University of Mindanao

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

in ( BECHE 111/L- 02410 ) - Chemistry for Engineers

LABORATORY REPORT

Submitted by:
Bessy Jewel M. Magno

Submitted to:
Engr. Crijamaica L. Ocena
August 5, 2019
 EXPERIMENT NO.1

CRYSTAL LATTICES AND UNIT CELL

Introduction:

A lattice is a regular structure made of many small units known as unit cells. A

unit cell is the smallest representative unit of a lattice comprising of all the

components that can be found repeating all over the lattice structure.

The key difference between lattice and unit cell is that a lattice is a regular

repeated three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a metal or

other crystalline solid whereas a unit cell is a simple arrangement of spheres (atoms,

molecules or ions) that resemble the repeating pattern of a lattice.

Materials and Equipment:

 Balls ( gum balls, foiled chocolate balls, Styrofoam balls )

 Toothpicks

 Utility Knife

Procedures:

First, using toothpicks and gum balls, students will create 3D model of the

following unit cells.

Cubic Crystals:

Hexagonal Closed-Packed

Second, they will connect three more cells in model created.

Number of balls required for the first cell:

Number of balls required for an additional cell:

Data and Observation:

 It is necessary to use a strong or thick stick in making the 3D model in order to

have a useable model. This model will last and can be used in the observation process.

We also have to consider using Styrofoam balls rather than a clay in order for the

model to have a firm shape.

Discussion of Results:

With the use of ball and stick we can create a 3D model of Cubic Crystals

which are: Simple cubic, Face centered and Body centered. According to Journal of

Chemical Education, the ball-and-stick model is a molecular model of a chemical

substance which is to display both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and

the bonds between them. The atoms are typically represented by spheres, connected

by rods which represent the bonds. Double and triple bonds are usually represented by

two or three curved rods, respectively, or alternately by correctly positioned sticks for

the sigma and pi bonds.

In a good model, the angles between the rods should be the same as the angles

between the bonds, and the distances between the centers of the spheres should be
proportional to the distances between the corresponding atomic nuclei. The chemical

element of each atom is often indicated by the sphere's color.

Conclusion:

With the use of Styrofoam balls and stick we can create a 3d model of Cubic

Crystals. Therefore, in a simple cubic, there is 1 atom and has a coordination number

of 6 and in a body centered there are 2 atoms and has a coordination number of 8 ,

while in the face centered there are 4 atoms and has a coordination number of 12. In

hexagonal closed-packed it has 6 atoms per unit cell and has a coordination number of

12.

References:

 Turner M (1971). "Ball and stick models for organic chemistry". Journal of

Chemical Education.
 International Tables for Crystallography (2006).Volume A. Space-group

symmetry.

Guide Questions and Answers:

1. Is the number of the ball required for the first model the same as the number of

balls required to add another cell? Why? Why not?

No. The numbers of balls are not totally the same because each crystal

structure has a different number of atoms and in this scenario; each model requires

different number of balls.

2. How many molecules must be inside a unit cell?

There are different types of unit cells, Therefore, the number of molecules

must depend on what type of crystal structure it is.

3. What are the coordination numbers in each cell?

In a simple cubic, it has a coordination number of 6. In a body centered, it has

a coordination number of 8, while in the face centered it has a coordination number of

12. In hexagonal closed-packed it has a coordination number of 12.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

METALS AND SOME ASPECT OF CORROSION

Introduction:

The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires

the simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen. Essentially, the iron in the steel is

oxidized to produce rust, which occupies approximately six times the volume of the

original material.
 A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows

a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are

typically malleable or ductile.

Materials and Equipment:

 Test tube 12pcs

 Test tube rack 1pc
 Crucible long, 1pc
 Na, Mg metals, 1pc each
 Zn, Fe, Cu metals, 2pcs each
 Phenolphthalein Indicator, 1ml
 CuSo4, ZnSO4, FeSO4, H2SO4; 6M, 5ml

Procedures:

The students will observe the physical properties of the metals. First, they will

examine each for its state, color, luster and hardness. They will try to dissolve each in

5 test tubes containing 10ml of water, the record the solubility and reactions observed.

Second, they will prepare ionic solutions by transferring 1ml of CuSo4,

ZnSO4, FeSO4, and H2SO4 to 3 test tubes for each solution. Then, they will drop a

piece of metal on each solution. Lastly, they will need to check if there are reactions

in each test tube and record the reaction in the table provided.

