Object Oriented Programming: Assignment # 01

OBJECT ORIENTED
PROGRAMMING
ASSIGNMENT # 01
Submitted To :
Sir Shahzad Adil
Submitted By :
Maleeha Babar
150181-D
1. SPACETIME
Definition:
Spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single continuum.
It refers to all points of space and time and their relation to each other. In the beginning
space and time were considered separate entities. Time was thought to pass at the same rate
for all observers, regardless of their position or speed. It was also thought the distance is same
for everyone. Albert Einstein developed the idea of spacetime and showed that measurements
of time and distance between the same events could differ for different observers. But he also
showed that these measurements could be combined in a systematic way. And considering
how spacetime could be warped or bent led to the development of general relativity.
Spacetime can be thought as a grid of fabric , the presence of mass distorts the spacetime.
Einstein’s and Minkowski’s space-time is made up of three dimensions x, y, and z, and one
time dimension t. Space-time is commonly thought to be the history of the entire universe,
containing every event that ever happens. This idea is explained thoroughly below.
MATHEMATICAL EXPLANATION :
Space describes the invariant distances between objects but spacetime describes the
invariant intervals between events. An event is anything that happens at a particular point of
space and instant of time. Events are described using coordinates (x,y,z,ct), where is c the
speed of light having units of length/time , so ct has units of length, just like x, y and z.
According to Newton ∆t itself was an invariant, even though ∆x, ∆y and ∆z were not. He
thought that irrespective of one’s position and speed the time between two events would
always be same. This implied that there were two invariants, ∆t and d2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 +∆z2.
Einstein overthrew this idea by stating that both ∆t and d2 are quantities relative to
particular observers, and that the relevant invariant quantity formed from the combination of
the two. Special relativity holds that following expression is invariant :
∆s2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 +∆z2 - ∆(ct)2
Time is sometimes called "the fourth dimension." But If that was true then the invariant
quantity describing this alternate spacetime would be :
∆salt2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 +∆z2 + ∆(ct)2
That’s why spacetime is referred as 3+1-dimensional, where 3 is the number of space

dimensions and 1 is the number of time dimensions. This emphasizes that time is different
from space due to the minus sign in the equation for ∆s2. The important part is not that time
and space individually are relative, but that the way in which they differ for different
observers always leaves ∆s2 the same.
2
EXAMPLE :
Space-time is a curved geometric construct that allows us to believe on relativity. For

example, one observer will see a firecracker they light and a second firecracker that a friend
lights explode at exactly the same time, while a third observer moving relative to the other
two will see one firecracker explode before the other firecracker. Relativity says that both are
right. Both time and space are relative, and are different for observers in relative motion to
one another. For one observer the two firecrackers actually did explode at precisely the same
time, while for the other observer one firecracker exploded a few seconds before the other.
The time and distance measured by each observer is different so both are right.
2. COMPACT OBJECTS:
An object of a category is called compact if it is “finite” or “small” in some precise sense.
2.1 WHITE DWARF:

When stars like the Sun have exhausted their nuclear fuel they become a white
dwarf. Near the end of its burning stage, the star expels most of its outer material and creates
a planetary nebula. A white dwarf is half as massive as the Sun but only slightly bigger than
Earth. An Earth-sized white dwarf has a density of 1 x 109 kg/m3. While Earth’s average
density is 5.4 x 103 kg/m3 so a white dwarf is 200,000 times as dense. This makes white
dwarfs one of the densest collections of matter, surpassed only by neutron stars.
Chandrasekhar proposed the following non linear equation in his theory of white dwarf :
y’’ + (2/x)y’ +(y2 - C)3/2 = 0
This equation is also called white-dwarf equation.
2.2 NEUTRON STAR:

Neutron stars are born from the explosive death of another, larger stars, these tiny
objects pack quite a punch. Their mass is about 1.4 times that of the sun. They result from
the supernova explosion of a massive star, combined with gravitational collapse, that
compresses the core past the white dwarf star density to that of atomic nuclei.
The gravitational field at a neutron star's surface is about 2×1011 times stronger than on Earth.
Such a strong gravitational field acts as a gravitational lens and bends the radiation emitted
by the neutron star such that parts of the normally invisible rear surface become visible.
2.3 BLACK HOLE:

Einstein published his theory of relativity in late 1915 and only a few months later
1916, Karl Schwarzschild found the first solution of the Einstein equations i-e some values
for the variables describing the curvature of spacetime and the distribution of matter that
satisfy the Einstein equations and also described the gravitational field of a spherically-
symmetric body, black hole. The strength of the gravitational field is measured in terms of
the curvature. And because black holes are very massive and they are very small, their
gravity is very strong and creates a very large curvature of spacetime.
One way to characterise the curvature is something called the Schwarzschild radius:
3
where G is Newton's constant of gravity], M is mass of the object and c is speed of light. One
of the reasons why black holes are so important in our understanding of general relativity is
because they are made of space and time alone.
Schwarzschild solution:
Where c is the speed of light, t is the time coordinate , r is the radial coordinate , θ is
the colatitude (angle from north), φ is the longitude and rS is the Schwarzschild radius of
the massive body, a scale factor which is related to its mass M by
rS= 2GM / c2
The Schwarzschild solution valid for all r > 0, is called a Schwarzschild black hole. It is a
perfectly valid solution of the Einstein field equations. For r < rs the Schwarzschild radial
coordinate r becomes timelike and the time coordinate t becomes spacelike. The
surface r = rs demarcate event horizon of the black hole. It represents the point past which
light can no longer escape the gravitational field. Any physical object whose
radius R becomes less than or equal to the Schwarzschild radius will undergo gravitational
collapse and become a black hole.
3. SELF-GRAVITATING COMPACT OBJECTS:
Self-gravity is the gravitational force exerted on a body, or a group of bodies, by the

bodies that allows them to be held together. Self-gravity has important impacts in regard
to the physical behavior on large scale objects, such as the oceans on Earth. The equation
to calculate the effects of self-gravitation were made exact by Lynden-Bell for the
purpose of giving an exact description of models for rotating flattened globular clusters,
which was a crucial step in understanding how clusters of stars interact with each other.
Self-gravity deals with large-scale observations in fields outside of astronomy as well.
Self-gravity does not typically appear as the central focus of scientific research, but
understanding it and being able to include its effects mathematically increases the
accuracy of models and understanding large-scale systems.
The expression for self-gravitating enegy of uniform sphere is as follows :
USELF = w = -(3/5 ) (Gµ2 /R)
Where R is the radius of sphere and G is gravitational constant.

The expression shows that when this energy is applied to a sphere its total energy
becomes zero as it is the amount of energy required to disassemble or break the particles
of sphere from its initial shape to infinity.

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OBJECT ORIENTED

∆s2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 +∆z2 - ∆(ct)2

∆salt2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 +∆z2 + ∆(ct)2

That’s why spacetime is referred as 3+1-dimensional, where 3 is the number of space

Space-time is a curved geometric construct that allows us to believe on relativity. For

2.1 WHITE DWARF:

y’’ + (2/x)y’ +(y2 - C)3/2 = 0

This equation is also called white-dwarf equation.

2.2 NEUTRON STAR:

2.3 BLACK HOLE:

3. SELF-GRAVITATING COMPACT OBJECTS:

Self-gravity is the gravitational force exerted on a body, or a group of bodies, by the

The expression for self-gravitating enegy of uniform sphere is as follows :

USELF = w = -(3/5 ) (Gµ2 /R)

Where R is the radius of sphere and G is gravitational constant.

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