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org (E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138)

A PRECISE STUDY OF GRAVITATIONL

Gagan deep Kaur

Abstract: The various planets are orbiting around sun just because of the gravitational force of sun. The force of
gravitational is that attracts any two objects with mass. The gravitational force is attractive because it always
tries to pull masses together, it never pushes them apart.
The gravitational phenomenon as described by Einstein is radically different from the image painted by the
Newton’s universal law of gravitation since it is the consequence of geometric space-time distortions.

Keywords: Gravity, Law, Phenomenon, Image, Geometric, Universe, Distance, Force, Quantum, Relativity.

There are so many existing forces in the universe, myriad pushes and pulls. We’re always pushing or pulling
something, even if we are not in the motion only on the ground. But in the terms of physics, there are really only
four fundamental forces which are the reasons for the origin of everything else: the strong force, the weak force,
the electromagnetic force, and the gravitational force. The force of gravitational is that attracts any two objects
with mass. The gravitational force is attractive because it always tries to pull masses together, it never pushes
them apart. In fact, every object, including you, is pulling on every other object in the entire universe! This is the
crux of Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation. Undoubtedly, you need to have a very large mass and so, you’re
not pulling on those other objects much. And objects that are really far apart from each other don’t pull on each
other noticeably either. But the force remains always there and it can be calculated.

This equation describes the force between any two objects in the universe:

In the equation:

F is the force of gravity (measured in Newtons, N)

G is the gravitational constant of the universe and is always the same number

M is the mass of one object (measured in kilograms, kg)

m is the mass of the other object (measured in kilograms, kg)

r is the distance those objects are apart (measured in meters, m)

So if you know about the massiveness of two objects and the distance of them from each other, the force between
them is easily calculated.

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Inverse Square Law

It is to notice that the distance (r) on the bottom of the equation is squared. This makes it an inverse square law.
Because of this, if you doubles the distance between two objects, you reduce the gravitational force between them
to a quarter of what it was. If you triple the distance between them, you reduce the force to a ninth of what it was.
If we go the other way, halving the distance between two objects multiplies the force by a factor of four. This can
be used to make rough comparisons between situations. This force moves between any two objects. It is known
as the universal force, every object in the universe experience this force due to other object. For example when a
stone to be thrown upwards from earth it do falls down to the earth owing to the gravitational force of earth. In
the same manner moon is orbiting around earth owing to the gravitational force of the earth. The various planets
are orbiting around sun just because of the gravitational force of sun. As per the Newton’s law of gravitation, the
gravitational force is directly proportional to product of the two masses and inversely proportional to square of
the distance between them. The gravitational force is directly proportional to product of the two masses and
inversely proportional to square of the

Where,
F= Gravitational force between two objects
m1 = Mass of object 1
m2 = Mass of object 2
d = Distance separating the objects centers
G = gravitational constant

This gravitational force was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. Gravitational force is the weakest force
among the four fundamental forces of nature. Einstein’s general relativity [I] is widely considered as the standard
theory of gravity, at least at the classical level. It is because of the theory has an elegant and well understood
structure and it is in good accordance with all the standard experimental tests of gravity till now. However,
gravitation tests are conducted till date only probe mainly p to the first order (post-Newtonian) effects of the
theory. Since the most exciting predictions of the theory, such as existence of black hole etc., are strong field, it
is very essential to examine and test the higher order effects of the theory. General relativity’s some features are
not even without difficulties. Particularly a major problem of the theory is the occurrence of unavoidable space-
time singularities. It is generally suspected that the classical description, provided by the general relativity, breaks
down in a domain where the curvature is large. Hence, the question of quantization of gravity arises. But sustained
failure of reconciling general relativity with quantum mechanics indicates that the general relativity may need
some modifications. Several alternative theories to general relativity have been proposed which are modifications
of general relativity in the sense that they have the same post-Newtonian limit as general relativity while are
different theories in other regimes. Among them Scalar-tensor theories of gravity, in which. Gravity is mediated
by one or several long range scalar fields together with the usual tensor field, are considered as best motivated
class of viable non-Einsteinian theories of gravity till date. They arise naturally as the low energy limit in several
modern theoretical attempts to quantizing gravity, such as the Superstring theory or the Kaluza-Klein theory.
Since all viable alternative theories coincide with general relativity in the post Newtonian limit, it is important to
study higher order effects in which general relativity may give different predictions than those of alternative
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theories. At present technology has advanced to the point that the present on board gravitational experiments or
near future experiments are expected to improve the accuracy of the measurement by at least two orders. For
instance the Stanford Gyroscope experiment (the Gravity Probe-B mission) is expected to measure the post-
Newtonian' parameter y with accuracy of 5 x 1 o·5 against the current limit of accuracy 3 x 10·3 whereas the
Laser Astrometric Test of Relativity mission is expected to test relativistic gravity at the accuracy better than
second order in gravitational field strength. Thus there is genuine possibility of measuring small deviations from
the predictions of general relativity. Different authors obtained few theoretical predictions of gravitational
theories with accuracy up to second order (or even higher accuracy) in gravitational strength during the last two
decades. For instances bending of light and radar echo delay in standard and scalar tensor theories have been
estimated with such accuracies. Considering the recent progress in experimental front it is now important to
explore other second and higher order physical effects those can be used to test Einstein theory at higher order
level and also to discriminate it from the alternative theories.