Data and Observation:

Meta State Color Luster Hardnes Activity in Water

l s
Liquid Change Change Change There’s a reaction in solution and

Na state metal. Sparks happen

Stays in Color is The The same No reaction

Mg Solid the same

 State same
Stay in No No No Bubbles are present but there is no

Zn Solid change change changes obvious change in its physical state.

State s s
Stay in No No No
change change changes
Fe Solid s s No Reaction

State
Stay in No No No
change change changes
Cu Solid s s No Reaction

State

Metal
Cu Zn Mg
Solutions
No Reaction Color the same but metal change Color of

CuSo4 the solution

changed;

Metal

change.
ZnSo4 No Reaction Metal changed Metal

partially

dissolved

and reacts

on solution.
FeSO4 No Reaction Metal reacts slightly Metal

partially

dissolved
 H2SO4 No Reaction Metal has slightly dissolved Metal

totally

dissolved

and

temperatur

e became

hot

Based on the data above, when metal was submerged in water, it has no visible

reactions. But when we submerged it in CuSo4, ZnSO4, FeSO4, and H2SO4, there

are visible reactions that can be observed acting on the metal. Some metals may have

no reactions on the chemical liquid but there are still visible changes in the other

metals.

Discussion of Results:

In the article that I have read, it says that the corrosiveness of a liquid on

metals is mainly dependent on oxygen, chloride and/or sulphide content, temperature

and pH - value.

Conclusion:

There are different types of metals therefore; each metal reacts on the water in

a different way. Its physical state changes accordingly when it submerged in the water.

When Cu was submerged in different solutions there was no reaction. But, when Zn

and Mg were submerged in different solutions there was a reaction occurred. In

general, metals have different chemical reactions.

References:
  BS EN ISO 12944-2: 2017, Paints and varnishes – Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems – Part 2: Classification of

environments, BSI
 D.Deacon & R.Hudson.(2012). Steel Designer’s Manual (7th Edition),

Chapter 36 - Corrosion and corrosion prevention, The Steel Construction

Institute.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

COMPARING METALS AND NON-METALS

Introduction:

Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity but non-metals are poor

conductors of heat and electricity. Metals are ductile in nature i.e. it can be drawn into

thin wires. But non-metals are not ductile. Metals are malleable but non-metals are

not malleable.

Materials and Equipment:

 Charcoal briquettes
 Aluminum Foil
 Zip locks
 Paper plates
 Mortar and Pestle
 Ice Cubes
 9-V Batteries
 10-cm Copper Wire
 1.5-V Bulb
 Electrical Tape
Procedures:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

First, the students will put the charcoal briquettes on the mortar. Pound the

briquettes moderation. Second, they transfer the moderately-sized charcoal pieces into

a paper plate then set aside. Meanwhile, they cover another paper plate with

aluminum foil. Third, the students put an ice cube a top the charcoal briquettes. At the

same time, they put an ice cube on the foil-wrapped plate. After that, they will use

their batteries to check the thermal conductivities of charcoal and aluminum. On this

note, students need to make sure that the batteries are laid with their terminals

touching on the dry surfaces of the charcoal pieces on one plate, and on the aluminum

foil of the other and they let these stand for twenty minutes. Lastly, they take note of

the changes in the temperature of the two set-ups.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Firstly, the students will make a long ribbon wire out of the foil by cutting a

piece. Then, they fold the foil so that they can form a ribbon. Students will need to

hold or tape one end of this wire to the flat end of (negative terminal) of the battery

and wrap the other end tightly around the “threaded” (screw) sides of the light bulb.

Secondly, the students test the magnesium wire, copper wire, and aluminum

foil to see if they can conduct electricity. Students do this by pressing the positive

terminal of the battery (the end with a bump) to one side of the object, and the metal

end of the light bulb to the other side. If the bulb lights up, a series of circuit was

formed: electric current can pass unobstructed through the wires from the battery to

the light to the battery again. Then, they record their observation.
Data and Observation:

Property Metal Non-metal

Material Aluminum foil Charcoal
Luster Yes No

Malleability Yes No

Ductility Yes No

Sonority Solid Solid

Electrical Conductivity Better Less

Thermal Conductivity Better Less

Metal has the best electrical and thermal conductivity compared to non-metals.

