-4: convert existing single-lane highways into two lanes with
paved shoulders.
• Phase-5: upgrade of about 5,000 km of four-lane roads.
• Phase-6: Construction of Expressways
• Phase-7: Improvement of city/urban roads

• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (2000)
• Provide connectivity to all unconnected habitations having population
of 500 and above with all weather roads. The population limit is
relaxed in the case of hills, tribal and desert areas of the country.

ROAD CLASSIFICATION
All weather roads
Paved roads
SEASON
CARRIAGE WAY
Fair weather roads Unpaved roads
Heavy
Surfaced roads
Medium TRAFFIC VOLUME
PAVEMENT SURFACE
Low
Unsurfaced roads
National Highway
State Highway
Class I or A 1st 20 Year
Major District Road
LOAD Class II or B Plan
Class III or C Other District Road
Village Road
ROAD CLASSIFICATION
Primary System • Expressways
• National Highways
3rd 20 year • State Highways
Secondary System
Road Plan • Major District Roads
Tertiary System or rural • Other District Roads
roads • Village Roads
NE NH SH MDR ODR VR

ROAD CLASSIFICATION
Arterial
Sub-arterial
URBAN
ROADS
Collector
Local
MOBILITY
ACCESSIBILITY
HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIA
Plan overall
road network
Arrive at a
Work out road system
financial and lengths
system of different
types of roads
HIGHWAY
PLANNING
Plan for future

requirements Plan phases
& and priorities
improvements
Fix up date
wise priorities

Road Patterns
• Rectangular or block pattern
• This system is suitable for a plain country, without any predominant natural
features. Here the streets have equal widths and they cross each other at
right angles e.g, Jaipur
• It is convenient to traffic and so a speedy and free traffic can be
maintained.
• The houses are constructed in rectangular blocks so convenient,
economical and most suited for building construction.
• There is no wastage of land since no irregular portions are left out.
• This system has too many junctions & crossings.

JAIPUR

Road Patterns
• Radial or star & circular pattern
• In this system the circular or ring road are connected to radial roads.
• The town grows in the form of concentric ring roads round the hub
of the town so that each growth or part is as near to the center.
• The radial roads provide direct access to the heart or central part of
the town and are earmarked for fast moving traffic. Hence, these
ring roads can be designed as arterial roads.

DELHI

Road Patterns
• Radial or star & grid pattern
• Nagpur road plan assumes star and grid pattern of road network.
• The plots are formed trapezoidal in shape. So a lot of space is
wasted due to irregular portions left out.
• It is not economical for the construction of houses, since maximum
area is not utilized.

CAMBRIDGE

Road Patterns
• Radial or star & block pattern
• The entire area is divided into a network of roads radiating from the
business outwardly.
• In between radiating main roads, the built-up area may be planned
with rectangular block.

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA

ROAD PATTERNS
• Hexagonal Pattern
• In this pattern, the entire area is provided with a network of roads
formatting hexagonal figures.
• At each corner of the hexagon, three roads meet the built-up area
boundary by the sides of the hexagons is further divided in suitable
sizes.

PLANNING SURVEY
• Total population & classified distribution of the different population groups.
• Trend of population growth
• Agricultural & industrial products
• Agricultural & industrial development
• Existing facilities as communication, education, banking etc.
• Per capita income
ECONOMIC
• Topography survey STUDIES • Source of income & estimated
• Soil survey ENGINEERING
revenue
•
FINANCIAL
Location & Classification of
STUDIES
STUDIES
PLANNING Standard of living
existing road
• Resources at local level
• Assessment of development SURVEYS
• Anticipated development
• Road life studies
• Future trends in financial
• Problems in drainage, cons., TRAFFIC aspects
& maintenance of road STUDIES
• CVC (vehicles/day)
• O/D study
• Traffic flow pattern
• Mass transportation facility
• Accidents study
• Future growth and trend in traffic volume

CALCULATION OF ROAD LENGTHS
• Nagpur Road Plan
• This plan assumes star and grid pattern of road network. Two plan formulas
were suggested for deciding the length of two categories of roads:
• CATEGORY – I: Surfaced or metalled roads meant for NH, SH & MDR
𝐴 𝐵
• Length of (NH + SH + MDR), km = [ + +1.6N + 8T] + D – R
8 32
Where
• A = Agricultural Area, m2
• B = Non-agricultural Area, m2
• N = Number of towns and villages with population range 2001-5000
• T = Number of towns and villages population over 5000
• D = Development allowance of 15% of road length calculated for agricultural
and industrial development during the next 20 years
• R = Existing length of railway track, km

• CATEGORY – II: Un-Surfaced roads meant for ODR & VR
• Length of (ODR + VR), km = [0.32V + 0.8Q + 1.6P + 3.2S] + D
Where
• V = Number of villages with population 500 or less
• Q = Number of villages with population 501 -1000
• P = Number of villages with population 1001 -2000
• S = Number of villages with population 2001 -5000
• D = Development allowance of 15% for next 20 years

