AASTHO Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges 2003 - Part1

AASHTO Cuide Specifications for
Horizontally Curved Steel

Girder Highway Bridges
2003
With Design Examples for

l-Girder and Box-Girder Bridges
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

444 North Capítol Street, NW,Suite 249
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 624-5800 (tel) • (202) 624-5806 (fax) • www.transportation.org
Copyright ©2003 by the American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States.
This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publishers.
Cover photos courtesy of Brian Chen,the University of Texas at Austin.
ISBN: 1-56051-165-6
GHC-4
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
2002-2003
Voting Members
Officers:
President: James C. Codell, III, Kentucky

Vice President: Tom Stephens, Nevada
Secretary-Treasurer: Larry King, Pennsylvania
Regional Representatives:
REGIÓN I: Carol Murray, New Hampshire, One-Year Term

Patricia McDonald, Vermont, Two-Year Term
REGIÓN II: Fred Van Kirk, West Virginia, One-Year Term

Whittington Clement, Virginia, Two-Year Term
REGIÓN III: Henry Hungerbeeler, Missouri, One-Year Term

Mark Wandro, lowa, Two-Year Term
REGIÓN IV: Mike Behrens, Texas, One-Year Term

Sleeter Dover, Wyoming, Two-Year Term
Nonvoting Members
Immediate Past President: Dan Flowers, Arkansas

AASHTO Executive Director: John Horsley, Washington, D.C.
111
HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
2002
TOM LULAY, OREGON, Chairman

SANDRA LARSON, Vice Chairman
JAMES D. COOPER, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary
ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H. Connor RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhoumand

ALASKA, Richard A. Pratt SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon, Jeff Sizemore
ARIZONA, F. Daniel Davis SOUTH DAKOTA, John Colé
ARKANSAS, Phil Brand TENNESSEE, Ed Wasserman
CALIFORNIA, Richard Land TEXAS, Mary Lou Ralis
COLORADO, Mark A. Leonard U.S. DOT, Nick E. Mpras
CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton UTAH, David Nazare
DELAWARE, Doug Finney, Dermis O'Shea VERMONT, James McCarthy
D.C., Donald Cooney VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley
FLORIDA, William N. Nickas WASHINGTON, Jerry Weigel, Tony M. Alien
GEORGIA, Paul Liles, Brian Summers WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen
HAWAII, Paul Santo WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods
IDAHO, Matthew M. Parrar WYOMING, Gregg C. Fredrick, Keith R. Fulton
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson
INDIANA, Mary Jo Hamman
IOWA, Norman L. McDonald ALBERTA, Dilip K. Dasmohapatra, Bob Ramsey
KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst, Loren R. Risch MANITOBA, Ismail Elkholy
KENTUCKY, Stephen E. Goodpaster NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS, John C.
LOUISIANA, Hossein Ghara, Mark J. Morvant Pangalinan
MAINE, James E. Tukey NEW BRUNSWICK, David Cogswell
MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman NORTHAMPTON, R. T. Hughes
MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, John Bower
MICHIGAN, Steve Beck NOVA SCOTIA, Alan MacRae, Mark Pert
MINNESOTA, Dan Dorgan, Kevin Western ONTARIO, Vacant
MISSISSIPPI, Harry Lee James SASKATCHEWAN, Hervé Bachelu
MISSOURI, Shyam Gupta
MONTANA, William S. Fullerton MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM, David Lenhardt
NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon NJ. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Richard Raczynski
NEVADA, William C. Crawford, Jr. N.Y. STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William
NEW HAMPSHIRE, Mark Richardson
Moreau
NEW JERSEY, Harry A. Capers, Jr., Richard W.
PORT AUTHORITY OF N.Y. AND N.J., Joseph
Dunne
J. Kelly, Joseph Zitelli
NEW MÉXICO, Jimmy D. Camp
BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, Wade Casey
NEW YORK, James O'Connell, George A. Christian
MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
NORTH CAROLINA, Gregory R. Perfettie
COMMAND, Robert D. Franz
NORTH DAKOTA, Terry Udland
U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS-
OHIO, Timothy Keller DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY, Paul C. T.
OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch, Yeldo Goins Tan
OREGON, Mark E. Hirota U.S. COAST GUARO, Jacob Patnaik
PENNSYLVANIA, R. Scott Christie U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
PUERTO RICO, Jamie Cabré FOREST SERVICE, Nelson Hernández
IV
PREFACE
AASHTO first published Guide Specifícations for Horizontallv Curved Highwav Bridges in 1980. These guide
specifications included Allowable Stress Design (ASD) provisions developed by the Consortium of University Research
Teams (CURT) and approved by ballot of the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures in November
1976. CURT consisted of Carnegie-Mellon University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Rhode Island
and Syracuse University. The 1980 guide specifications also included Load Factor Design (LFD) provisions developed
in American Iron and Steel Instirute (AISI) Project 190 and approved by ballot of the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee
on Bridges and Structures in October 1979. The guide specifications covered both I-girders and box girders.
Changes to the 1980 guide specifications were included in the AASHTO Interim Specifications—Bridges for
the years 1981, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, and 1990. A new versión of the Guide Specifications for Horizontallv Curved
Highway Bridges was published in 1993. It included these interim changes, and additional changes, but did not reflect
the extensive research on curved-girder bridges that has been conducted since 1980, or many important changes in related
provisions of the straight-girder specifications.
The present specifications and commentary were developed to corred these deficiencies. They reflect the current
state-of-the-art and are consisten! with present straight-girder specifications, except as noted. They were developed in
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 12-38 and are fully documented in NCHRP Report
424: Improved Design Specifícations for Horizontallv Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges.
The following terms are used to identify particular specifications:
• Bridge Welding Code refers to the 1996 edition of ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code and In-
terim Specifications,
• "previous curved-girder specifications" or Guide Spec refers to the 1993 AASHTO Guide Specifications
for Horizontallv Curved Highwav Bridges.
• AASHTO or AASHTO LFD/ASD refers to the 1996 AASHTO Standard Specifícations for Highwav
Bridges. 16th Edition and Interim Specifícations,
• AASHTO LRFD refers to the 1998 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Second Edition and
Interim Specifícations.
Curved girder specifications based on the present AASHTO LFD specifications will be incorporated into the
AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) specifications under NCHRP Project 12-52. An extensive theoreti-
cal and experimental research program is also being conducted on curved-girder bridges under sponsorship of the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA). This program should permit further future improvements in the present curved girder
specifications.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE v
AASHTO Guide Specifícations for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges
DEFIMTIONS 3
NOTATIONS 7
DIVISIÓN I—DESIGN
SECTION!: GENERAL 13
1.1 SCOPE 13
1.2 PRINCIPLES 14
1.2.1 Statics 14
1.2.2 Stability 14
1.2.3 Strengthof Materials 15
1.2.4 Small-Deflection Elastic Behavior 15
1.2.5 Large-Deflection Inelastic Behavior 16
SECTION 2: LIMIT STATES 17

2.1 GENERAL 17
2.2 STRENGTH 17
2.3 FATIGUE 17
2.4 SERVICEABILITY 18
2.4.1 General 18
2.4.2 Deflection 18
2.4.3 Concrete Crack Control 18
2.5 CONSTRUCTIBILITY 18
2.5.1 General 18
2.5.2 Stresses 19
2.5.3 Deflections and Rotations 19
SECTION 3: LOADS 21
3.1 GENERAL 21
3.2 DEAD LOADS 21
3.3 CONSTRUCTION LOADS 21
3.4 WIND LOADS 21
3.5 LIVE LOADS 22
3.5.1 General 22
3.5.2 Centrifugal Forcé 22
3.5.3 PermitLoads 22
3.5.4 Overload 23
3.5.5 Sidewalk Load 23
3.5.6 Impact 23
3.5.6.1 I-Girders 23
3.5.6.2 Closed Box and Tub Girders 23
3.5.6.3 Fatigue 24
3.5.7 Fatigue 24
3.5.7.1 General 24
3.5.7.2 Application 25
3.6 THERMAL LOADS ... ...25
viii AASHTO GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GlRDER HlGHWAY BRIDGES
SECTION4: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 27

4.1 GENERAL 27
4.2 NEGLECT OF CURVATURE EFFECTS 27
4.2.1 I-Girders 27
4.2.2 Closed Box and Tub Girders 28
4.3 METHODS 28
4.3.1 Approximate Methods 28
4.3.2 Refined Methods 29
4.4 UPLIFT 30
4.5 CONCRETE 30
4.5.1 General 30
4.5.2 Stresses in Composite Sections 30
4.5.3 Prestressed Concrete 31
4.6 CONSTRUCTION STAGES 31
SECTION 5: FLANGES WITH ONE WEB 33
5.1 GENERAL 33
5.2 PARTIALLY BRACEO COMPRESSION FLANGES 34
5.2.1 Compact Flanges 34
5.2.2 Non-Compact Flanges 35
5.3 PARTIALLY BRACED TENSIÓN FLANGES 36
5.4 CONTINUOUSLY BRACEO FLANGES 36
SECTION 6: WEBS 39
6.1 GENERAL 39
6.2 UNSTIFFENED WEBS 39
6.2.1 Bending Stresses 39
6.2.2 Shear Strength 40
6.3 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEBS 41
6.4 LONGITUDINALLY AND TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEBS 42
6.5 TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS 43
6.6 LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS 44
6.7 BEARING STIFFENERS 45
SECTION?: SHEARCONNECTORS 47
7.1 GENERAL 47
7.2 I-GIRDERS 47
7.2.1 Strength 47
7.2.2 Fatigue 49
7.3 CLOSED Box AND TUB GIRDERS 50
7.3.1 General 50
7.3.2 Strength 50
7.3.3 Fatigue 50
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION8: BEARINGS 51
8.1 GENERAL 51
8.2 FORCES 51
8.2.1 Vertical Forces 51
8.2.2 Horizontal Forces 51
8.2.3 Shear Forces 51
8.2.4 Prestressing Forces 51
8.3 MOVEMENTS 51
8.4 BEARING REPLACEMENT 52
SECTION9: I-GlRDERS 53
9.1 GENERAL 53
9.2 VARIABLE DEPTH GIRDERS 53
9.3 CROSS FRAMES AND DIAPHRAGMS 54
9.3.1 General 54
9.3.2 Arrangement 54
9.3.3 LoadEffects 55
9.4 FLANGE LATERAL BRACING 55
9.5 PERMANENT DEFLECTION 56
9.6 FATIGUE 56
9.6.1 General 56
9.6.2 Flanges 56
9.6.3 Webs and Stiffeners 57
9.6.4 Cross Frames, Diaphragms, and Flange Bracing 57
SECTIONIO: CLOSED Box AND TUB GIRDERS 59

10.1 GENERAL 59
10.2 FRAMING 59
10.2.1 Bearings 59
10.2.2 Interna! Bracing and Diaphragms 59
10.2.2.1 General 59
10.2.2.2 Internal Diaphragms at Supports 59
10.2.2.3 Intermediate Internal Bracing 60
10.2.3 External Bracing 61
10.2.4 Bracing ofTub Flanges 61
10.2.5 Access Holes 62
10.3 STRESS DETERMINATIONS 62
10.3.1 General 62
10.3.2 Variable Depth Girders 62
10.4 STRENGTH OF Box FLANGES 63
10.4.1 General 63
10.4.2 Non-Composite Box Flanges 63
10.4.2.1 General 63
10.4.2.2 Shear 64
10.4.2.3 Tensión Flanges 64
10.4.2.4 Compression Flanges 65
10.4.2.4.1 Unstiffened Flanges 65
10.4.2.4.2 Longitudinally Stiffened Flanges 66
10.4.3 Composite Box Flanges 66
10.4.3.1 General 66
10.4.3.2 Tensión Flanges 67
10.4.3.3 Compression Flanges 67
_x AASHTO GUIPE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.4.3.4 Shear 67
10.4.3.5 Shear Connectors 67
10.6 FATIGUE 68
10.6.1 Flanges and Webs 68
10.6.2 Bracing and Diaphragms 69
SECTION 11: SPLICES AND CONNECTIONS 71

11.1 GENERAL 71
11.2 BOLTED CONNECTIONS 72
SECTION 12: DEFLECTIONS 75
12.1 GENERAL 75
12.2 SPAN-TO-DEPTH RATIO 75
12.3 DEAD LOAD DEFLECTIONS 75
12.4 LIVE LOAD DEFLECTIONS 75
SECTION 13: CONSTRUCTIBILITY 77
13.1 GENERAL 77
13.2 STEEL 77
13.3 CONCRETE 77
13.4 DEFLECTIONS 77
13.5 SHIPPING 78
13.6 STEELERECTION 78
13.7 DECKPLACEMENT 78
13.8 DECK OVERHANGS 78
REFERENCES 81
DIVISIÓN II—CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 1: GENERAL 87
1.1 GENERAL 87
1.2 SCOPE 87
1.3 CONSTRUCTION PLAN 87
SECTION 2: FABRICATION 89
2.1 GENERAL 89
2.2 HANDLING 89
2.3 GIRDERS 89
2.3.1 Rolled I-Girders 89
2.3.2 Welded I-Girders 89
2.3.3 Welded Box and Tub Girders 89
2.4 WEB ATTACHMENTS 89
2.4.1 Transverse Stiffeners 89
2.4.2 Cross-Frame and Diaphragm Connection Piales 90
2.4.3 Longitudinal Stiffeners 90
2.4.4 Cross Frames and Diaphragms 90
2.5 BOLTHOLES 90
2.6 TOLERANCES 90
2.6.1 Welded Web Flatness 90
2.6.2 Camber 90
2.6.3 Sweep 92
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI
2.6.4 Girder Lengths 92

2.7 FlT-UP 93
2.7.1 General 93
2.7.2 Girder Section Field Splices 93
SECTION3: TRANSPORTATION PLAN 95

SECTION 4: STEEL ERECTION 97
4.1 GENERAL 97
4.2 FALSEWORK 97
4.3 BEARINGS 97
4.4 I-GIRDERS 97
4.5 CLOSED Box AND TUB GIRDERS 98
SECTION 5: DECK 99
5.1 FORMS 99
5.1.1 General 99
5.1.2 Overhangs 99
5.1.3 TubGirders 99
5.2 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE 99
SECTION 6: REPORTS 101
REFERENCES 103
HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL I-GIRDER DESIGN EXAMPLE
SECTION 1: OBJECTIVES 107

1.1 OBJECTIVES 107
SECTION 2: DESIGN PARAMETERS 109
2.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS
SECTION 3: STEEL FRAMING 111
3.1 GENERAL 111
3.2 GIRDER SPACING 111
3.3 GIRDERDEPTH 111
3.4 MÍNIMUM PLATE SIZES 111
3.5 CROSSFRAMES 112
3.6 FIELD SECTION SIZES 112
SECTION 4: FRAMING FOR FINAL DESIGN 113
4.1 ALTERNATIVE FRAMING SCHEMES 113
4.2 CROSSFRAMES 113
4.3 FIELD SECTIONS 114
SECTION 5: FINAL DESIGN 115
5.1 LOAOS 115
5.1.1 Non-Composite DeadLoad 115
5.1.2 Constructibility 115
5.1.3 Superimposed Dead Load 115
5.1.4 LiveLoad 115
5.2 ANALYSES 115
5.2.1 Loading Combinations 115
5.2.2 Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analyses 116
Xll AASHTO GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.2.3 Comparison of Analyses 116