Discussion of Results:

According to Dr. Helmenstine a Ph.D. in biomedical sciences, Elements may

be classified as either metals or nonmetals based on their properties. Much of the

time, you can tell an element is a metal simply by looking at its metallic luster, but

this isn't the only distinction between these two general groups of elements.

Both metals and nonmetals take different forms (allotropes), which have

different appearances and properties from each other.

Conclusion:

Considering the difference between their physical properties, metals are

malleable. On the other hand, non-metals are very brittle. When comparing their

density, metals have a high to moderate density, whereas non-metals have low to

moderate density. While metals are good conductors of electricity and heat, non-
metals are poor conductors. Unlike non-metals, metals are ductile, which means they

can be stretched into wires.

References:

 Prahat.(2010). “ Difference Between Metals and Non-metals.’’ Retrieved from

http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-metals-and-

non-metals/
 Helmenstine.(2018). Metals Versus Non-metals. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/metals-versus-nonmetals-608809

Guide questions and Answers:

1. Ice melts faster in the paper wrapped in aluminum foil as compared to that

plate covered with nothing. Explain the reason/s why this phenomenon

happens.
As an electrical conductor, when Aluminum foil was being applied by

the battery, electricity flows in it and because it is flowing in the foil, it creates

heat that enable the surface of the foil heat up and when there is heat, the solid

state of water will be back to its liquid state.

2. A material is dull, brittle and does not conduct electricity. Is it a metal or a

non-metal?
It is obviously a non-metal, because metals are known as good

conductors of electricity; therefore, a material that does not conduct electricity

is a non-metal.
3. What happens when a circuit is open? Why does this happen?
The current can’t flow in an open circuit, because the electric current

flows in a wire, so when the path is open, the current cannot flow.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

GREENHOUSE GASES 2

Introduction:

A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the

thermal infrared range. Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect. The primary

greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane,

nitrous oxide and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of

Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C

(59 °F). The atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain greenhouse gases.

Materials and Equipment:

 2pcs Clear plastic bottles(1.5Lor 2L)

 Thermometers
 2 Rubber Stoppers
 Heat Source (100 Watt bulb)
 Timer
 1 Liter Water
 50grams Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda)
 Acetic Acid (Vinegar)

Procedures:

For Plastic Bottles:

The students will label the containers with “Control” and “CO2” respectively.

Then, for the “Control” container, they fill with 1 liter of water. For the “CO2”

container, they will pour the sodium bicarbonate in the container then afterwards fill it

in with the Acetic Acid. Then they will cover it immediately with a rubber stopper so

that the CO2 won’t escape. Install the thermometers so that it can record the

temperatures inside the containers. After that, students will turn on the heat source.
They will place the containers near the heat source. Next, students will start the timer

and record the temperatures of each container in the table provided. Also, remember

to record the initial temperature.

Data and Observation:

Time (Minutes) Temperature: Control Temperature: CO2

Bottle Bottle
0 (Initial) 30 30
5 32 32
10 32 33
15 33 35
20 33 35
25 33 35
30 34 36
35 35 37
40 35 37

Based on the data above, we observed that, as the time increasing, the

temperature inside the bottle will rise.

Discussion of Results:

The temperature from both bottles risen every 5 five minutes, until it reached

in the time limit which is 40 minutes. Therefore the temperature is directly

proportional to time. Aside from that we observed that the bottle with CO2 has risen

its temperature faster than that the control bottle and as time increases.

Conclusion:

When CO2 is more prominent in the atmosphere or in a container basically

when added with heat, the environment becomes hotter. CO2 contributes heat to the

environment helping any source of heat to create heat faster and higher in
temperature. Therefore, we must, at all times, stop or lessen the activities which can

increase the contribution of CO2’s in our environment.

References:

 Blasing, T.J. (February 2013), Current Greenhouse Gas Concentrations

 Van Dijk,et.al. (2011). "Assessment of the contribution of in-situ combustion

of coal to greenhouse gas emission; based on a comparison of Chinese mining

information to previous remote sensing estimates". International Journal of

Coal Geology.

Guide Questions and Answers:

1. What does the term “Greenhouse Effect” mean in regard to Earth’s

atmosphere?
The greenhouse effect is a usual process that warms the Earth's surface.

When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected

back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
2. What happens to the air temperature when there is more carbon dioxide

present?
The air temperature will become warm. As carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere increases, the greenhouse effect is strengthened, and a greater

scale of warming occurs.