• Bombay Road Plan
• Five different formulas were framed to calculate the lengths of
National Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, Other
District Rods
• Length of National Highways, km
=[ ]+ [32K + 8M] + D
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
64 80 96
• Length of National Highways + State Highways, km
=[ ]+ [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 1.6P] + D

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
20 24 32

• Length of National Highways + State Highways + Major District
Roads, km
=[ + ]+ [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 9.6P + 6.4Q + 2.4R] + D
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+
8 16 24
Roads + Other District Roads, km
= [3𝐴
16
+ + ]+ [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 9.6P + 12.8Q + 4R + 0.8S +
3𝐵
32
𝐶
16
0.32T] + D
Roads + Other District Roads + Village Roads, km
= [ 𝐴
4
𝐵
+ +
8
𝐶
]+ [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 9.6P + 12.8Q + 5.9R + 1.6S +
12
0.64T + 0.2V] + D

Where
• A = Developed and agricultural areas, km2
• B = Semi-Developed area, km2
• C = Undeveloped area, km2
• K = Number of towns with population over 1,00,000
• M = Number of towns with population range 50,000 – 1,00,000
• N = Number of towns with population range 20,000 – 50,000
• P = Number of towns with population range 10,000 – 20,000
• Q = Number of towns with population range 5,000 – 10,000
• R = Number of towns with population range 2,000 – 5,000
• S = Number of towns with population range 1,000 – 2,000
• T = Number of towns with population range 500 – 1,000
• V = Number of towns with population below 500
• D = Development allowance of 5% of road length calculated for further
development and other foreseen factors

• Lucknow Road Plan
• Primary Road System
• Expressways of total length 2000 km to be developed for fast travel
based on traffic requirements
• NHs are based on the concept of 100 km square grids, by providing 100
+ 100 = 200 km of road length per 100 x 100 = 10000 km2 area i.e., 1 km
per 50 km2.
• Thus total length of NH could be obtained by dividing the total area by
50.

• Secondary Road System
• The total length of SH required may be determined from the
following two relations: (Higher value is adopted)
• By total area; SH, km = Area of state, km2 / 25
• By total area and no. of towns; SH, km = 62.5 x no. of towns – (Area of state,
km2 / 50)
• The total length of MDR required may be determined from the
following two relations: (Higher value is adopted)
• By total area; MDR, km = Area of state, km2 / 12.5
• By no. of towns; MDR, km = 90 x no. of towns

• Tertiary Road System
• The target length of rural roads consisting of ODR and VR to be
achieved by the year 2001 was fixed as 21,89,000 km.

CALCULATION OF ROAD LENGTHS (EXERCISE)
• The following data were collected for planning the road development programme
of a backward district.
• Total Area = 9600 km2
• Agricultural and Developed area = 3200 km2
• Existing railway track length = 105 km
• Existing length of surfaced road = 322 km
• Existing length of un-surfaced road = 450 km
• Number of towns or villages in different population ranges are as below:
Population > 5000 2001-5000 1001 – 2000 501 – 1000 < 500
No. of Villages & Towns 8 40 130 280 590
• Calculate the additional lengths of surfaced and un-surfaced roads for the
road system based on Nagpur Road Plan formulae for this district.

• Calculate the total lengths of NH, SH, MDR, ODR and VR needed in a district as
per Bombay Road Plan. The data collected form district are given below:
• Total Area = 18400 km2
• Agricultural and Developed area = 8000 km2
• Undeveloped area = 4800 km2 Population range Number of Towns
• Population centres are as given in table: < 500 200
500 – 1000 350
1000 – 2000 750
2000 – 5000 360
5000 – 10000 150
10000 – 20000 80
20000 – 50000 25
50000 – 100000 10
> 100000 5
• The area of a certain district in India is 13400 km2 and there are 12 towns per
1981 census. Determine the lengths of different categories of roads to be
provided in this district by the year 2001.

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
• The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment.
Highway Alignment
Horizontal Alignment Vertical Alignment
Straight Path Deviation

Gradient
Valley & Summit

Horizontal
Curves
Curves
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
• A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in
increase in one or more of the following:
• Construction cost
• Maintenance cost
• Vehicle operation cost
• Accident rate
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the
alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of
costly structures by the road side.

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
• The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are
that it should be
• Short: A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several practical
considerations which would cause deviations from the shortest path.
• Easy: The alignment must facilitate easy construction & maintenance of road with
minimum problems.
• Safe: The alignment must safe enough from the view point of stability of hill slopes,
embankment and cut slopes and foundation, traffic operation with safe geometric
features.
• Economical: The alignment is considered economical only if the total life-cycle cost
considering initial, maintenance & vehicle operation cost is lowest.

FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT
• For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal
stations. This is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as
intermediate obstructions and topography.
• A shortest route may have very steep gradients and hence not easy for vehicle
operation.
• There may be construction and maintenance problems along the route which
otherwise be short and easy.
• The various factors which control the highway alignment are:

• Obligatory points
• Traffic
• Geometric design
• Economics
• Other considerations

OBLIGATORY POINTS
• These are control points governing the alignment of the highways. These control points may
be divided into two categories:
• Points through which the alignment is to pass
• Points through which the alignment should not pass
• Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass are due to
topographic and other site conditions including natural obstructions. Some of
the examples are mountain pass, suitable location of bridge to cross a river,
presence of intermediate town to be connected.
• These obligatory points necessitate deviation of the road alignment from the
straight alignment with shortest or easiest path.

The road bridge across a river can be located only at a place where the river has straight and
permanent path and not where there is a bend in the river also the selected location of the
bridge should be such that the abutment and pier can be properly constructed.

Alignment to
connect
intermediate area


OBLIGATORY POINTS
• There are obligatory points through which the road should not pass and these
locations may make it necessary to deviate form the proposed shortest
alignment.
• These points which should be avoided while aligning a road includes religious
places, very costly structures, unsuitable land, grave or tomb, marshy, peaty
and water logged area.

TRAFFIC
• The road alignment should be decided based in the requirements of road traffic.
• Origin and destination study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the
trend of traffic flow.
• The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desire lines, anticipated traffic flow, classified traffic
volume their growth and future trends.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance would govern
the final alignment of highway.
• If straight alignment is aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep gradient.
• As far as possible while aligning a new road, the gradient should be flat and less than ruling
gradient.
• It may be necessary to change the alignment considering the design speed, maximum
allowable superelevation and coefficient of lateral friction.
• Also adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads is made keeping in view the minimum
radius of curve and the transition curves.
• The sight distance must be made available in every section of the road.

ECONOMICS
• The alignment finalised should also be economical.
• While working out the economics the factors to be considered are

• Initial construction cost
• Regular and periodic maintenance cost of the road
• Vehicle operation cost in future years
• It is essential to work out overall economics based on life cycle cost of the road
project and not consider the initial cost of the road project only.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
• Various other factors which may govern either the horizontal or vertical alignment
of the road are drainage considerations, hydrological factors, political
considerations and monotony.
• The vertical alignment is often guided by drainage considerations. The subsurface

water level, seepage flow and high flood level are the factors to be considered
while deciding the highway alignment.

ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
• Before a highway alignment is finalised in a new highway project, engineering
surveys are to be carried out which includes following stages:
• Map study
• Reconnaissance study
• Preliminary surveys
• Final location and detailed survey

MAP STUDY
• In the topographic map of the area it is possible to suggest the likely routes of the
road.
• In India topographic maps are available from the SURVEY OF INDIA with 15 or 30
metre contour intervals.
• The main features like rivers, hills, valleys etc. are also shown in this maps.
• It is possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes so that further

details of these may be studied later at the site.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
• During this survey, the engineer visits the site and examines the general
characteristics of the area before deciding the most feasible routes for detailed
studies.
• All relevant data which are not available on the map are collected and noted down.
• Some of the details are:

• Valleys, ponds, lake, marshy land, ridge, hills, other obstructions etc.
• Approximate values of gradient and radius of curves
• Number and type of cross drainage structures, max. flood level, ground water level etc.
• Soil type and geological features
• Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries
• As a result of this survey a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further studies.
PRELIMINARY SURVEY
• Survey of various alternate alignments proposed after reconnaissance is done and all
necessary physical information, topography details and drainage of soil is collected
• Different proposals are compared in the view of requirements of an ideal alignment
• Quantity of earth work is estimated
• Best alignment is finalised
• Preliminary survey includes

• Primary traverse
• Topographical features
• Levelling work
• Drainage studies
• Soil survey
• Material survey
• Traffic studies.
FINAL LOCATION & DETAILED SURVEY
• The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located
on the filed by establishing the centre line.
• Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information necessary for the
preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.

NEW HIGHWAY PROJECT
The new highway project may be divided into following stages:
• Selection of route, finalisation of highway alignment and geometric design details
• Collection of materials and testing of subgrade soil and other construction materials, mix
design of pavement materials and design details of pavement layers.
• Construction stages including quality control

NEW HIGHWAY PROJECT
The new highway project may be divided into following stages:
Map Study Reconnaissance Survey Preliminary Survey
Materials Survey Detailed Survey Location of Final Alignment
Design Earth Work Pavement Construction
Construction Planning & Programming Construction Controls

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

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Dating back to between 2600 and

Running southwest out of Rome,

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Romans are considered as Pioneers in

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The British government also gave

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1973 Highway Research Board

Road Development Plan: Vision 2025 2005-25

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• Motor Vehicle Act

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• National Highway Act

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• National Transport Policy Committee

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Plan for future

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=[ ]+ [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 1.6P] + D

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Straight Path Deviation

Valley & Summit

• Vehicle operation cost

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