5.3 LIMIT STATES 117
5.3.1 Strength 117
5.3.2 Constructibility 117
5.3.3 Permanent Deflection 117
5.3.4 Fatigue 117
5.3.5 Live Load Deflection 117
5.4 DESIGN 118
5.4.1 Section Properties 118
5.4.2 Flanges 118
5.4.3 Webs 120
5.4.4 Shear Connectors 120
5.4.5 Bearing Orientaíion 121
5.4.6 Details 121
5.4.7 Erection 121
5.4.8 Wind 122
5.4.8.1 Loadíng 122
5.4.8.2 Analysis 122
5.4.8.3 Construction 123
5.4.9 DeckStaging 123
5.5 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS 123
APPENDICES
A. GIRDER FIELD SECTIONS 125
B. GIRDER MOMENTS AND SHEARS AT TENTH POINTS 137
C. COMPARISON OF ANALYSES 155
C.l MODELING FOR GRID ANALYSIS 155
C.l.l General 155
C.1.2 Coordinates 155
C.l.3 Kinematic Degrees of Freedom 155
C.l.4 Boundary Conditions 155
C.1.5 DeadLoad 155
C.1.6 Live Load 155
C.2 MODELING FOR V-LOAD ANALYSIS 156
C.2.1 General 156
C.2.2 Coordinates 156
C.2.3 Boundary Conditions 156
C.2.4 DeadLoad 156
C.2.5 Live Load 156
D. SELECTED DESIGN FORCES AND GIRDER 4 SECTION PROPERTIES 163

E. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS 177
E. 1 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 0-0 G4 NODE 4 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—SHEAR
STRENGTH—WEB 177
E.2 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—TOPFLANGE 179
E.2.1 Overhang Bracket Load 179
E.3 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—183
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—WEB ... ..183
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiü
E.4 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—185
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—DECK 184
STRENGTH—TOP FLANGE 185
BENDING STRENGTH—WEB 186
STRENGTH—BOTTOM FLANGE 187
FATIGUE—BOTTOM FLANGE 188
FATIGUE—SHEAR CONNECTORS 189
E.9.1 Methodl 189
E.9.2 Method2 190
E. 10 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 3-3 G4 NODE 64 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—
E.10.1 Methodl 191
E.10.2 Method2 191
STRENGTH TOP AND BOTTOM FLANGE 193
E.ll.l TopFlange 193
E.11.2 BottomFlange 193
OVERLOAD—BOTTOMFLANGE 196
FATIGUE—TOP FLANGE 198
SHEAR STRENGTH—WEB 199
E.16.1 Methodl 201
E.16.2 Method2 201
E.17 GIRDER STRESS CHECK G4 SPAN 1 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—STRENGTH—SHEAR CONNECTORS ...203
E.18 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 UNSTIFFENED WEB—CONSTRUCTIBILITY—WEB 205
E.19 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 UNSTIFFENED WEB—BENDING STRENGTH—WEB 206
E.20 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 UNSTIFFENED WEB—OVERLOAD—WEB 207
E.21 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 6-6 G4 NODE 100 UNSTIFFENED WEB—BENDING STRENGTH—WEB 208
E.22 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 6-6 G4 NODE 100 UNSTIFFENED WEB—SHEAR STRENGTH—WEB 209
BEARINGSTIFFENERÜESIGN 210
E.24 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 6-6 Gl NODE 97 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEB—
BEARINGSTIFFENERÜESIGN 211
E.25 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G4 NODE 44 LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB—
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—WEB 212
FATIGUE—TOP AND BOTTOM FLANGE 214
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—WEB ... ... 216
xiv AASHTO GUIPE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—DECK 217
E.30.1 Positive Live Load Bending Case 218
E.30.2 Negative Live Load Bending Case 218
E.31 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 3-3 G4 NODE 64 LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB—OVERLOAD—WEB 220
CONSTRUCTIBILITY—WEB 222
E.34 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 4-4 G4 NODE 76 LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB—OVERLOAD—WEB 225
E.3 7 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 6-6 G4 NODE 100 LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB—
OVERLOAD—WEB 229
E.38 GIRDER STRESS CHECK G4 LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB - LONGITUDINAL STIFFENER DESIGN 230
SHEAR STRENGTH—WEB 231
E.40 GIRDER STRESS CHECK G4 FIELD SECTION 2 (SPAN 1) TRANSVERSELY
STIFFENED WEB—TRANSVERSE STIFFENER DESIGN 232
E.41 GIRDER STRESS CHECK G4 SPANS 1 AND 2 LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB—
TRANSVERSE STIFFENER SPACING 234
E.42 BOLTED FIELD SPLICE DESIGN SECTION 8-8 G4 NODE 124 237
E.42.1 Design Action Summary and Section Information 237
E.42.2 Bolt Capacities 237
E.42.3 Top Flange Bolts - Constructibility and Overload 238
E.42.4 Bottom Flange Bolts - Constructibility and Overload 240
E.42.5 Top and Bottom Flange Bolts - Strength 242
E.42.6 Web Bolts - Constructibility and Overload 245
E.42.7 Web Bolts - Strength 249
£.42.8 Web Splice Plates 250
E.42.9 Flange Splice Plates 251
E.43 GIRDER STRESS CHECK G4 NODE 99-100 CROSS FRAME DIAGONAL—STRENGTH AND CONNECTION 253
E.44 CENTRIFUGAL FORCÉ CALCULATIONS 255
F. STUDY OF Two ERECTION SCHEMES 257
F.l INTRODUCTION 257
F.2 STEEL ERECTION STUDY 258
F.2.1 Steel Erection without Temporary Supports in End Spans 259
F.2.2 Steel Erection with Temporary Supports in End Spans 264
F.3 WIND ON STEEL DURING ERECTION 266
F.3.1 Girder Stresses Including Lateral Flange Bending 267
F.3.2 Bracing Members 267
TABLE OF CONTENTS xv
G. FIELD SECTION PROFILES 269
HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL BOX-GIRDER DESIGN EXAMPLE
SECTION 1: OBJECTIVES 275

1.1 OBJECTIVES 275
SECTION 2: DESIGN PARAMETERS 277
2.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS 277
SECTION 3: STEEL FRAMING 279
3.1 GENERAL 279
3.2 GIRDERÜEPTH 279
3.3 INTERNALANDEXTERNALBRACING 280
3.4 BRACING OF TUB FLANGES 280
3.5 LONGITUDINAL FLANGE STIFFENER 284
3.6 FIELD SECTIONS 284
SECTION 4: ANALYSES 285
4.1 LOADING COMBINATIONS 285
4.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES 285
4.3 COMPARISON OF ANALYSES 286
SECTION 5: LOAOS 287
5.1 DEADLOAD 287
5.2 LlVELOAD 287
SECTION 6: LIMIT STATES 289

6.1 STRENGTH 289
6.2 CONSTRUCTIBILITY 289
6.3 FATIGUE 289
6.4 LIVE LOAD DEFLECTION 290
SECTION?: DESIGN 291
7.1 SECTION PROPERTIES 291
7.2 SHEAR CONNECTORS 291
7.3 FLANGES 291
7.4 WEBS 291
7.5 DIAPHRAGMS 291
7.6 SAMPLECALCULATIONS... ...292
xvi AASHTO GUIPE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVED STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
APPENDICES
A. GIRDER FIELD SECTIONS 293
B. GlRDER MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND TORQUES Al TENTH-POINTS 299
C. COMPARISON OF ANALYSES 307

C.l MODELING FOR GRID ANALYSIS 307
C.l.l General 307
C.1.2 Coordínales 307
C.l.3 Kinematic Degrees of Freedom 307
C.1.4 Boundary Conditions 307
C.1.5 DeadLoad 307
C.1.6 LiveLoad 307
C.2 MODELING FOR M/R METHOD ANALYSIS 308
C.2.1 General 308
C.2.2 Coordínales 308
C.2.3 Boundary Condilions 308
C.2.4 Dead Load 308
C.2.5 Live Load 308
D. SELECTED DESIGN FORCES AND GIRDER 2 SECTION PROPERTIES 315

E. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS 321
E.l GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 1-1 G2NODE 10 CONSTRUCTIBEJTY—WEB 321
E.2 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 1-1 G2 NODE 10 CONSTRUCTIBEJTY—TOP FLANGE 322
E.2.1 Overhang Brackel Load 322
E.3 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 1-1 Gl NODE 9 CONSTRUCTIBOJTY—TOP FLANGE 326
E.4 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 1-1 G2 NODE 10 FATIGUE—BOTTOM FLANGE 329
E.5 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 1-1 G2 NODE 10 FATIGUE—SHEAR CONNECTORS 330
E.6 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 STRENGTH—BOTTOM FLANGE 331
E.7 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 LONGITUDINAL FLANGE STIFFENER 337
E.8 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 OVERLOAD—WEB 338
E.9 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 DESIGN OF INTERNAL DIAPHRAGM 339
E. 10 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 DESIGN OF BEARING STIFFENERS 342
E. 11 GIRDER STRESS CHECK G2 SPAN 1 BAY 1 TOP FLANGE BRACING MEMBER DESIGN 344
E. 12 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 TRANSVERSE BENDING STRESS 346
E. 13 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 COMPOSITE BOTTOM FLANGE OPTION 358
E. 14 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 4-4 G2 NODE 32 COMPOSITE BOTTOM FLANGE OPTION 362
E. 15 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 5-5 G2 NODE 36 COMPOSITE BOTTOM FLANGE OPTION
DESIGN OF SHEAR CONNECTORS—STRENGTH 365
E. 16 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G2 NODE 20.3 STRESSES 368
E. 17 GIRDER STRESS CHECK SECTION 2-2 G2 NODE 20.3 STRENGTH—BOTTOM FLANGE 370
E.18 BOLTEDSPLICE DESIGN SECTION 2-2 G2 NODE 20.3 : 372
E.18.1 Design Aclion Summary and Seclion Informalion 372
E.18.2 Boíl Capacilies 372
E.18.3 Top Flange Bolls—Conslruclibilily and Overload 373
E.18.4 Bollom Flange Bolls—Conslruclibilily and Overload 375
E.18.5 Top and Bollom Flange Bolls—Slrenglh 377
E.18.6 Web Bolls—Conslruclibilily and Overload 381
E.18.7 Web Bolls—Slrenglh 384
E.18.8 Web Splice Piales 386
E.18.9 Flange Splice Piales 387
TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii
I-GIRDER
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.2.1 I-Girder Bridge Cross Section 111