General Theory of Relativity given by Newton is widely recognized as the standard theory of gravitation. The
gravitational phenomenon as described by Einstein is radically different from the image painted by the Newton's
universal law of gravitation since it is the consequence of geometric ·space-time distortions. General Relativity
and gravitational theory of Newton, however, make essentially identical predictions as long as the strength of the
gravitational field is weak. Nonetheless there are few crucial weak field predictions where the two theories
diverge and thus can be tested with careful experiments. Einstein himself proposed three tests precession of the
perihelion, gravitational bending of light and gravitational red shift. However, now it has been clear that the
gravitational red shift is a test of the Einstein equivalence principle (or more correctly as a test of local position
in variance principle) rather than that of general relativity. On the other hand Shapiro in the year 1964 proposed
another crucial observational test of general relativity through measurement of relativistic time delay that was
confirmed experimentally Jater.

Gravity is the word taken (from Latin gravitas, meaning ‘weight’), or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by
which all things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light are brought toward (or
gravitate toward) one another. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects, and the Moon’s gravity causes
the ocean tides. The gravitational attraction of the original gaseous matter present in the Universe caused it to
begin coalescing, forming stars and for the stars to group together into galaxies, so gravity is responsible for many
of the large-scale structures in the Universe. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become
increasingly weaker on farther objects. Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity
(proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature
of space time caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The most extreme example of this curvature of space
time is a black hole, from which nothing, not even light can escape once past the black hole’s event horizon.
However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton’s law of universal gravitation, which
describes gravity as a force which causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other, with the force proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. In physics,
a gravitational field is a model used to explain the influence that a massive body extends into the space around

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itself, producing a force on another massive body. Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational
phenomena, and is measured in Newton’s per kilogram (N/kg). In its original concept, gravity was a force
between point masses. Following Isaac Newton, Pierre-Simon Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind
of radiation field or fluid, and since the 19th century explanations for gravity have usually been taught in terms
of a field model, rather than a point attraction. In a field model, rather than two particles attracting each other, the
particles distort space time via their mass, and this distortion is what is perceived and measured as a “force”. In
such a model one states that matter moves in certain ways in response to the curvature of space time, and that
there is either no gravitational force, or that gravity is a fictitious force. Gravity is the weakest of the four
fundamental interactions of physics, approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong interaction, 1036 times
weaker than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times weaker than the weak interaction. As a consequence, it has
no significant influence at the level of subatomic particles. In contrast, it is the dominant interaction at the
macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation, shape and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. The
earliest instance of gravity in the Universe, possibly in the form of quantum gravity, supergravity or a
gravitational singularity, along with ordinary space and time, developed during the Planck epoch (up to 10−43
seconds after the birth of the Universe), possibly from a primeval state, such as a false vacuum, quantum vacuum
or virtual particle, in a currently unknown manner. Attempts to develop a theory of gravity consistent with
quantum mechanics, a quantum gravity theory, which would allow gravity to be united in a common mathematical
framework (a theory of everything) with the other three fundamental interactions of physics, are a current area of
research. The ancient Greek philosopher Archimedes discovered the center of gravity of a triangle. He also
postulated that if two equal weights did not have the same center of gravity, the center of gravity of the two
weights together would be in the middle of the line that joins their centers of gravity. The Roman architect and
engineer Vitruvius in De Architectura postulated that gravity of an object didn't depend on weight but its “nature”.
In ancient India, Aryabhata first identified the force to explain why objects are not thrown out when the earth
rotates. Brahmagupta described gravity as an attractive force and used the term “gurutvaakarshan” for gravity.
Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and early 17th
centuries. In his famous experiment dropping balls from the Tower of Pisa, and later with careful measurements
of balls rolling down inclines, Galileo showed that gravitational acceleration is the same for all objects. This was
a major departure from Aristotle's belief that heavier objects have a higher gravitational acceleration. Galileo
postulated air resistance as the reason that objects with less mass fall more slowly in an atmosphere. Galileo's
work set the stage for the formulation of Newton's theory of gravity. In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac
Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. In his own
words, “I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their
distances from the centers about which they revolve: and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon
in her Orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty nearly.” The equation
is the following:

{\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\ }F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\

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Where F is the force, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects interacting, r is the distance between the centers
of the masses and G is the gravitational constant. Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used
to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted for by the actions of
the other planets. Calculations by both John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier predicted the general position
of the planet, and Le Verrier’s calculations are what led Johann Gottfried Galle to the discovery of Neptune. A
discrepancy in Mercury's orbit pointed out flaws in Newton's theory. By the end of the 19th century, it was known
that its orbit showed slight perturbations that could not be accounted for entirely under Newton’s theory, but all
searches for another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even closer than Mercury) had been
fruitless. The issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einstein’s new theory of general relativity, which accounted
for the small discrepancy in Mercury’s orbit. This discrepancy was the advance in the perihelion of Mercury of
42.98 seconds per century. Although Newton's theory has been superseded by Einstein's general relativity, most
modern non-relativistic gravitational calculations are still made using Newton's theory because it is simpler to
work with and it gives sufficiently accurate results for most applications involving sufficiently small masses,
speeds and energies. In the decades after the publication of the theory of general relativity, it was realized that
general relativity is incompatible with quantum mechanics. It is possible to describe gravity in the framework of
quantum field theory like the other fundamental interactions, such that the “attractive force” of gravity arises due
to exchange of virtual gravitons, in the same way as the electromagnetic force arises from exchange of virtual
photons. This reproduces general relativity in the classical limit. However, this approach fails at short distances
of the order of the Planck length, where a more complete theory of quantum gravity (or a new approach to
quantum mechanics) is required.

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