3. In your opinion, what should be done by humans to protect Earth’s

atmosphere?
Humans will plant more trees or plants to decrease carbon dioxide in

air because plant uses carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis.

Humans must also avoid burning garbage.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

SOIL CHEMISTRY 1

Introduction:

Soil chemistry can be considered as the natural chemical composition of a

given soil. This natural chemical composition of a soil is a function of that soil’s

parent material. In many areas of the world soil is formed in place and derived

directly from the weathering and degradation of rocks.

Materials and Equipment:

 Garden Soil
 Roadside Soil
 Riverside Soil
 Sandy Soil
 Clay Soil
 Filter Paper (5)
  Funnel
 Spatula
 Stirring Rod
 Test Tube (5)
 Test Tube Rack
 Beaker (5)
 Water
 pH Meter

Procedures:

Using the spatula, the students will transfer some riverside soil to the beaker

containing water and dissolve it. Then they will repeat this process for the other soil

and label each beaker. The students use the stirring rod to stir the solution in order to

mix it. Next, they will place folded filter paper into the funnel and place it into the test

tube and take the garden soil solution and filter the solution through the filter paper

and collect the filtrate in the test tube. The students will repeat the procedure 4 and 5

for the other remaining soil solutions then label each test tube. After that, the soil

solutions are now ready for testing for pH.

TESTING THE PH OF THE SOIL

The students will take the pH paper strip and dip it into the test tube that

contains the soil solutions then set aside the pH paper and wait for some time to dry

the pH paper. After that, they need to note the color and compare with the color chart

given on the brochure and get a rough estimate of the pH of the sample solutions.

Data and Observation:

TYPES OF SOIL PH LEVEL

Garden Soil 4.6
Road Soil 6.1
 River Soil 4.8
Sandy Soil 4.7
Clay Soil 4.5

Based on the data above, all types of soil that have been tested on PH scale are

acids.

Discussion of Results:

Based on the article that I’ve read, Soil pH is a measure of the acidity and

alkalinity in soils. pH levels range from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, below 7 acidic

and above 7 alkaline.

Conclusion:

Therefore, all type of soil that have been studied are all acidic, it is because their pH

level are less that 7.

References:

 Environmental Soil Chemistry (Second Edition), 2003.

 The Mosaic Company.(ND). Soil Acidity. Retrieved from
https://www.cropnutrition.com/efu-soil-ph
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

SOIL CHEMISTRY 2

Introduction:

Soil is important material in sustaining life on our planet. It is very special mix

an inorganic and organic material in form of colloids, water and different gases, and

decomposed plant and animal material, all in variable but balanced proportions.

Materials and Equipment:

 Roadside Soil
 Riverside Soil
 Sandy Soil
 Clay Soil
 Alcohol Lamp
 Evaporating Dish
 Weighing Balance
 Iron Ring
 Iron Stand
 Wire Gauze
 Stopwatch
 Tongs

Procedures:

Students must weigh the empty evaporating dish and record its weight. Then,

put each soil solutions in a different evaporating dish and weigh it using the weighing

scale. After that, they will record the initial weight of the wet soil and write in the

table then take the evaporating dish containing soil sample and place it in the alcohol

lamp. Students also must keep the evaporating dish containing soil sample for 10

minutes in the alcohol lamp and record the final weight of the dry soil and write in the
table. They will repeat procedures 1 to 6 for the other samples. The difference in the

initial and final weights is the moisture content of the soil.

Data and Observation:

Soil Sample Weight of Weight of Weight of Moisture Percent

Evaporating Evaporating Evaporating Content Moisture

Dish Dish and Wet Dish and Dry Content

Soil (Initial) Soil (Final)

Garden Soil 55g 65g 61g 4g 0.4%

Roadside Soil 46g 56g 55g 1g 0.1%

Riverside Soil 43g 53g 51g 2g 0.2%

Sandy Soil 34g 44g 42g 2g 0.2%

Clay Soil 46g 56g 53g 3g 0.3%

Based on the data above, when the wet soil samples have been exposed to heat

for 10 minutes it became dried. We observe also that, dried soil have a lesser weight

compared to the wet soil.