Figure 4.2.1 Framing Plan and Nodal Numbering 114
Figure B.l Dead Load (Structural Steel) Moment 138
Figure B.2 Dead Load (Concrete Deck) Moment 139
Figure B.3 Dead Load (Superimposed Dead Load) Moment 140
Figure B.4 Dead Load (Structural Steel) Shear 141
Figure B.5 Dead Load (Concrete Deck) Shear 142
Figure B.6 Dead Load (Superimposed Dead Load) Shear 143
Figure E.l Overhang Bracket Loading 179
Figure E.2 Factored Shear and Transverse Stiffener Spacing—Span 1—Longitudinally Stiffened Web 235
Figure E.3 Factored Shear and Transverse Stiffener Spacing—Span 2—Longitudinally Stiffened Web 236
Figure E.4 Bolt Patterns for Top and Bottom Flanges 239
Figure E.5 Web Bolt Pattern 246
Figure E.6 Centrifugal Forcé and Superelevation 255
Figure F.l Deformed Shapes 260
Figure G.l Field Section 1 269
Figure G.2 Field Section 2 270
Figure G.3 Field Section 3 271
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.3.5.1 Preferred Máximum Live Load Deflections in Center Span (in) 118
Table 5.3.5.2 Computed Máximum Live Load Deflections in Center Span (in) 118
Table 5.4.2.1 Comparison of Lateral Flange Moments from 3D Analysis and Eq. (4-1) 119
Table 5.4.2.2 Comparison of Lateral Flange Moments from 3D Analysis and Eq. (4-1) 120
Table C.l Dead Load (Structural Steel) Analysis Comparison 157
Table C.2 Dead Load (Concrete Deck) Analysis Comparison 158
Table C.3 Dead Load (Superimposed Dead Load) Analysis Comparison 159
Table C.4 Live Load (Truck) Analysis Comparison 160
Table C.5 Live Load (Lañe) Analysis Comparison 161
Table D.l Girder 4 Selected Moments (k-ft) and Web Shears (kips) 163
Table D.2 Shear (kips), Girder 4, Span 1 164
Table D.4 Load Combinations for Cross Frame Member 99 top-100 bottom 166
Table D.5 Load Combinations for Cross Frame Member 99 bottom-100 top .' 167
T>ble D.6 Load Combinations for Cross Frame Member 97 top-98 bottom 168
Table D.7 Load Combinations for Cross Frame Member 97 bottom-98 top 169
Table D.8 Load Combinations for Vertical Reaction Bearing 98 170
Table D.9 Load Combinations for Tangential Reaction Bearing 98 171
Table D.10 Load Combinations for Radial Reaction Bearing 98 172
Table D.ll Selected Girder 4 Section Properties—Transversely Stiffened Web 173
Table E.42.1.1 Unfactored Actions 237
Table E.42.1.2 Cross Section 237
Table F.2.1.1 Difference between Máximum Vertical Deflections for RUN1A and RUN1 (in) 261
Table F.2.1 2 Comparison of Vertical Reactions (kips) Between RUN1 andRUNlA 261
Table F.2.1.3 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN1 262
Table F.2.1.4 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN1A 262
XV111 AASHTO CUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHV/AY BRIDGES
Table F.5 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN2 262
Table F.6 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN3B 263
Table F.7 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN3C 263
Table F.8 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN1+RUN3B+RUN3C
Compared to RUN2 263
Table F.9 Net Vertical Deflections (in) at Nodes 37-40 Without Temporary Supports
No Cross Frames Between Girders 2 and 3 in Field Section 3 263
Table F.10 Net Vertical Deflections (in) at Nodes 145-148 Without Temporary Supports
No Cross Frames Between Girders 2 and 3 in Field Section 3 264
Table Fl 1 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN1D 264
Table F12 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN3E 265
Table F13 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN3G 265
Table F14 Differences in Top and Bottom Girder "X" Deflections (in) at Splice for RUN1D+RUN3E+RUN3G
Compared to RUN2 265
Table F15 Net Vertical Deflections (in) at Nodes 37-40 with Temporary Supports 266
Table F16 Net Vertical Deflections (in) at Nodes 145-148 With Temporary Supports 266
TABLE OF CONTENTS . ííí
Box GIRDER
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Box Girder Bridge Cross Section 279
Figure 2 NodeNumbers 281
Figure 3 Lateral Flange Moments (k-ft) and Bracing Forces (kips) Due to Entire Deck Weight with
Overhang Brackets, Double-Diagonal Bracing, Inclined Webs 282
Overhang Brackets, Single-Diagonal Bracing, Inclined Webs 282
Overhang Brackets, Vertical Webs 283
Figure 6 Lateral Flange Moments (k-ft) and Bracing Forces (kips) Due to Cast #1 with
Overhang Brackets, Single-Diagonal Bracing, Inclined Webs 283
Figure 7 Lateral Flange Moments (k-ft) Due to Entire Deck Weight with
Overhang Brackets, Double-Diagonal Bracing, Vertical Webs 284
Figure El Overhang Bracket Loading 322
Figure E2 Internal Diaphragm and Bearing Stiffeners at Pier of Girder 2 Looking Upstation 342
Figure E3 Composite Box Cross Section, G2 346
Figure E4 Effective Width of Web Píate, d0, Acting with Transverso Stiffener 347
Figure E5 Shear Studs On Composite Bottom Flange 366
Figure E6 Bolt Patterns for Top and Bottom Flange 374
Figure E7 Web Bolt Pattern 382
LIST OF TABLES
Table 6.4.1 Preferred Máximum Live Load Deflections (in) 290
Table C.l Dead Load (Structural Steel) Analysis Comparison 309
Table C.2 Dead Load (Concrete Deck) Analysis Comparison 310
Table C.3 Dead Load (Superimposed Dead Load) Analysis Comparison 311
Table C.4 Live Load (HS25 Truck) Analysis Comparison 312
Table C.5 Live Load (Lañe) Analysis Comparison 313
Table D.l Girder 2 Selected Moments (k-ft) and Web Shears (kips) 315
Table D.3 Girder 2, Selected Torques (k-ft) 31
Table D.4 Top Flange Bracing Forces, Girder 2, Span 1 (kips) 318
Table D.5 Selected Girder 2 Section Properties 319
Table E.l Section Properties of G2 with 8 inches of 6,000 psi Concrete in Bottom Flange 358
Table E.2 Strength Limit State at 100 feet from Left Abutment 369
Table E.3 Overload At 100 Feet From Left Abutment 369
Table E.4 Constructibility Limit State at 100 feet from Left Abutment 369
372
Table E.5 Unfactored Actions
372
Table E.6 Tub Cross Section
AASHTO CUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR
HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
DEFINITIONS
For a consistent application of the specifications, it is necessary that terms be defined where they have
particular meanings in the specifications. The following defínitions are given for use in application of these
specifications only and do not always correspond to ordinary usage:
Acnon— A generalized forcé in a structural member or component including moment, shear, axial forcé and exteraally
applied load. Deflections and rotations are also considered as actions.
Are Span — Distance between centers of adjacent bearings, or other points of support, measured horizontally along the
centerline of a horizontally curved member.
Aspect Ratio— Ratio computed by dividing the length by the width of a rectangular panel.
Beam —A structural member whose primary function is to transmit loads to the supports through flexure.
Box Flange—A flange that is connected to two webs. The flange may be a flat unstiffened píate, a stiffened píate or a
flat píate with reinforced concrete attached to the píate with shear connectors.
Bracing Member —A member intended to brace a girder against lateral movement or distortion.
Girder — A bending member having a cross section composed of two webs which has at least a completely
e^closed cell. A closed section girder is effective in resisting applied torsión by developing non-vanishing shear flow
m the web(s) and flanges.
Compact Flange—A partially or fully braced flange that can sustain sufficient strains so that the entire flange can be
to be at the yield stress.
Component —A constituent part of a structure.
Camposite Girder — A steel I-shaped or box-shaped bending member connected to a concrete slab so that the steel
elernent and the slab, or the longitudinal reinforcement within the slab, respond to bending loads as a unit.
Comection—A weld or arrangement of bolts that transfers normal and/or shear stresses from one element to another.
Cnutruction Plan—A plan created by the Contractor that details the procedures for fabrication, erection, and deck
rlacement. The plan may be based on the construction scheme shown in the Design Plans, or developed entirely by the
Contractor.
Comtractor—An organization that agrees to build the bridge for the Owner according to the terms of a contract
sxscuted by the Owner and the Contractor.
Cracked Section—A composite section in which the concrete is assumed to carry no stress.
Cross Frame—A vertically oriented transverse truss framework connecting adjacent longitudinal bending members.
Cross Section Distortion — Distortion of the cross section of a box or tub girder due to torsional loading.
Comed Girder — An I-, closed box, or tub girder that is curved in a horizontal plañe.
Deck—The roadway composed of reinforced concrete.
_~ - . £••: — Proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a bridge to satisfy these specifications.
Design Plans—A set of plans developed by a licensed structural engineer to be used as the basis for the construction
cortract.
Diaphragm —A vertically oriented solid transverse member connecting adjacent longitudinal girders or inside a closed
box or tub girder.
AASHTO GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Distortion-Induced Fatigue—Fatigue caused by secondary stresses that are not normally evaluated in the typical
design and analysis of a bridge.
Engineer—A licensed structural engineer responsible for design of the bridge or review of the bridge construction.
Erector—Usually a sub-contracting organization that agrees to construct the structural steel portion of the bridge
superstructure according to the Construction Plan prepared by the Contractor.
Fabricator—Usually a sub-contracting organization that agrees to manufacture and provide the structural steel components
of the bridge superstructure according to the Construction Plan prepared by the Contractor.
Factored Loading—The nominal loads multiplied by the appropriate load factors specified for the load group under
consideration.
Fatigue—The initiation/or propagation of cracks in steel members due to repeated variation of strain.
Fatigue Resistance—The máximum stress range that can be sustained for a specified number of cycles without failure.
Finite Element Method—A method of analysis in which the structure is divided into elements connected at nodes. The
shape of the element displacement field is assumed, partial or complete compatibility is maintained among the
element interfaces, and nodal displacements are determined by using energy principies or equilibrium methods.
First-Order Analysis—An analysis based on small-deflection theory under linearly elastic constitutivo equations.
Flange Concrete—Reinforced concrete acting with a box flange design to resist vertical bending and torsión.
Girder Radius—The radius of the circumferential centerline of a segment of a curved girder.
Grid Method—A method of analysis in which all or part of the superstructure is discretized into components in a two-
dimensional plañe that represent the characteristics of the structure.
Hooke 's Law—Stress in a material is proportional to strain in the elastic range.
Inelastic Behavior—A condition in which deformation is not fully recovered upon removal of the load. Strain exceeds
the proportional limit.
I-Girder—A bending member that has an I-shaped cross section.
Lañe—The área of deck receiving one vehicle or one uniform load line.
Large Deflection Theory—Any method of structural analysis in which the influence of deformation on forcé is
considered.
Lateral Bending Stress—Bending stress caused by lateral flange bending.
Lateral Bracing—A truss placed in a horizontal plañe between two I-girders or two flanges of a tub girder.
Lateral Flange Bending—Flexural action of a flange in the plañe of the flange with respect to the vertical axis through
the flange. Lateral flange bending may be due to lateral loads applied to the flange and/or nonuniform torsión in the
member. In these provisions lateral flange bending moments refer to those at brace points.
Load Effect—Moment, shear, axial forcé, or torque induced in a member by loads applied to the structure.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)—A reliability-based design method in which factored design forces
caused by factored service loads are not permitted to exceed the nominal strengths of the members.
Main Member—A primary member designed to carry the internal forces determined from an analysis.
Model—A mathematical idealization of a structure or component used for analysis.

DEFINITIONS
M/R Method—An approximate method for the analysis of curveé box girders in which the curved girder is treated as
an equivalen! straignt girder to calcúlate bending effects and as a corresponding straight conjúgate beam to calcúlate
the concomitant St. Venant torsional moments due to curvature.
Müller-Breslau Principie—The influence surface for an action at a preselected point of a linear elastic structure is to
the same scale as the deflected shape of the structure when the structure is given a unit deformation at the preselected
point corresponding to the action.
Navier 's Hypothesis—ln any bent beam, sections which were plañe before bending remain plañe after bending. Also
known as the Bernoulli-Euler assumption.
Negative Moment—Moment producing tensión at the top of a bending element.
Non-compact Flange—A compression flange that can sustain a peak normal strain at the flange tip equal to the yield
strain.
Nonuniform Torsión—An internal resisting torsión in thin-walled sections producing shear stresses and normal
stresses, and under which cross sections do not remain plañe. Non-uniform torsión is also known as warping torsión.
Members developing nonuniform torsión resist the externally applied torsión by warping torsión and St. Venant
torsión. Each of these components of internal resisting torsión varies along the member length, although the externally
applied concentrated torsión may remain uniform along the member between two adjacent points of torsional restraint.
Warping torsión is dominant over St. Venant torsión in members having open cross sections, whereas St. Venant
torsión is dominant over warping torsión in members having closed cross sections.
Open Section—A bending member cross section which has no enclosed cell. An open section member resists torsión
primarily by nonuniform torsión, which causes normal stresses at the flange tips.
Owner—A person or an organization who pays for the construction of the structure and assumes the responsibility of
its operation and maintenance.
Pier—A column or connected group of columns or other configuration designed to be an interior support for a bridge
superstructure.
Pitch—The distance between adjacent bolts or shear connectors in the direction of the forcé.
Positive Moment—Moment producing tensión at the bottom of a bending element.
Primary Member—Any member designed to carry the loads applied to the structure.
Refined Methods of Analysis—Methods of structural analysis that consider the entire superstructure as an integral unit
and provide the required deflections and actions.
Second-Order Analysis—An analysis that accounts for geometric and/or material nominearity.
Secondary Member—A member in which stress is not normally evaluated in the analysis.
Shear Flow—Shear forcé acting on the cross section of a píate element divided by the thickness or width of the
element; shear flow has the units of forcé per unit width of the píate.
Shear Lag—Nonlinear distribution of normal stress across an element due to shear distortions.
Shear Strength—Shear capacity of a component as computed using these provisions.
Small-Deflection Theory—Any method of structural analysis in which the influence of deformation on forcé effects is
neglected.
Slab—Deck composed of concrete and reinforcement.
Span Length—See Are Span.

6 AASHTO GUIPE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVED STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Splice—A group of bolted connections, or a welded connection, sufficient to transfer the moment, shear, axial forcé,
or torque between two girder components.
St. Venant Torsión—Internal resisting torsión producing puré shear stresses on a cross section. Torsión in members
such as pipes or solid round bars, where only St. Venant torsión resists the externally applied torsión, is referred to as
either puré torsión or uniform torsión.
Stress Range—The algébrale difference between the extreme valúes in a stress cycle in a fatigue check.
Stringer A longitudinal bending member of open section such as an I-girder. This term is frequently used
interchangeably with I-girder.
Strong-Axis—The centroidal axis about which the moment of inertia is a máximum.
Superposition—The stresses in a member due to one loading can be added to the stresses in the member due to
another loading if the load-stress relationship is linearly elastic, the sum is still within the elastic range and the
stiffness of the structure is not changed.
Through-Thickness Stress—Bending stresses in a web or box flange induced by distortion of the cross section.
Torsional Shear Stress—Shear stress induced by St. Venant torsión.
Tub Girder—An open-topped steel girder which is composed of a bottom flange píate, two web piales and an independent
top flange attached to the top of each web. The top flanges are connected with lateral bracing members.
Unbraced Length—The are dislance between brace points resisting the mode of buckling, lateral bending or distortion
under consideration.
Uncracked Section—A composite section in which the concrete is assumed to be fully effective in tensión and compression.
Uniform Live Load—Loading consisting of a uniform load intensity and specifíed concentrated loads placed in critical
positions longitudinally and transversely. These loads are referred to in AASHTO as lañe loads.
Vertical Bending Moment—Bending moment about the horizontal axis, usually the strong-axis.
V-Load Method—An approximate method for the analysis of curved I-girder bridges in which the curved girders are
represented by equivalent straighl girders and Ihe effecls of curvature are represenled by vertical and lateral forces
applied at cross frame locations. Lateral flange bending at brace points due to curvature is estimated.
Von Mises Yield Criterion—A theory which states that inelastic action begins at a point subjected to biaxial or triaxial
stresses when the sttain energy of distortion per unit volume absorbed at that point is equal to the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume absorbed at any point on a bar loaded to its yield strength under uniaxial tensile stress. This
theory is also called the máximum strain-energy-of-distortion theory.
Warping Normal Stress—Normal stress induced by non-uniform torsión is referred to as warping stress.
Web Slenderness—The dislance along a web between flanges divided by the web thickness.
Wheel Load Distribution Factor—The fraction of half of a truck or lañe load assumed lo be carried by an individual
girder.
Yield Stress—The specifíed minimum yield stress for the steel.

NOTATIONS
Abot = área of bottom flange (in2) (7.2.2)

A0 enclosed área of box (in2) (C10.4.2.2)
As = área of steel girder(in2) (7.2.1)
a = aspect ratio of transverse stiffeners (6.5) (6.6)
b = mínimum flange width(in) (5.1) (División II, 3)
bd effective deck width (in) (7.2.1) (10.4.3.5)
bf flange width (in) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (C9.3.2) (10.4.2.4.1) (10.4.2.4.2) (10.4.3.5)
bs stiffener width (in) (6.5)
bs = distance between longitudinal stiffeners (in) (10.4.2.4.2)
C = ratio of the elastic shear-buckling strength to the shear-yield strength (6.2.2)
C = equivalen! moment factor (6.7)
D = deadload(3.5.1)
D = distance along the web between flanges (in) (6.2) (6.2.1) (6.2.2) (6.3) (6.3.1) (6.3.2) (6.4) (6.4.1)
(6.5) (6.6)
D = web depth(in) (4.2.1) (C4.2.1) (C9.1)
Dc = depthof web in compression (in) (6.2.1) (6.3.1) (6.4.1) (C9.1)
d = depth of steel girder (in) (12.2)
d = required distance between transverse stiffeners (in) (6.3.2) (6.5)
do = actual distance between transverse stiffeners (in) (6.3) (6.3.2) (6.5)
ds = distance between longitudinal stiffener and compression flange (in) (6.4.1)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (ksi) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (6.2.1) (6.2.2) (6.3.1) (6.4.1) (6.5)
F uniform radial forcé (k/ft) (C 13.8)
Fbs = critical average normal stress in the compression flange of an equivalent straight girder (ksi) (5.2.1)
(5.2.2)
FCR = netrange ofcross frame axial forcé at the top flange (kip) (7.2.2)
Fcr critical average flange stress (ksi) (5.1) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (5.4) (10.4.2.3) (10.4.2.4.1) (10.5)
Fcr = critical compressive longitudinal stress in the web (ksi) (6.2.1) (6.3.1) (6.4.1)
FCTl = critical average flange stress calculated from reduction factors (ksi) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (5.3)
Fcr2 = critical average flange stress determined frompartial yielding (ksi) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (5.3)
Ffat radial fatigue shear range/unit length (k/in) (7.2.2) (7.3.3) (10.4.3.5)
Fp = radial forcé in the concrete slab at point of máximum positive live load moment (kip) (7.2.1)
Ft = radial forcé in the concrete slab at point of greatest negative live load moment (kip) (7.2.1)
Fv = critical torsional shear stress in a box flange (ksi) (10.4.2.2)
Fy specified minimum yield stress of steel (ksi) (5.1) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (5.3) (5.4) (6.1) (6.2.1) (6.2.2)
(6.3.1) (6.4.1) (6.7) (7.2.1) (9.5) (10.4.2.2) (10.4.2.3) (10.4.2.4.1) (10.5) (12.2)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of stiffener (ksi) (6.5) (6.7)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of box bottom flange (ksi) (C10.4.2.1)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of box-girder diaphragm (ksi) (C10.2.2.2)
fb = calculated factored average flange stress at the section under consideration (ksi) (5.1) (5.2.1) (5.2.2)
(C9.3.2)
fc' specified 28-day compressive stress of concrete (ksi) (7.2.1) (10.4.3.3) (13.3)
í( = calculated total factored lateral flange bending stress at the section under consideration (ksi) (5.1)
(5.2.1) (5.2.2) (5.3) (C9.3.2) (C13.8)
fr modulus ofrupture (ksi) (2.4.3)
fv factored torsional shear stress in a box flange (ksi) (C10.4.2.1) (10.4.2.3) (10.4.2.4.1)
fv = shear stress in a box-girder diaphragm (ksi) (C10.2.2.2)
h = depth between mid-thickness of top and bottom flange (in) (C4.2.1)
I = impact allowance (3.5.1)
I£s = required moment of inertia of longitudinal web stiffener (in4) (6.6)
Is = actual moment of inertia of one longitudinal flange stiffener about an axis at the base of the stiffener
(in4) (10.4.2.4.2)
_8 AASHTO GUIPE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Is' = required moment of inertia of a longitudinal flange stiffener about an axis at the base of the stiffener
(in4) (10.4.2.4.2)
Its = moment of inertia of a transverse web stiffener with respect to the mid-plane of the web (in4) (6.5)
(6.6)
J = the required ratio of rigidity of one transverse web stiffener to that of the web píate (6.5)
K effective length factor (6.7) (9.3.1)
k coefficient of web bend-buckling (6.2.1) (6.3.1) (6.4.1)
k plate-buckling coefficient under normal stress (10.4.2.4.1) (10.4.2.4.2)
ks plate-buckling coefficient under shear stress (10.4.2.4.1) (10.4.2.4.2)
kw shear-buckling coefficient (6.2.2) (6.3.2)
L = are girder length between bearings (in) (12.4)
Las are span (ft) (4.2.1) (4.2.2) (12.2)
Lc máximum cantilever length of girder during shipping (in) (División II, 3)
Ln = are length between a point of máximum positive live load moment and an adjacent point of greatest
negative moment (ft) (7.2.1)
LP = are length between a point of zero moment and an adjacent point of máximum positive live load
moment (ft) (7.2.1)
LL live load (3.5.1)
£ are length of the unsupported flange between cross frames or diaphragms (ft) (4.2.1) (5.1) (5.2.1)
(5.2.2) (7.2.2) (C9.3.2) (C13.8)
M vertical bending moment (k-ft) (4.2.1)
MI», = lateral flange bending moment (k-ft) (4.2.1) (C13.8)
Mp plástic moment (k-ft) (C5.2.1)
My yield moment (k-ft) (C5.2.1)
N required number of shear connectors for strength (7.2.1)
n modular ratio (4.5.2) (13.3)
n = number of shear connectors in a cross section (7.2.2)
n = number of equally spaced uniform longitudinal box flange stiffeners (10.4.2.4.2)
P concentrated lateral forcé (kip) (C13.8)
P_ forcé in deck (kip) (7.2.1) (7.2.2) (7.3.2)
Pn smallerQfPi n orP 2n (kip) (7.2.1)
Pp longitudinal forcé in the deck or flange concrete at point of máximum positive live load moment
equal to the smaller of Plp or P2p (kip) (7.2.1)
PT longitudinal forcé in the deck or flange concrete at point of greatest negative live load moment equal
toP p +P n (kip) (7.2.1)
Pln longitudinal forcé in the girder at point of greatest negative live load moment (kip) (7.2.1)
P2n longitudinal forcé in the deck at point of greatest negative live load moment (kip) (7.2.1)
P. longitudinal forcé in the girder at point of máximum positive live load moment (kip) (7.2.1)
P2 longitudinal forcé in the deck at point of máximum positive live load moment (kip) (7.2.1)
R girder radius (ft) (C4.2.1) (C9.3.2)
R minimum girder radius within a panel or over a specified girder length (ft) (5.1) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (6.2)
(6.3) (6.5) (7.2.1) (7.2.2)
Rj, R2 = reduction factors for stresses in a box flange (10.4.2.4.1) (10.4.3.5)
ra desired bending stress ratio (C9.3.2)
S girder spacing (ft) (4.2.1)
SF shear flow (k/in) (C10.4.2.2)
Su ultimate strength of one shear connector (kip) (7.2.1)
T torque (k-in) (C10.4.2.2)
td average concrete deck thickness (in) (7.2.1)
tf flange thickness (in) (5.2.1) (5.2.2) (10.4.2.4.1) (10.4.2.4.2)
t, transverse web stiffener thickness (in) (6.5) (6.6)
t» web thickness (in) (6.2) (6.2.1) (6.2.2) (6.3) (6.3.1) (6.4) (6.4.1) (6.5) (6.6) (6.7)
Va- elastic shear-buckling or shear-yield strength of a web (kip) (6.2.2) (6.3.2) (6.4.2)
longitudinal fatigue shear range/unit length (k/in) (7.2.2) (7.3.3)
NOTVnONS
plástic shear capacity of a web (kip) (6.2.2)

horizontal shear range between deck and steel for fatigue design of shear connectors (k/in) (7.2.2)
effective length of deck (in) (7.2.2) (9.3.3)
X modifícation factor to J (6.5)
: curvature parameter (6.5) (6.6)
z, shear fatigue strength of an individual shear connector (7.2.2)
p position parameter for a longitudinal web stiffener (6.6)
_ reduction factor for the máximum stress in a box flange (10.4.2.3) (10.4.2.4.1)
slenderness parameter (5.2.1)
: strength reduction factor applied to modulus of rupture ( = 0.9) (2.4.3)
I coefficient for i; (10.4.2.4.2)
reduction factor for strength of shear connectors ( = 0.85) (7.2.1)
curvature factor for non-compact flange strength (5.2.2)
-_. curvature factor for non-compact flange strength (5.2.2)
_ curvature factor for compact flange strength (5.2.1) (5.3)
- . curvature factor for compact flange strength (5.2.1) (5.3)
range of fatigue stress in bottom flange (ksi) (7.2.2)
critical máximum principal stress in a box-girder diaphragm (ksi) (CIO.2.2.2)
critical minimum principal stress in a box-girder diaphragm (ksi) (CIO.2.2.2)
' average longitudinal stress in a box bottom flange due to vertical bending (ksi) (C10.4.2.1)
' stress in a box bottom flange due to vertical bending of the diaphragm over the bearing solé píate
(ksi)(C10.4.2.1)
stress in a box-girder diaphragm due to vertical bending of the diaphragm over the bearing solé píate
(ksi) (C 10.2.2.2)
stress in a box-girder diaphragm due to bending of the diaphragm about its longitudinal axis (ksi)
(C10.2.2.2)
shear yield stress (ksi) (C10.2.2.2)
DIVISIÓN I
DESIGN
SECTION 1
GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE Cl.l
These provisions are to be used in conjunction with Although the current AASHTO (1996) is applica-
the Standard Specifícations for Highwav Bridges ble to spans up to 500 feet and the AASHTO LRFD
(AASHTO) and the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Pesien provisions have no span limit, these provisions are
Specifícations (AASHTO LRFD). Arricies referenced limited to 300-foot spans because of the history of con-
from those specifications are in bold type. These provi- struction problems associated with curved bridges with
sions shall not invalidare any provisions of other spans greater than 300 feet. Large girder self-weight
AASHTO specifications. However, when there is a may cause critical stresses and deflections during erec-
conflict between the provisions of this specification and tion when the steel work is incomplete. Large lateral
AASHTO and AASHTO LRFD provisions in the de- deflections and girder rotations associated with longer
sign of horizontally curved steel girders, the provisions spans tend to make it difficult to fít up cross frames.
herein shall govern. Large curved bridges have been built successfully;
These provisions apply to the design and construc- however, these bridges deserve special considerations
tion of highway superstructures with horizontally such as the possible need of more than one temporary
curved steel I-shaped or single-cell box-shaped longi- support in large spans.
tudinal girders with spans up to 300 feet and with radii Approximations made in several of the formulas
greater than 100 feet. There shall be at least two I- defining I-girder strength and impact have not been
girders or one box-shaped girder in each bridge cross studied for radii smaller than 100 feet (Christiano,
section. Any bridge superstructure containing a curved 1967; Hall and Yoo, 1996a; andMcManus, 1971).
girder segment shall be designed according to these A minimum of two I-girders is required in a cross
provisions. The structural steel shall have a specifíed section to provide static equilibrium without unusual
mínimum yield stress not greater than 100 ksi. torsional restraints. Single box girders are permitted
Both closed box and tub girders are permitted. because torsional equilibrium can be established with
When tub girders are used, the top flanges shall be con- two bearings at some supports.
nected together with adequate diagonal shear bracing to Any bridge superstructure containing a curved-
form a pseudo-box. girder segment is to be designed according to these
Girders may be constant or variable depth. All provisions. The effects of curvature on the support re-
components of each girder cross section shall be homo- actions and girder deflections, as well as the effects of
geneous with respect to steel grade, but the steel grade lateral flange bending, usually extend beyond the
may vary along the length of a girder. curved segment. This requirement also ensures that the
The following framing arrangements are permitted bridge is designed according to the provisions of a sin-
under these provisions: simple and continuous spans; gle specifícation, which also simplifies future load rat-
constant and variable girder spacing; normal and ing or evaluation.
skewed support Unes; bifurcated alignments; different The provisions do not apply to multi-cell box gird-
girder stiffnesses within a bridge cross section; discon- ers because there has been little published research in
tinuous girders; girders having non-concentric radii in a the United States regarding these members. Analysis of
cross section; girders having kinked alignments; inte- this bridge type involves consideration of shear flow in
gral pier cap beams; and integra! abutments. each cell. However, the provisions do not prohibit
The superstructure shall have either a composite or multi-cell box girders.
a non-composite cast-in-place or precast concrete deck. Bridges beyond these limitations can be designed
Composite girders shall be designed to be composite by following principies given in Article 1.2.
along their entire length. The deck cross section may The top flanges of tub girders need to be braced so
have a constant thickness or it may be vaulted (variable that the girder acts as a pseudo-box for non-composite
thickness). Longitudinal and/or transverse prestressing loads before the deck hardens. Top flange bracing
of the deck is permitted. These provisions do not apply working with internal cross bracing retains the box
to superstructures with steel orthotropic decks. shape and resists lateral forcé induced by inclined webs
and torsión.
These provisions do not provide for hybrid girders.
The 1993 Guide Specifications for Horizontallv
Curved Highwav Bridges (Guide Spec) provided for
hybrid I-girders, but not for hybrid box girders. Pesign
of hybrid girders is based on the assumption that a por-
tion of the web yields. There have been only incidental
13
14 AASHTO GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAY BRIDGES
tests of curved hybrid girders; and there has been no

study of these test results with regard to hybrid action.
Although a mix of box and I-girders within a cross
section are not treated, there may be cases where this
arrangement is desirable and such an arrangement is
not prohibited.
Kinked girders exhibit the same actions as curved
girders except that the effect of the non-collinearity of
the flanges is concentrated at the kinks.
Curvature of a single curved girder in a cross sec-
tion affects all girders in the cross section, whether the
others are straight or curved because the forces re-
quired for equilibrium of the curved girder(s) are re-
sisted by the adjacent girders. Skewed supports can
cause girder torsión. Removal of highly stressed cross
frames, particularly near obtuse corners, releases the
girders torsionally and is often beneficial as long as
girder rotation is not excessive.
Girder-stringer-floor beam framing is not forbid-
den, although it is usually not desirable for use on
curved girder bridges because floor beams must be
designed both to support the stringers and to stabilize
the curved girders.
1.2 PRINCIPLES C1.2
Classical structural principies have been applied in Although structural principies are implicit in
the development of this speciñcation. These principies structural design specifications, these provisions differ
may be applied to the design of complex bridges be- from most in that they are intended to be used for
yond those covered by these provisions. When incon- widely diverse framing that cannot be categorized or
sistencies between these provisions and the engineering predefmed. Indiscriminate application of rules to un-
principies, described herein, are discovered, the princi- usual framing may viólate the basic principies. The
pies shall predominate. practice of good engineering is ensured by requiring
structural principies to be predominant over the provi-
sions rather than simply following rules.
Each component must be designed for the actions
to which it will be subjected. If the superstructure is to
perform as intended, all components of the superstruc-
ture including the deck, shear connectors, bracing and
bearings need to be analyzed and designed to the same
level of refinement as the girders and connections.
The Engineer may use these principies to deter-
mine whether an analysis is rational for a particular
structure.
1.2.1 Statics Cl.2.1
The structure shall satisfy static equilibrium. Any Statics is fundamental to bridge analysis. Any free
section taken through the bridge shall be in equilibrium body taken within the structure must satisfy six equa-
under each load group. tions of statics for all load conditions. Free body
checks should be used to confirm results from any
analysis. If the analysis results do not satisfy statics, the
analysis may need further refinement.
1.2.2 Stability Cl.2.2
General stability of the structure and the individual The Engineer is responsible for ensuring that the
components during construction as well as when com- girders are constrained against tangential displacement
pleted shall be ascertained for each critical load condition. with respect to any planes orthogonal to the girder line.
DIVISIÓN I: DESIGN 15
Stability of girders having curvature and section For example, a pair of curved I-girders only braced by
parameters within defined limits shall be ensured by cross -frames may not be stable without lateral flange
limiting the stresses due to factored loads computed bracing. It may be advisable to use bottom flange
from small-deflection theory to critical stresses defined bracing in at least one location in such situations to
herein. ensure Stability when erecting pairs of I-girders.
Stability of bracing members, connection piales Small-deflection theory is appropriate when the
and bearing stiffeners shall be ensured by limiting the translation of the forces or loads due to the change in
computed stresses due to factored loads to the critical the shape of the structure is insignificant. Small-
stress for compression members defined herein. deflection theory is appropriate for analysis of com-
Local Stability of all components shall be ensured pleted bridges. However, during erection, when all
by limiting the computed stresses due to factored loads bracing may not be present, deflections may be large
to the critical stress corresponding to the width-to- enough that small-deflection theory is not applicable
thickness ratio of the element. and Stability can be ascertained only with the applica-
tion of large-deflection theory. Thus, the Engineer
should consider the magnitude of deflections when
performing analysis of the construction conditions
when all bracing may not be effective.
Lateral torsional buckling of partially braced
curved I-girders is not a bifurcation phenomenon in the
classical sense. Instead, out-of-plane deflection occurs
incipiently with vertical loading.
Local buckling of flanges is controlled in the pro-
visions by limiting the compression flange width-to-
thickness ratio. Research indicates that curvature may
contribute to local buckling of I-girder flanges (Culver
and Nasir, 1969; Nakai and Yoo, 1988; and Yoo,
1996). However, the flange width-to-thickness ratios
used in these provisions are appropriate.
Bracing of curved members is more critical than
that for straight members. The provisions require that
forces in bracing members be computed and considered
in design of these members.
1.2.3 Strength of Materials Cl.2.3
Hooke's law shall apply to structural analyses. The The normal assumptions associated with strength
modulus of elasticity of steel and concrete shall be de- of materials methods are assumed appropriate in these
termined from AASHTO. Poisson's ratio of steel may provisions.
be taken as 0.3 and Poisson's ratio of concrete may be Although it is appropriate to assume in the analysis
taken as 0.16. Navíér's hypothesis shall apply inde- that the girder cross section does not distort, it has been
pendently to web and flange components for vertical shown that cross section distortion has an importan!
bending and lateral flange bending, respectively. effect on the strength of curved I-girders and was con-
Distortion of the cross section need not be consid- sidered in the development of the strength equations
ered in the structural analysis. (McManus, 1971). Cross section deformation of steel
box girders may have a significant effect on torsional
behavior, but this effect is limited by the provisión of
sufficient internal cross bracing.
Classical methods of analysis usually are based on
strength of materials assumptions that do not recognize
cross section deformation. Finite element analyses that
model the actual cross section shape of the I- or box
girders can recognize cross section distortion and its
effect on structural behavior.
1.2.4 Small-Deflection Elastie Behavior Cl.2.4
Analyses may be made using small-deflection elas- Small-deflection elastic behavior permits the use of
tic theory unless deemed inappropriate by the Engineer. the principie of superposition and efficient analytical
The principie of superposition may be employed solutions. These assumptions are typically used in
for analyses of the completed structure. The principie bridge analysis for this reason. The behavior of the
of superposition shall not be applied for analyses of members assumed in these provisions is generally con-
construction processes that include changes in the sistent with this type of analysis.
structure stiffness. Moments from non-composite and composite
analyses may not be added for the purpose of comput-
ing stresses. The addition of stresses and deflections
due to non-composite and composite actions computed
from sepárate analyses is appropriate.
1.2.5 Large-Deflection Inelastic Behavior Cl.2.5
Steel is considered to be elastic-perfectly-plastic. The provisions do not require inelastic analyses;