Discussion of Results:

The Journal Articles on the Agricultural Sciences, stated that the heat

temperature during dry down, increases that corresponds to the decreasing of soil

moisture. Therefore, as I’ve stated above, when the soil exposed to heat the soil

became dried.

Conclusion:
 When the soil is wet, it has a bigger weight compared to the dried soil.

Therefore, the moisture of soil can adds weight in it that made the soil heavier than

the dried ones. When the soil exposed to heat, the weight of the soil became lighter.

References:

 Juma.(1998). Soil Organic Matter. Retrieved from

http://www.fao.org/3/a0100e/a0100e05.htm
 Donald. S.(2002). Environmental Soil Chemistry 2nd Edition. Retrieved from

https://www.google.com/search?

q=soil+chemistry+2&oq=soil+chemistry+2&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l5.8926j0j7&sourcei

d=chrome&ie=UTF-8

EXPERIMENT NO. 9

SOLVENT PROPERTIES OF WATER

Introduction:
 Water interacts differently with charged and polar substances than with

nonpolar substances because of the polarity of its own molecules. Water molecules are

polar, with partial positive charges on the hydrogen, a partial negative charge on the

oxygen, and a bent overall structure.

Materials and Equipment:

 Sodium Chloride (Table Salt), 10g

 Glycerol 1ml
 Glucose (Table Sugar), 10g
 Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda), 10g
 Graduated Cylinder (10ml), 1pc
 Medium test tubes, 9pcs
 Iron (II) Sulfate, 10g
 Test tube rack, 1pc
 Calcium Carbonate, 10g
 Ammonium Nitrate, 1ml
 Water, 100ml
 Ethanol, 1ml
 Spatula
 Oil, 1ml
 Beaker (20ml), 4pcs

Procedures:

Students must test each of the substances listed in the data tale for water

solubility. Then, use 10ml of water in a medium test tube and add a very small

quantity of the substance being tested. The amount should be less than the size of a

match head if the substance is solid or one drop if it is liquid. Students will shake the

test tubes gently, and note what happens. If all the substances are dissolved, they add

another small quantity, and shake gently. After that, students will repeat the process

several times if the material is soluble. In the data table, students report each

substance as insoluble, slightly soluble, or very soluble.

Data and Observations:

 Substance Chemical Physical State Solubility in

Formula Water
Sodium Chloride NACI Solid Very Soluble

(Table Salt)
Glycerol C3H8O3 Liquid Slightly Soluble
Glucose C6H12O6 Solid Very Soluble

(Table Sugar)
Iron (II) Sulfate Fe2So4 Solid Insoluble
Calcium CaCo3 Solid Insoluble

Carbonate
Ammonium NH4NO3 Solid Slightly Soluble

Nitrate
Ethanol C2H5OH Liquid Soluble
Oil Liquid Insoluble
Sodium NaHCO3 Solid Soluble

Bicarbonate

Based on the data that we gathered throughout on our experiments, the

Sodium Chloride and the Glucose are very soluble than the other substance. While the

Sodium Bicarbonate and Ethanol is soluble. The Glycerol and Ammonium Nitrate are

slightly soluble, and then the Iron (II) Sulfate, Ethanol, and Calcium Carbonate are

Insoluble.

Discussion of Results:

According to American Chemical Society, Salt (sodium chloride) is made

from positive sodium ions bonded to negative chloride ion. Water can dissolve

salt because the positive part of water molecules attracts the negative chloride ions

and the negative part of water molecules attracts the positive sodium ions. While

Sugar (glucose) dissolves in water faster because energy is given off when the slightly

polar sucrose molecules form intermolecular bonds with the polar water molecules.
Conclusions:

Therefore, the NACI, C6H12O6, are very soluble when it is sunken in water than the

other substance.

References:

 Khan Academy.(2019). Solvent Properties of Water. Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-

bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent
 American Chemical Society.(2019). Middle School Chemistry. Retrieved from

https://www.middleschoolchemistry.com/lessonplans/chapter5/lesson3

Guide questions and Answers:

1. Calcium Carbonate is an ionic compound. How do you account for the

result of the water-solubility test?

The result of water solubility test is valid.
2. Which of the liquid are (a) the most polar? (b) the most nonpolar?
The most polar of the liquids is Ethanol, next is the Glycerol which is

slightly soluble and the most non polar is Oil.

3. Which of the substances you tested is the most soluble ionic compound?
The most soluble ionic compound are Sodium Chloride and Glucose.