Concrete creep may be considered by using a re- however, such analyses are likely to give better results
duced modulus of elasticity for concrete subjected to for curved girders with extremely large lateral deflec-
long-term stress. tions than analyses based on small-deflection theory.
Second-order analysis may be used to predict girder
behavior including stability during construction when
spacing of braces is greater than that permitted by the
provisions.
Since no redistribution of loads is permitted in
these provisions, there is no need for the designer to
consider material inelastic behavior in the analysis.
SECTION 2
LIMIT STATUS
2.1 GENERAL C2.1
Designs shall satisfy each limit state specified Limit states are the conditions for which the bridge
herein for the appropriate factored load groups. is designed to satisfy mínimum acceptable levéis of
performance and strength. The limit states specified
here are intended to provide for a buildable, serviceable
bridge, capable of safely carrying design loads for a
specified lifetime.
2.2 STRENGTH C2.2
Strength of the completed bridge shall be deter- The strength limit state considers stability, or
mined on an element-by-element basis. The super- yielding, of each structural element; or plastification of
structura shall be considered to have adequate strength compact I-girders. If the strength of any element, in-
if the stresses and actions in each element for the ap- cluding splices and connections, is exceeded, it is as-
propriate load combination meet requirements specified sumed that the bridge capacity has been exceeded. In
herein. fact, there is significant elastic reserve capacity in all
Load combinations for the strength limit state are multi-girder bridges beyond such a load level. The live
defined in Article 3.1. load cannot be positioned to apply the design live load
to all girders simultaneously. Thus, the bending capac-
ity of the bridge cross section, defined as the sum of
the capacity of each girder, exceeds the capacity re-
quired for the total live load that can be applied in the
number of lañes available.
2.3 FATIGUE C2.3
Base metal and details subjected to a net computed The fatigue limit state is based on the assumption
tensile stress under two times the factored fatigue live that the fatigue Ufe of each component and detail is a
load defined in Article 3.5.7.1 plus impact shall be in- function of the number of stress cycles due to the pas-
vestigated for fatigue, with the impact allowance taken sage of a single vehicle. Each truck traversing the
as defined in Article 3.5.6.3. bridge is assumed to travel in the same critical location
The provisions of AASHTO LRFD Article 6.6.1 for a particular component or detail.
shall be applied as modified in Arricies 3.5.7, 9.6 and When proper detailing practices are not followed,
10.6. The load factor for fatigue shall be taken as 0.75. fatigue cracking also has been found to occur due to
strains not normally computed in the design process.
This type of fatigue cracking is called "distortion-
induced fatigue." Distortion-induced fatigue often oc-
curs in the web near a flange at a welded connection
píate for a cross frame. These provisions require com-
putation of forces in cross frames and other bracing
members that are often considered to be "secondary
members" in straight bridges. The computed forces in
cross frames must be transferred to the girder flanges.
Bracing members and their connections are designed
for computed stress ranges according to these provi-
sions, whereas they may be detailed with no stress
computations according to AASHTO since they are
not considered to be primary load carrying members in
straight bridges.
To be consistent with the intent of the AASHTO
LRFD provisions, a heavy loading is used to determine
if a net tensile stress occurs requiring fatigue to be con-
sidered.
17
2.4 SERVICEABILITY C2.4

**
2.4.1 General C2.4.1
Serviceability limit states provide for the proper Safety margins are not directly applicable to serv-
performance of the bridge over its expected life. iceability. Instead, limits are, to a large extent, based on
experience.
2.4.2 Deflection C2.4.2
Elastic vertical, lateral and rotational deflections Curved bridges are subjected to torsión resulting in
due to applicable load groups shall be considered to larger lateral deflections and twisting than normal tan-
ensure satisfactory service performance of bearings, gent bridges with less than 20 degrees skew from ra-
joints, integral abutments and piers. dial. Therefore, rotations due to dead load and thermal
Permanent deflection under overload defíned in forces tend to have a larger effect on the performance
Article 3.5.4 shall be controlled by limiting the factored of bearings and expansión joints of curved bridges.
average flange stress due to vertical bending to the lim- Excessive permanent set in the bridge generally
iting stress specified in Article 9.5 or 10.5, as applica- does not indicate structural failure but is not desirable.
ble. The overload condition is investigated to ensure that
Vertical live load deflections preferably shall be localized yielding of the girders and cross frames is
limited according to Article 12.4. controlled to provide good riding quality.
Vertical acceleration of the bridge is thought to be
the principal cause of discomfort. Acceleration can be
controlled by limiting the live load deflection accord-
ing to Walker and Vélelos (1966).
2.4.3 Concrete Crack Control C2.4.3
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed in the Concrete crack control is important to protract the
concrete deck when the longitudinal tensile stress in the service life of the deck. Although cracks will occur in
deck due to factored construction loads or due to over- concrete decks, properly placed reinforcing steel con-
load exceeds <|>f r , where <)> is a strength reduction trols the size of the cracks.
factor equal to 0.9 and f , is the modulus of rupture as Recognition of the tensile strength of the concrete
is appropriate at the fatigue, serviceability and con-
defíned in AASHTO Article 8.15.2.1. Reinforcement
structibility limit states. The AASHTO ASD provi-
shall be No. 6 bars, or smaller, spaced at not more than
sions assume a resistance factor of 0.21 against the
12 inches. Reinforcement shall be placed in top and
modulus of rupture. These provisions provide an effec-
bottom layers of the deck with concrete cover as speci-
fied by the Owner. The área of longitudinal reinforce- 1.4
tive factor of safety of approximately — = 1.6 against
ment shall be preferably not less than one percent of the
total cross sectional área of the deck. The provisions of the modulus of rupture at the constructibility limit
AASHTO Article 10.38.4.3 shall be applied on place- state. By controlling crack size at overload and due to
ment of longitudinal reinforcement. the factored construction loads, the deck can be consid-
ered effective in tensión at the fatigue, serviceability
and constructibility limit states. Thermal stresses and
shrinkage stresses are not considered.
Placement of the deck in stages produces negative
moments in regions of adjacent continuous spans that
are typically subjected to positive moment. Critical
placement of live load on the completed bridge can
produce negative moments throughout continuous span
bridges. The point of dead load contraflexure is not
significant.
2.5 CONSTRUCTIBILITY C2.5
The constructibility limit state considers deflection, During construction, curved I-girder bridges are
strength of steel and concrete and stability during criti- often at the greatest risk because curved I-girder
cal stages of construction. bridges are dependen! on adjacent girders to provide
One scheme to construct the bridge within the con- equilibrium through shear forces in the connecting
straints of the site shall be shown on the Design Plans. cross-frames. The constructibility limit state is to be
The scheme shall include a sequence of girder and deck met at design time and refined by the Contractor prior
placement and the location of any necessary temporary to actual construction.
supports as specified in Article 13.6. Stresses and de- One construction seríeme must be shown on trie
flections during construction shall be investigated to Design Plans to ensure that at least one method of con-
ensure that the design meets the limits specified in struction within site limitations has been considered
Section 13. during the design process. División II provides for the
Contractor to consider other construction schemes. The
Contractor is always responsible for the final Con-
struction Plan as determined in División II and for exe-
cution of construction according to that Plan.
2.5.2 Stresses C2.5.2
Stresses due to factored construction loads defined The factored steel Stresses are limited to the speci-
in Article 3.3 in any steel component shall not exceed fied minimum yield stress during each critical stage of
the specified minimum yield stress, ñor shall they ex- erection to ensure permanent set or deformation is
ceed the elastic buckling stress, during any stage of controlled. Factored forces in bolted joints of load car-
construction. rying members are limited to the slip-critical capacity
Bolts in load-resisting connections shall be to ensure no damage to the connections and that the
checked against the slip-critical capacity for the fac- correct geometry of the structure is maintained.
tored loads during construction.
Strength of hardened portions of the concrete deck
due to factored loads shall be checked against the pro-
visions of Article 13.3.
2.5.3 Deflections and Rotations C2.5.3
Computed girder rotations at bearings and vertical Computation of girder vertical and lateral deflec-
girder deflections shall be accumulated over the con- tions for each stage of erection is needed to ensure
struction sequence. Computed rotations at bearings proper fít-up of subsequent steel sections. Deflections
shall not exceed the specified rotational capacity of the and bearing rotations during construction may exceed
bearings for the accumulated factored loads corre- the dead load deflections and rotations computed for
sponding to the stage investigated. the completed bridge. Identification of this temporary
Camber diagrams may reflect the computed accu- situation may be critical to ensure the bridge can be
mulated deflections due to both the erection sequence built without damaging the bearings or expansión de-
and the deck casting sequence. vices.
SECTION 3
LOAOS
3.1 GENERAL C3.1
For the strength limit state, the effect of each load AASHTO Table 3.22.1A provides factored loads
shall be factored and combined according to the groups that must be considered in the design of each compo-
defined in AASHTO Table 3.22.1A, except as modiñed nent.
herein. The loads defined in these provisions differ from
Loads and load factors for other limit states are de- AASHTO Table 3.22.1A by the addition of construc-
fined herein. tion and uplift loads. Actions determined for the con-
structibility limit state need not be added to the strength
load groups.
3.2 DEAD LOADS C3.2
Dead loads include the weight of components that The self-weight of structural steel is usually as-
form the permanent structure. The sequence of appli- sumed to be applied to the completed non-composite
cation of dead load shall be considered in the analyses. structure, which implies that the steel has been erected
Material densities shall be taken as specified in without the impediment of gravity.
AASHTO Article 3.3.6.
Lighter dead loads may be uniformly distributed
according to AASHTO Article 3.23.2.3.1.1. Parapets,
sidewalks, barriers and other heavy line loads prefera-
bly shall be assumed applied at their actual location on
the bridge. Wearing surface and other distributed loads
may be assumed uniformly distributed to each girder in
the cross section.
3.3 CONSTRUCTION LOADS C3.3
Construction loads shall include design dead loads Construction loads are dead loads and temporary
such as self-weight of steel, deck forms, deck, loads that act on the structure during construction.
haunches, parapets and construction equipment. A load Construction loads include the weight of equipment
factor of 1.4 shall be applied to loads when computing such as deck finishing machines or loads applied to the
actions for the constructibility limit state. A load factor structure through falsework or other temporary sup-
of 1.0 shall be applied to construction loads when ports. Often the construction loads are not accurately
computing deflections. known at design time; however, the magnitude and
The bridge shall be investigated for uplift under location of these loads considered in the design should
each critical construction stage. Dead loads and con- be noted on the Plans.
struction loads that resist uplift shall be factored by 0.9, The load factor of 1.4 is an average of the load
and loads that tend to cause uplift shall be factored by factors of 1.25 and 1.5 that are specified in AASHTO
1.2. LRFD Article 3.4.2.
The load factor for loads causing uplift is less than
the normal load factor for constructibility because the
occurrence of a slight uplift is not critical to most
structures and the cost to overeóme uplift may be large.
However, when uplift would cause instability or exces-
sively different deflections, the Engineer may wish to
use a larger load factor for uplift.
^
3.4 WIND LOADS C3.4
The intensity of wind load may be taken from Instead of defíning wind as either perpendicular or
AASHTO Article 3.15 or specified by the Owner. longitudinal with respect to the structure as done in
Wind load shall be applied unidirectionally to the pro- AASHTO, wind is defined unidirectionally. The criti-
jected área of the bridge including barriers and sound cal direction(s) is determined for different members.
21
walls. The direction(s) of wind that causes critical load Wind forcé is determined as the wind pressure times
effects in girders, cross frames and bearings shall be the projected bridge área.
determined by the Engineer. Horizontal wind load shall After the deck has hardened, wind load is mainly
be applied to the top and bottom of the girders. resisted by horizontal deck shear. Wind load applied to
A load path through which wind loads are assumed the bottom of the girder causes forcé in vertically in-
to be transmitted to the substructure shall be identified. clined cross bracing which transfers the forcé to the
Members and connections along this path shall be de- deck. Cross frame bottom chords attached to the next
signed for the combined effects of wind load and the girder experience nominal wind forcé because the bot-
appropriate loads according to Article 3.1. tom flange of the adjacent girder is less rigid in the
Uplift wind loads shall be as defíned in AASHTO lateral direction than is the deck. The wind load is
Article 3.15.3. transferred from the deck down through end-cross
The load factor for wind during construction shall frames or diaphragms and through the bearings to the
be 1.4. substructure. The end-cross frames or diaphragms may
be critical for wind load and should be checked. This is
true even when in-plane bottom flange bracing is pres-
ent. In-plane bottom flange bracing receives little hori-
zontal wind load after the deck has hardened because
the deck is much more rigid.
The superstructure should be treated as an integral
unit with the proper horizontal and vertical bearing
restraints. The horizontal shear stiffness of the deck
should be recognized.
Uplift due to wind is generally critical only during
construction.
3.5 LIVE LOADS C3.5
The design vehicular live load for checking the Live load is placed in positions to créate critical re-
strength limit state shall be an AASHTO HS loading sponses in each element. Influence surfaces which
specified by the Owner. Design lañe widths and num- cover the deck área, where traffic is permitted, can be
ber of traffic lañes shall be taken as specified in used to position vehicular loads to determine critical
AASHTO Articles 3.7 through 3.12. live load responses.
Potential of uplift shall be investigated for the
loading: D + 2.0 (LL + I). The potential absence of any
future-wearing surface shall be considered when
checking for uplift.
3.5.2 Centrifugal Forcé C3.5.2
Centrifiígal forcé shall be determined in accordance Centrifugal forcé creates a radial load that is
with AASHTO Article 3.10. A load path to cany the transmitted from the deck through the end cross frames
radial forcé to the substructure shall be provided. or diaphragms and the bearings to the substructure.
The overturning effect of centrifugal forcé on ver- Centrifugal forcé also causes an overturning effect
tical wheel loads shall be considered. because the radial forcé is applied 6 feet above the top
of the deck. Thus, centrifugal forcé tends to cause an
increase in the vertical wheel loads toward the outside
of the bridge and an unloading of wheel loads toward
the inside of the bridge.
3.5.3 Permit Loads C3.5.3
Permit loads and load factors used to check the A single lañe of permit load with the remaining
strength limit state shall be as specified by the Owner. lañes filled with normal design traffic is possible when
Permit loads may be placed in the critical lañe a refined analysis is used, and may be considered as an
with or without factored design vehicular live loading additional design live load to be used with the strength
in the remaining lañes, as directed by the Owner. Al- limit state.
ternatively, permit loads may be placed in all traffic Permit load(s) may be limited to the "striped lañes"
lañes. or permitted to "roam" transversely on the roadway.
Restraint to the striped lañes usually provides a greater

cornprrted bridge capacity for the permit loads.
3.5.4 Overload C3.5.4
The factored loading group shall be taken as de- Overload is defined as the dead load plus the larg-
fined in AASHTO Article 10.57. Impact shall be taken est live load the bridge is likely to experience a number
as defined in Article 3.5.6. of times. Overload is invoked to ensure that permanent
set does not occur after a number of heavy vehicles
traverse the bridge.
3.5.5 Sidewalk Load C3.5.5
Sidewalk live load shall be taken from AASHTO When a rational analysis is used, the transverse po-
Article 3.14 or specified by the Owner. Sidewalk live sition of loads can be recognized. If the assumption is
load shall be considered to act in combination with made that vehicular live load can mount the sidewalk,
vehicular live load. When vehicular live load is per- vehicular live load may be considered over the side-
mitted on the sidewalk, sidewalk live load shall not be walk área and sidewalk live load should not be consid-
considered concurrently. ered to occupy the sidewalk. The number of lañes of
The same load factors shall be used for sidewalk vehicular live load is usually determined from the
live load as for vehicular live load. roadway width excluding the sidewalk.
The load factor for the combined sidewalk live
load and vehicular live load remains unchanged in
these provisions because by considering the transverse
positioning of the loads, the proper reduction in live
load is obtained automatically.
3.5.6 Impact C3.5.6
Vehicular live loads shall be increased by the fac- Although AASHTO Article 3.14.1 is silent with
tors specified herein to account for dynamic amplifica- regard to impact on the sidewalk loading, these provi-
tionof live loads. sions do not apply impact factors to sidewalk live load.
An impact allowance need not be applied to side-
walk live load.
3.5.6.11-Girders C3.5.6.1
Vehicular live loads for strength and serviceability The valúes in Table 3.5.6.1 are based on the factors
limit states shall be increased by the factors specified in specified in the Guide Spec and have been simplified.
Table 3.5.6.1 to account for dynamic amplifícation.
Table 3.5.6.1 Impact for I-Girders
Impact Factor
Load Effect
Vehicle Lañe
Girder bending
moment, torsión
0.25 0.20
and deflections
Reactions, shear,
cross frame and 0.30 0.25
diaphragm actions
3.5.6.2 Closed Box and Tub Girders C3.5.6.2
Vehicular live loads for strength and serviceability Table 3.5.6.2 is based on Schelling, et al. (1992).
limit states shall be increased by the factors specified in Generally, impact factors for box girders are higher
Table 3.5.6.2. than for I-girders.
24 AASHTO GUIPE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GlRDER HlGHWAY BRIDGES
Table 3.5.6.2 Impact for Closed Box and

Tub Girders
Impact Factor
Load EfTect
Vehicle Lañe
Girder bending
moment, torsión
0.35 0.30
and deflections
Reactions, shear,
cross frame and
0.40 0.35
diaphragm actions
3.5.6.3 Fatigue C3.5.6.3
The vehicular fatigue load specified in Article The impact factor, 0.15, has been taken from
3.5.7 shall be increased 15 percent to account for dy- AASHTO LRFD Article 3.6.2.1.
namic amplificador!.
3.5.7 Fatigue C3.5.7
3.5.7.1 General C3.5.7.1
The fatigue live load shall be taken as defmed in Metal fatigue is a function of both the magnitude
AASHTO LRFD Article 3.6.1.4 with a load factor of of the range of strain and number of repetitions of that
0.75. The fatigue truck is shown in Figure 3.5.7.1. strain. Thus, fatigue design requires a specified limit on
the range of strain (stress) and a specified number of its
repetitions. The number of repetitions is a function of
the expected frequency of truck traffic and the design
life of the bridge. The permitted range of strain is also
dependent on the category specified for each detail.
Welding causes residual tensile stresses near the
yield stress in the weld material and in the heat-
affected zone of the base metal. Unless these stresses
are relieved, fatigue cracking can occur when the cyclic
stress and the number of cycles are large enough. Fa-
tigue cracking will be limited to the región of high re-
sidual tensile stresses when the applied cyclic principal
stress plus dead load stress is compressive. These pro-
visions and AASHTO LRFD explicitly require that
fatigue be considered only when the stress caused by
the largest expected live load plus unfactored dead load
stress is tensile.
The AASHTO LRFD fatigue truck is essentially
8 kip 32 kip 32 kip an HS20 truck with a constant rear axle spacing of 30
feet and with a load factor of 0.75 applied. The fatigue
I 3Q'-Q" \ truck is intended to produce an average stress cycle.
Heavier trucks will traverse the bridge producing
Axle Loads
tensile stresses that may initiate fatigue cracks that
grow under the smaller stress range caused by the fa-
tigue truck. Thus, any location that undergoes a net
tensile stress when subjected to the heaviest load ex-
pected is defmed as fatigue sensitive; and fatigue must
be considered. Thus, locations that are subjected to a
net tensile stress due to two times the factored fatigue
truck must be checked for fatigue using the fatigue
Figure 3.5.7.1 Fatigue Truck truck loading.
3.5.7.2 Application C3.5.7.2
One cycle of stress range in girders shall be com- The máximum bending stress in girders is usually
puted as the algébrale difference between the minimum produced with the vehicle placed near the point under
and máximum stress due to a single passage of the consideration; the minimum stress is usually produced
factored fatigue truck along any path vehicular trafile with the vehicle placed in an adjacent span. The fatigue
is permitted. truck is placed in the critical transverse position; but it
One cycle of stress for transverse members shall is not permitted to double back to a different transverse
be defined as seventy-five (75) percent of the stress position.
range determined by the passage of the factored fatigue The máximum shear range is usually produced
truck in two different transverse positions. However, in with the fatigue truck placed to the left and to the right
no case shall the range of stress in transverse members of the point under consideration. The vehicle is often
be less than the stress range due to a single passage of positioned in opposing directions to compute the shear
the factored fatigue truck. If the máximum stress in a range, although this convention implies two passages
transverse member is caused by a single axle, the num- of the vehicle.
ber of cycles of stress range shall be equal to two times Cross frames and diaphragms connecting adjacent
the number of truck passages. girders are stressed when one girder deflects with re-
spect to the adjacent girder connected by the cross
frame or diaphragm. The sense of stress is reversed
when the vehicle is placed over the adjacent girder.
These two transverse positions of the vehicle usually
créate the largest stress range in transverse members.
To cause such a stress cycle, two vehicles traverse the
bridge in sepárate lañes; one vehicle leading the other.
The provisions account for such a cycle by computing
the stress range assuming two transverse positions and
applying a factor of 0.75 to account for the probability
of two vehicles being located in the critical relative
position. In no case is the computed range of stress to
be less than the stress range due to a single passage of
the factored fatigue truck. There is no allowance for the
fact that two trucks are required. When the design fa-
tigue life is less than the fatigue limit, the Engineer
may wish to consider a reduction in the number of cy-
cles.
3.6 THERMAL LOAOS C3.6
Load effects in the superstructure shall be deter- Although temperature changes in a bridge do not
mined for uniform temperature changes as specified in occur uniformly, bridges generally are designed for an
AASHTO Article 3.16. assumed uniform temperature change. The orientation
A uniform temperature difference of 25 degrees of bearing guides and the freedom of bearing move-
Fahrenheit between the deck and the girders shall be ment is important to thermal forces. Sharp curvature
considered when the width of the deck is less than one- and sharply skewed supports can cause excessive lat-
fifth of the longest span. The load effects due to the eral thermal forces at supports if only tangential
temperature differential shall be added to the effects movement is permitted. Wide bridges are particularly
due to the temperature changes specified in AASHTO prone to large lateral thermal forces because the bridge
Article 3.16. expands radially as well as longitudinally.
Orienting bearing guides toward a "fixed point"
and allowing the bridge to move freely along rays
emanating from the fixed point causes thermal forces
to be zero if the structure changes temperature uni-
formly. However, there are other load conditions that
may affect decisions regarding bearing orientation.
The requirement to consider a 25 degree Fahren-
heit temperature difference between deck and steel
addresses the relative time lag that occurs with regard
to temperature changes. Since the steel is less massive
than the concrete, it changes temperature faster (Krauss
and Rogalla, 1996). This temperature differential is
particularly important in narrow bridges where a sig-

nifícant difference in vertical reactions may occur.
There is evidence that this temperature differential
may contribute to early deck transverse cracking
(Krauss and Rogalla, 1996). The engineer may wish to
include the deck stress from this loading when check-
ing the need for reinforcement according to Article
2.4.3.
SECTION 4
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
4.1 GENERAL C4.1
The moments, shears and other load effects re- Since equilibrium of curved I-girders is developed
quired to proportion the superstructure components by the transfer of load between girders, the analysis
shall be based on a rational analysis of the entire super- must recognize the integrated behavior of all structural
structure. components. Equilibrium of curved box girders may be
The entire superstructure, including bearings, shall less dependen! on the interaction between girders.
be considered as an integral structural unit. Analyses Bracing elements are considered primary members in
may be based on elastic small-deflection theory, unless curved bridges since they transmit forces necessary to
more rigorous approaches are deemed necessary by the provide equilibrium.
Engineer. The deck acts in bending, vertical shear and hori-
Analyses shall consider bearing orientation and re- zontal shear. Torsión increases the horizontal deck
straint of bearings afforded by the substructure. These shear, particularly in box girders. The lateral restraint
load effects shall be considered in designing bearings, of the bearings may also cause horizontal shear in the
cross frames, diaphragms, bracing and deck. deck.
Small-deflection theory is adequate for the analy-
sis of most curved girder bridges. However, curved I-
girders are prone to deflect laterally when the girders
are insufficiently braced during erection. This behavior
may not be well recognized by small-deflection theory.
4.2 NEGLECT OF CURVATURE EFFECTS C4.2
This arricie applies only to vertical bending mo-

ment. It does not apply to lateral flange bending, tor-
sión or shear that should always be examined with re-
spect to curvature.
4.2.11-Girders C4.2.1
The effects of curvature may be ignored in the de- If a line girder analysis is appropriate, the wheel
termination of vertical bending moment in I-girder load distribution factor of S/5.5 is to be used because
bridges when the following three conditions are met: the new methods in the 1994 AASHTO Guide Specifi-
cations for Distribution of Loads for Highwav Bridges
• Girders are concentric, and in AASHTO LRFD may underestimate live load
• Bearing Unes are not skewed more trian 10 de- moments in the girder on the outside of the curve (Hall
grees from radial, and and Yoo, 1996b). Non-composite dead load preferably
is to be distributed to the girders using a simple span
• The are span divided by the girder radius is assumption since the deck is not effective. Certain dead
less than 0.06 radians where the are span, loads applied to the composite bridge may be distrib-
L as , shall be taken as follows: uted uniíbrmly to the girders as provided in AASHTO
Article 3.23.2.3.1.1. However, heavier concentrated
For simple spans: line loads such as parapets, sidewalks, barriers or
sound walls should not be distributed equally to the
L^ = are length of the girder, girders. Engineering judgment must be used in deter-
mining the distribution of these loads. Often the largest
portion of the load on an overhang is assigned to the
For end spans of continuous members: exterior girder. The exterior girder on the outside of the
curve is often critical in curved girder bridges.
Lj,, = 0.9 times the are length of the girder, The effect of curvature on the torsional behavior of
a girder must be considered regardless of the amount of
For interior spans of continuous members: curvature since stability and strength of curved girders
is different from that of straight girders, (Hall and Yoo,
Lj,. = 0.8 times the are length of the girder. 1996b). If a line girder analysis is appropriate and the
27
An I-girder in a bridge satisfying these criteria may cross frame spacing is nearly uniform, Equation (4-1)
be analyzed as an individual straight girder with span may 6e appropriate for determining the lateral flange
length equal to the are length. Live load shall be ap- moment in I-girder flanges due to curvature. Although
plied to each I-girder assuming a wheel-load distribu- the depth to be used in computing the lateral flange
tion factor of S/5.5 for computing vertical bending moment from Equation (4-1) is theoretically equal to
moment, shear and vertical deflection. Non-composite the depth, h, between the mid-thickness of the top and
dead loads preferably shall be applied to each girder by bottom flanges, for simplicity, the web depth, D, is
assuming a simple-span distribution of load between conservatively used in Equation (4-1). The Engineer
girders. may substitute the depth, h, for D in Equation (4-1), if
The effect of curvature on strength and stability desired.
shall be considered for all curved I-girders. Other conditions that produce torsión, such as
Cross frame members shall be designed in accor- skew, should be dealt with by other analytical means
dance with Artícles 9.3 and 11.1 for forces computed which generally involve a refíned analysis.
by rational means. Bridges with even slight curvature may develop
Cross frame spacing shall be set to limit lateral large radial forces at the abutment bearings. Therefore,
flange bending in the girders. thermal analysis of all curved bridges is recommended.
If a line girder analysis is appropriate, Equation (4-
1) may be appropriate for determining the lateral
bending moment in I-girder flanges due to curvature.
6 Mr
Eq. (4-1)
5RD
where:
Mlat lateral flange bending moment (k-ft)

M vertical bending moment (k-ft)
t unbraced length (ft)
R girder radius (ft)
D web depth (in)
4.2.2 Closed Box and Tub Girders C4.2.2
The effect of curvature may be ignored in the de- Although box-shaped girders have not been ex-
termination of vertical bending moment in box-girder amined as carefully as I-girders with regard to ap-
bridges when the following three conditions are met: proximate methods, bending moments in closed girders
are less affected by curvature than are I-girders (Tung
• Girders are concentric, and Fountain, 1970). However, torsión is much greater
• Bearings are not skewed, and so web shears are affected by torsión due to curvature,
skew or loads applied away from the shear center of
• The are span divided by the girder radius is the box. Double bearings resist significant torque com-
less than 0.3 radians and the girder depth is pared to a box-centered single bearing.
less than the width of the box at mid-depth If the box is haunched or tapered, the shallowest
where the are span, L^ , shall be taken as de- girder depth should be used in conjunction with the
fined in Article 4.2.1 narrowest width of the box at mid-depth in determining
whether the effects of curvature may be ignored in cal-
The effect of curvature on strength and stability culating the vertical bending moment.
shall be considered for all curved box girders
4.3 METHODS C4.3
4.3.1 Approximate Methods C4.3.1
Approximate analysis methods may be used for The V-load method (U.S. Steel Corporation, 1984)
analysis of curved girder bridges. The Engineer shall has been a widely used approximate method for ana-
ascertain that the approximate analysis method used is lyzing horizontally curved I-girder bridges. The
appropriate by confirming that results from the analysis method assumes that the internal torsional load on the
are consistent with the principies defined in Article 1.2. bridge—resulting solely from the curvature—is re-
sisted by self-equilibrating sets of shears between adja-
cent girders. The V-load method does not directly ac-

counf for sources of torque other than curvature, and
the method does not account for the horizontal shear
stiffness of the concrete deck. The method is only valid
for loads such as normal highway loadings. For excep-
tional loadings, a more refined analysis is required. The
method assumes a linear distribution of girder shears
across the bridge section; thus, the girders at a given
cross section should have approximately the same ver-
tical stiffnesses. The V-load method is also not directly
applicable to structures with reverse curvature or to a
closed-framed system with horizontal lateral bracing
near or in the plañe of one or both flanges. The V-load
method does not directly account for girder twist; thus,
lateral deflections, which become importan! on bridges
with large spans and/or sharp skews, and vertical de-
flections, may be significantly underestimated. In cer-
tain situations, the V-load method may not detect uplift
at end bearings. The method is best suited for prelimi-
nary design, but may also be suitable for final design of
structures with radial supports or supports skewed less
than approximately 10 degrees.
The M/R method provides a means to account for
the effect of curvature in curved box-girder bridges.
The method and suggested limitations on its use are
discussed by Tung and Fountain (1970).
Vertical bearing reactions at interior supports on
the concave side of continuous-span bridges may be
significantly underestimated by both of the above
methods
Strict rules and limitations on the applicability of
both of these approximate methods do not exist. The
Engineer must determine when approximate methods
of analysis are appropriate.
C4.3.2
4.3.2 Refmed Methods
Refined analysis methods are generally computer
Refíned methods of analysis shall be used unless
based. The finite strip and finite element methods have
the Engineer determines that approximate methods re-
been the most common. The finite strip method is less
ferred to in Article 4.3.1 are acceptable.
rigorous than the finite element method and has fallen
If stresses, rather than girder actions such as mo-
into disuse with the advent of more powerful comput-
ments and shears are determined from an analysis, the
ers. Finite element programs may provide for grid
stresses may be compared directly to permitted service
analyses using a series of beam elements connected in
stresses or permitted fatigue stress ranges.
a plañe. Refmements of the grid model may include
offset elements. Frequently, the torsional warping de-
gree of freedom is not available in beam elements. The
finite element method may be applied to a three-
dimensional model of the superstructure. A variety of
elements may be used in this type of model. The three-
dimensional model may be made capable of recogniz-
ing warping torsión by modeling each girder cross sec-
tion with a series of elements.
The stiffness of supports, including any lateral re-
straint such as that offered by integral abutments or
integral piers, should be recognized in the analysis.
Since bearing restraint is offset from the neutral axis of
the girders, large lateral forces at the bearings often
occur and may créate significant bending in the girders.
The restraint of girders at supports may lead to
lower girder moments than would be computed if the

restraints were not present. The Engineer should as-
certain that any such benefít recognized in the design
will be present throughout the usefiíl life of the bridge.
Loads may be applied directly to the structural model,
or applied to influence lines, or influence surfaces.
Only when small-deflection elastic solutions are used
are influence surfaces or influence lines appropriate.
The Engineer should ascertain that dead loads are
applied as accurately as possible and consisten! with
the requirements of Article 3.2.
The resulting stresses from 3D finite element
methods may be compared directly to the critical
stresses determined according to the provisions.
4.4 UPLIFT C4.4
If lift-off is indicated, the analysis shall recognize When lift-off is indicated, the analysis must be
the vertical freedom of the girder at that bearing. modifíed to recognize the absence of vertical restraint
at the particular support. Otherwise, deflections, reac-
tions and other actions are incorrect. Lift-off is most
likely to occur during sequential placement of the deck.
Unless lift-off occurs for all loads, lift-off is considered
a non-linearity and superposition does not apply.
4.5 CONCRETE C4.5
Concrete shall be assumed effective in compres- Field measurements confirm that deck concrete on
sion, tensión, flexural shear and in-plane shear for de- girder bridges is effective in tensión for typical mag-
termining the global stiffness used to genérate mo- nitudes of live load (Yen, et al., 1995). This behavior is
ments, shears, reactions and torsión. consisten! with analysis of reinforced concrete struc-
The entire cross sectional área of concrete associ- tures where stiffness is often computed with the as-
ated with a girder preferably shall be considered effec- sumption that concrete is effective in tensión. The ef-
tive in the analysis. Shear lag shall be considered. fect of this assumption is to cause an increase in nega-
tive moments and a slight reduction in the positive
moments in continuous girders compared to the mo-
ments from analyses that ignore concrete in tensión.
Shear lag should be considered when the girder
spacing is extremely large, such as is generally the case
with girder/floor beam bridges. In these cases, the 1999
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design and Con-
struction of Segmental Concrete Bridges can be used to
determine the effective width of concrete.
4.5.2 Stresses in Composite Sections C4.5.2
The uncracked section shall be assumed for posi- Both positive and negative live load moments are
tive live load moment and positive superimposed dead applied to nearly all points in a continuous girder
load moment applied in combination to a composite bridge. Thus, points of contraflexure have little mean-
section when checking the strength limit state. The ing. At the strength limit state, the provisions cali for
cracked section shall be assumed for negative live load positive live load moments and positive superimposed
moment and negative superimposed dead load moment dead load moments applied in combination to be ap-
applied in combination to a composite section when plied to the uncracked composite section. Negative live
checking the strength limit state. When these moments load moments and negative superimposed dead load
are of opposite sign, the uncracked section may be used moments applied in combination are to be applied to
for both moments only if the net deck stress due to the the cracked composite section at the strength limit
sum of the factored live load and superimposed dead state. However, if these moments are of opposite sign
load moments at the strength limit state is compressive. and the net deck stress due to the sum of these factored
The uncracked section shall be assumed for all moméhts at the strength limit state is compressive, both
positive and negative moments applied to a composite moments may be applied to the uncracked composite
section when checking the fatigue, serviceability, and section.
constructibility limit states. The uncracked section is used for all limit states
When computing deck stresses at the constructibil- other than the strength limit state because field data sub-
ity limit state or live load deck stresses at the service- stantiates that the stresses in the steel are best predicted
ability and strength limit states, the modular ratio, n, with an uncracked section assumption (Yen, et al., 1995).
ignoring creep shall be used. When computing super- The deck may be assumed to be placed at once
imposed dead load deck stresses at the serviceability when checking the strength limit state because that has
and strength limit states, the modular ratio, 3n or n, been the traditional practice. Creep of concrete leads to
shall be used, whichever gives the largest tensile stress this condition over time.
or the smallest compressive stress, as applicable. Dead-load stresses developed in both the non-
The deck may be assumed to be placed at one time composite and composite girder are assumed to remain.
on the non-composite structure when computing Total stresses may not be determined by applying the
stresses at the strength limit state. sum of the non-composite and composite moments to
Girder stresses due to vertical bending and lateral the composite section.
flange bending acting on the non-composite and com- The entire deck width may be used to compute
posite sections shall be accumulated for checking all section properties based on analytical fíndings and field
limit states. measurements such as those by Yen, et al. (1995) who
When computing section properties of composite report that the entire 9.5-inch thick deck was effective
sections, the effective width of concrete deck may be in positive and negative moment regions on a bridge
taken as the girder spacing for interior I-girders and with 15-foot girder spacing.
one-half of the girder spacing plus the overhang width Top flanges are usually continuously restrained by
for exterior I-girders. For box girders, the entire deck the hardened concrete. The locked-in lateral flange
width between webs of the box shall also be included. stresses due to the non-composite loads are ignored
Lateral bending stresses need not be considered in after the concrete has hardened. When full-depth pre-
the concrete deck. When a cast-in-place deck is used, cast deck panels are used, the Engineer may choose not
lateral bending stresses in the top flange of the girders to ignore the non-composite lateral flange stresses in
need not be considered after the deck has hardened. the top flange, particularly if the flange is not continu-
When torsión is applied to a composite box girder, ously supported by the deck.
the concrete shall be assumed effective with the top Shear connectors are required along the entire
flange bracing in resisting torsional shear for all limit girder length, according to Article 7.1, because the
states, whether the girder is in positive or negative composite section can be assumed capable of resisting
bending. torsión at any point.
C4.5.3
4.5.3 Prestressed Concrete
The most common applications of prestressed con-
Friction forces caused by transverse prestressing of crete in curved steel girder bridges are transverse post-
the deck in girders, cross frames, diaphragms and tensioning of the deck and integral pier caps having
bearings shall be considered. tendons that penétrate the girder webs. When a com-
Longitudinal prestressing of the deck preferably posite deck is prestressed longitudinally, the shear con-
shall be in conjunction with a precast deck and per- nectors transfer forcé to the steel. The long-term effect
formed prior to making the deck sections composite of creep around the shear connectors should be evalu-
with the girders. The friction between the precast deck ated to ensure that the composite girder is able to rec-
sections and the steel girders shall be considered. ognize the prestressing over the life of the bridge.
When longitudinal post-tensioning is performed The Poisson effect recognizes the bulging of con-
after the deck becomes composite with the girders, ad- crete when subjected to prestressing. When used in pier
ditional forces induced in the steel girders and shear caps, post-tensioning causes a transverse Poisson ten-
connectors shall be considered. sile stress resulting in a longitudinal stress in the steel
The effect of differential creep and shrinkage of girder(s).
the concrete shall be considered. The Poisson effect
shall be considered.
C4.6
4.6 CONSTRUCTION STAGES
Analyses of the stages of erection can be used to
The structure shall be analyzed for each critical ascertain that the field sections can be properly ñt up
stage of construction to ensure that it is stable and that without introducing significant stresses that were not
it has adequate strength. considered in the design. Since curved girder behavior
causas load to be transferred between adjacent girders,

the amount of load transferred during erection varíes
with different stages of completion. If the final position
of the steel is not as predicted by analysis, the com-
puted self-weight stresses are incorrect.
For very large structures, it may be desirable to
consider the state of the structure when subsequent
girder sections are erected. In such cases, the stiffness
of the structure changes, as does the magnitude of load
transferred between girders, for each stage of the erec-
tion. For example, an interior girder may act temporar-
ily as an exterior girder, resulting in a greater load on
that girder than will exist after the actual exterior girder
is properly erected.
The concrete deck is usually placed on continuous-
span bridges in múltiple casts. The first deck cast is
often cured before subsequent casts are made, causing
the structure stiffness to change. The first cast often
causes significantly higher positive moments and de-
fiections under the cast than if the entire deck were
placed at one time. Non-composite stresses due to the
first cast are locked into the girder. Weight placed in
adjacent spans causes negativo moment in the first
span, resulting in tensión in the deck. Construction
stresses and deflections in the steel and deck can be
computed for each subsequent cast.
If different amounts of concrete are placed on each
side of a girder due to different girder spacing or deck
overhang, the net load will not pass through the shear
center of the girder. As a result, this eccentric loading
creates additional torque.
SECTION 5
FLANGES WITH ONE WEB
5.1 GENERAL C5.1
The provisions of this article apply to a single The research from which Equations (5-4) and (5-8)
horizontally curved rectangular flange having a single were derived was based on doubly-symmetric pris-
vertical or inclined web attached at mid-width of the matic compact and non-compact, partially braced
flange. The flange may be either compact or non- curved I sections with uniform bracing spacings sub-
compact and either continuously or partially braced. jected to nearly uniform moment (McManus, 1971).
Flanges shall be proportioned at the strength limit Second-order effects including amplification of lateral
state to satisfy the critical average stress, Fcr,specified flange bending, cross section deformation and arching
in Articles 5.2, 5.3 or 5.4, as applicable. were considered in the development of the p factors.
The flange size within a panel preferably shall be The work has been extended successfully to singly
constant with changes in flange size preferably made symmetric I sections and to top flanges of tub girders
near panel brace points. The dominant section within a in the Guide Spec.
panel shall be used to compute Fcr for partially braced Flanges with webs located at other than mid-
width of the flange should not be used on I-girders
flanges. without special investigation of lateral flange bending
f b shall be defmed as the largest computed fac- effects.
tored average flange stress in kips per square inch at the The strength equations were not developed for the
section under consideration. f¿ shall be defmed as the case of a change of flange size within a panel. There-
total factored lateral flange bending stress due to cur- fore, changes in flange size preferably should be made
vature and due to effects other than curvature at the near panel brace points. As a practical matter, however,
section under consideration. The sign of f b is positive there are a number of parameters—e.g., flange width,
flange thickness, yield stress and girder radius—which
when the stress is tensile. The sign of f. is positive may be forced to vary within a panel. In addition, the
when f¿ at the flange tip away from the center of cur- vertical bending moment generally varies along the
panel length. Such variations result in deviations from
vature is tensile and negative when f¿ at the flange tip the original conditions assumed in the development of
away from the center of curvature is compressive. In Equations (5-4) and (5-8). As a result, the Engineer
addition: must make an assumption or set of assumptions to de-
termine the dominant section within the panel that
f,<0.5F y Eq.(S-l) yields a reasonable valué of the critical average flange
stress from one of these equations that is also reasona-
bly consistent with the original assumptions used in its
where:
development. All stress checks are assumed made at a
brace point, even if a brace is not actually present.
Fv = specified minimum yield stress (ksi) Therefore, in many cases, the dominant section within
a panel can be assumed prismatic, with a check made at
When f b is greater than or equal to the smaller of the brace point at each end of the panel using the com-
0.33 Fv or 17 ksi, then: puted stresses acting on that section at each end. For
panels located in positive-moment regions, the largest
valué of the vertical bending stress may not necessarily
Eq. (5-2) be at either brace point. Although the check is not theo-
retically puré at locations in-between brace points, the
The unbraced are length, (., in feet between brace check can still be conservatively made at the point of
largest vertical bending stress for this case. Regardless,
points at cross frames or diaphragms shall satisfy the
in all cases, the applicable Equation (5-6) or (5-9) must
following:
also be satisfied at all panel brace points using the
properties of the actual section at trióse points.
(¿25b and ¿R/10 Eq. (5-3) The sign convention used for the lateral bending
where: stress and vertical bending stress is that of Dabrowski
(1968); if torsión is due to only curvature, the ratio of
lateral flange bending stress to average flange stress is
b = minimum flange width in the panel (in) positive at brace points. McManus (1971) used the
R = minimum girder radius within the panel (ft) opposite sign convention.
33
The limits imposed on the non-dimensional pa-

rameters are those used in the development of the
equations (McManus, 1971). Other parameters limited
in the research, but not specified, include web-to-flange
áreas between 1.0 and 1.3, web-to-flange thickness
between 1.0 and 3.0, and yield stress between 36 and
50 ksi. Compact sections with web slenderness up to
150 and non-compact sections with web slenderness up
to 165 were srudied (Erogan, 1972 and Culver, et al.,
1972). Extreme deviation from any of these parameters
is not advisable.
The limit on | f¿/f b is imposed to ensure that the
strength equations are used appropriately. In cases when
the strength is not critical, the limit on j f( /f b need not
be met. This limit is applicable whenever f b is greater
than or equal to the smaller of 0.33Fy or 17 ksi, which
is approximately equal to Fy/3 when F y = 50 ksi. Other
limits on f^ and on the flange tip stress are applicable
regardless of the magnitude of f b .
5.2 PARTIALLY BRACEO COMPRESSION C5.2

FLANGES
Flanges not braced continuously by hardened con- Rotational restraint of the flange at the brace points
crete shall be considered partially braced. A brace point is implicit in the McManus (1971) study because equal
shall be defmed as any point when adequate resistance panel lengths were assumed. Typical flange bracing
against lateral deflection and rotation of the flange is provided by cross frames or diaphragms designed and
provided. detailed according to Arricie 9.3 should be adequate to
restrain the flange.
5.2.1 Compact Flanges C5.2.1
The flange is compact when the specified míni- The original research acknowledged that plastifi-
mum yield stress does not exceed 50 ksi, and the width- cation of compact flanges can occur and that the ca-
to-thickness ratio b f / t f of the flange does not exceed pacity of certain curved doubly symmetric I sections
18, where bf is the flange width and tf is the flange with relatively stocky webs can exceed the yield mo-
thickness. ment, M y . In fact, as the radius ulereases, the capacity
The critical average flange stress, Fcr, shall be taken of these sections can approach the full plástic moment,
as the smaller of Fcrl or Fcr2. M p . The shape factor of approximately 1.13 for a non-
composite doubly symmetric I-girder is the primary
Eq. (5-4) reason that the capacity of these sections can exceed
Fcrl^bsPbPv
M y . However, the product, pb p w , was conservatively
where:
limited to a máximum valué of 1.0 for all sections with
1
compact flanges. This limits Fcr to Fbs, which in tum
Pb= may not exceed Fy.
1+- i + 2í]fA-o.oi The web and tensión flanges are not considered
bf ^ bf
when determining the compactness of a compression
flange in this arricie.
Compact flanges are limited to steels having a
Pw = 0.95 + 18 0.1--
°'3-1-2 specified mínimum yield stress not greater than 50 ksi
because there has been no research on curved compact
- Rbs
P» flanges having a yield stress greater than 50 ksi.
The flange width-to-thickness limit has been liber-
alized to 18 for compact flanges, which is approxi-
Pb P
mately equal to the valué specified in AASHTO
\vhere: LRFDv> Article 6.10.4.1.3 for Fvy = 50 ksi. The curved

girder research indicates that a máximum valué of 18 is
f = distance between brace points along girder are (ñ) prudent for compact flanges.
R = mínimum girder radius in the panel (ft) The McManus (1971) work considered lateral
total factored lateral flange bending stress at flange bending stress as an integral part of the p fac-
the section under consideration (ksi) tors. McManus studied curved I-girder framing that
factored average flange stress at the section had concentric girders with radial supports and bracing
at equal increments. Uniform moment was also as-
under consideration (ksi)
sumed. These are the conditions that are assumed in the
V-load methodology. Lateral flange bending due to all
The critical average flange stress of an equivalen!
sources, including curvature, must be considered when
straight girder flange, Fbs (ksi), shall be taken as:
computing f,. Possible sources of lateral flange bend-
ing due to effects other than curvature include any tor-
F b s =F y (l-3xl 2 ) Eq. (5-5)
sión resulting from skewed supports and the eccentric-
ity of deck weight, deck forms, screed rail, and any
where: other loads acting on overhang brackets prior to hard-
ening of the deck.
speciñed minimum yield stress (ksi) The Culver and McManus (1971) work applies
empirical p factors to the lateral torsional buckling
1 12Í
equation, Equation (5-5), for straight girder flanges that
was specified by AASHO at that time. Thus, the same
E = modulus of elasticity (ksi) lateral torsional buckling equation must be retained.
The flange width is multiplied by 0.9 when the
Flange width, b f , shall be taken as 0.9b f when section is singly symmetric, as prescribed in those
determining A if the cross section is not doubly sym- AASHO provisions. Equation (5-5) is applicable only
metric. when Fbs is greater than 0.5 Fy, which is the typical
case. The Euler hyperbola might be used to obtain
critical stresses less than 0.5 Fy.
Eq. (5-6)
Compact flanges are assumed to yield due to a
combination of vertical bending stress and lateral
bending stress. The limit on the combined stress given
by Equation (5-6) is derived from the plástic capacity
of the flange under combined lateral and vertical
bending (Hall and Yoo, 1996b and Schilling, 1996). A
small portion of the web is permitted to yield. Yielding
of the web can be prevented if one-half of the lateral
flange bending stress is used instead of one-third in
Equation (5-6) (Schilling, 1996).
C5.2.2
5.2.2 Non-Compact Flanges
Non-compact flanges are defmed as flanges that
The width-to-thickness ratio of the flange shall are permitted to reach the peak yield stress in the
satisfy Equation (5-7). flange tip without local buckling. Equation (5-7) yields
a permissible compression flange width-to-thickness
ratio approximately 10 percent less than the máximum
-T * 1-02. L . J N S 23 Eq.(5-7)
r
f permissible valué for prevention of elastic local flange
buckling at the yield stress under uniform compression
given in the AISC Specifícation (1978). Since the fac-
where:
tored flange tip stress is used in checking the require-
tf = flange thickness (in) ment rather than the yield stress, a larger width-to-
thickness ratio is permitted than in the AASHTO LFD
provisions. Research by Davidson, et al, (1996) indi-
The critical average flange stress, Fcr, shall be
cates that local buckling of curved girder flanges may
taken as the smaller of Fcri or Fcr2.
be more critical than for straight flanges. An upper
limit of 23 is specified to ensure that potential local
F
crl=FbsPbPw Eq. (5-8)
buckling failures will be in the inelastic range, and
where: therefore, more gradual. Tests of slender curved girders
also indicate that local buckling may be critical above a
slenderness ratio of 23 (Culver and Nasir, 1969 and

Pb Ui Mozer and Culver, 1975).
1+—
R b.
=
Pwl
75bf
b,
0.95+ -
30 + 8,000 | 0.1 - —
R
Pw2
1 + 0.6
When fe/fb >0, p w = p w l orp w 2 , whichever is smaller.
When f , / f b < 0 , pw =p w l .
E
Fcr2=Fy-M 1-(5-9)
5.3 PARTIALLY BRACED TENSIÓN FLANGES C5.3
The width-to-thickness ratio of the flange shall Compactness has no meaning for a tensión flange.
satisfy Equation (5-7). An arbitrary flange slenderness has been set equal to
The critical average flange stress shall be taken as the non-compact flange críterion to ensure that the
the smaller of Fcr] or Fcr2. flange will not distort excessively when welded to the
web.
Since the research was performed on doubly-
F
c r l = F y P b Pv Eq. (5-10)
symmetric sections, tensión flanges were not specifi-
cally considered. These provisions rather arbitrarily
where: determine the critical tensile stress by applying the
compact flange p factors to Fy, which is conservative
are
P b > Pw defined in Arricie 5.2.1 since the tensión flange tends to straighten rather than
increase its curvature. Like the compact compression
flange, the sum of the normal stress plus one-third of
the lateral flange stress may not exceed Fy.
5.4 CONTINUOUSLY BRACEO FLANGES C5.4
The \Vidth-to-thickness ratio of the flange shall Continuously braced flanges usually occur when a
satisfy Equation (5-7) for conditions that exist when the flange is encased in concrete or anchored by shear con-
flange is partially braced. The critical average flange nectors. The average longitudinal flange stress is lim-
stress in tensión or compression, Fcr, for the continu- ited to Fy without consideration of lateral bending.
ously braced flange equals the specified minimum yield Additional lateral bending stresses do not develop
stress, Fy. Lateral flange bending stresses need not be once the concrete has hardened. Lateral bending stresses
in the flange prior to the deck hardening may remain, but
considered after the flange is continuously braced.
need not be considered if the flange is continuously sup-
ported by the deck. The deck capacity is more than ade-
quate to compénsate for any lateral forcé that may be
shed from a flange tip that yields prematurely.
Flanges need to be checked for the construction
conditions defined in Arricies 13.2 and 13.7 prior to the
deck hardening.
Flange slenderness is limited to meet non-compact

slendeíhess provisions prior to the deck hardening. The
flange is designed as a non-compact flange to ensure it
does not undergo nominal yielding during construction.
SECTION 6
WEBS
6.1 GENERAL C6.1
Webs shall be designed for longitudinal stress and Tests of curved girders indícate that analytical
the total shear in the girder. Longitudinal stress in the models for the elastic buckling of fíat webs can be used
web shall equal the sum of stresses due to the appropri- safely for the design of curved webs within the limita-
ate factored loads acting on the respective cross sections. tions of this specification. Web strengths based on
The máximum tensile longitudinal stress in the web due elastic shear and bend-buckling used in the Guide
to the factored load groups shall not exceed Fy. Spec have been retained in these provisions.
Webs may be curved about a vertical axis. Webs A web píate should be developable, which means it
may be inclined or vertical. The shear in an inclined can be formed as part of either a cylinder or a cone. The
web shall be determined by adjusting for the inclina- web should not be curved about a longitudinal axis.
tion. When the web is inclined, the web shear is deter-
mined from the vertical shear by dividing by the cosine
of the angle the web makes with the vertical plañe. The
distance along the web is used for inclined webs rather
than the vertical distance.
6.2 UNSTIFFENED WEBS C6.2
Web slenderness, D/t w , shall satisfy the following The máximum web slenderness is limited only by
requirements: D/tw and the radius of the web panel.
There are no tests of unstiffened curved girders
for R S 700 feet with web slenderness greater than about 70. Therefore,
web slenderness of this type of girder web has been
reduced from that permitted for straight girders. Web
Eq. (6-1) slenderness of girders with radius less than 700 feet is
limited to 100, which is approximately equal to the
slenderness limit for compact webs having a yield
for R > 700 feet
stress of up to 50 ksi according to AASHTO LRFD.
Permitted web slenderness increases linearly with re-
— < 100 + 0.038(R-700) < 150 Eq. (6-2) spect to reduced curvature up to a máximum of 150 at a
radius of 2,000 feet.
where:
D = distance along the web between flanges (in)

tw = web thickness (in)
R = minimum girder radius in the panel (ft)
6.2.1 Bending Stresses C6.2.1
The critical compressive longitudinal stress in the Elastic bend-buckling is investigated for each limit
web, Fcr, shall be taken as: state including constructibility. Flexural and axial
stresses in the top and bottom of the web for the non-
composite and composite conditions are accumulated,
Fcr = Eq. (6-3) which allows the effective neutral axis to be located for
each limit state based on the accumulated stresses.
Thus, the distance on the web between the compression
flange and the effective neutral axis, Dc, is determined
where: from the sum of the stresses due to the factored loads.
In regions of negative bending, the steel section alone
k = bend-buckling coefficient may be conservatively used to determine Dc for the
= 7.2(D/DC)2 section consisting of the steel girder plus the longitudi-
Dc = depthof web in compression (in) nal reinforcement.
39
When both edges of the web are in compression, k The bend-buckling coefficient, k, for a flat píate
shall be taken equal to 7.2. with top"and bottom clamped edges subjected to a
symmetrical bending stress pattern is approximately 40
(Timoshenko and Gere, 1961). The hardened deck ap-
proximates a clamped condition. Otherwise, the degree
of web clamping is a function of the compression
flange rigidity. These provisions set k equal to 28.8 for
the symmetrical condition.
Coincident shear and bending is not considered in
mese provisions. Shear and bending are large simulta-
neously near interior supports. To provide some con-
servatism in regions of high shear and bending, the
constant has been reduced from 9.0, which is used in
AASHTO Article 10.61.1, Equation (10-173) for
straight girders, to 7.2 in Equation (6-3).
The specified bend-buckling coefficient is inap-
propriately conservative when both edges of the web
are in compression such that the neutral axis lies out-
side the web, which can occur near points of dead load
contraflexure when stresses due to moments of oppo-
site sign in non-composite and composite sections are
accumulated. Therefore, the provisions limit the mini-
mum bend-buckling coefficient to 7.2 (Timoshenko and
Gere, 1961) when both edges of the web are in com-
pression. This valué is approximately the elastic buck-
ling coefficient for a flat web with clamped flanges and
loaded entirely under uniform compression with no
shear.
The critical compressive stress for the web should
not exceed the critical compressive stress for the adja-
cent flange adjusted for the thickness of the flange.
6.2.2 Shear Strength C6.2.2
The critical shear strength of the web, Vcr, shall be Shear strength is divided into three regimes of web
taken as: slenderness. The most stocky webs are assumed to
reach the plástic capacity of the web, V p . C equals 1.0
V
v TV
cr = *" v
p Eq. (6-4) in this slenderness range. Shear strength of webs of
intermediate slenderness is defined using Equation (6-
where: 6), where C is inversely proportional to slenderness and
the square root of the yield stress.
Vp = 0.58FyDtw Shear strength of webs within the elastic range in
C = ratio of the elastic-shear-buckling the most slender web regime is a hyperbolic function of
strength to the shear-yield strength slenderness.
The shear-buckling coefficient, k w , is set equal to
The ratio,.C, shall be taken as follows: 5 for an unstiffened panel, which has an assumed infi-
nite length.
Since the bend-buckling strength has been adjusted
C=1.0 for — < 1.10 Eq. (6-5) for coincident shear, there is no need to adjust the shear
strength for coincident bending.
C= Eq. (6-6)
Fk n Fk
for 1.10 & < — < 1.38
When both edges of the web are in compression, k The bend-buckling coefficient, k, for a fíat píate
shall be taken equal to 7.2. with top*°and bottom clamped edges subjected to a
symmetrical bending stress pattera is approximately 40
(Timoshenko and Gere, 1961). The hardened deck ap-
proximates a clamped condition. Otherwise, the degree
of web clamping is a function of the compression
flange rigidity. These provisions set k equal to 28.8 for
the symmetrical condition.
Coincident shear and bending is not considered in
mese provisions. Shear and bending are large simulta-
neously near interior supports. To provide some con-
servatism in regions of high shear and bending, the
constant has been reduced from 9.0, which is used in
AASHTO Article 10.61.1, Equation (10-173) for
straight girders, to 7.2 in Equation (6-3).
The specified bend-buckling coefficient is inap-
propriately conservative when both edges of the web
are in compression such that the neutral axis lies out-
side the web, which can occur near points of dead load
contraflexure when stresses due to moments of oppo-
site sign in non-composite and composite sections are
accumulated. Therefore, the provisions limit the míni-
mum bend-buckling coefficient to 7.2 (Timoshenko and
Gere, 1961) when both edges of the web are in com-
pression. This valué is approximately the elastic buck-
ling coefficient for a fíat web with clamped flanges and
loaded entirely under uniform compression with no
shear.
The critical shear strength of the web, Vcr, shall be Shear strength is divided into three regimes of web
taken as: slenderness. The most stocky webs are assumed to
reach the plástic capacity of the web, V p . C equals 1.0
vcr = *
v Eq. (6-4) in this slenderness range. Shear strength of webs of
intermediate slenderness is defined using Equation (6-
where: 6), where C is inversely proporcional to slenderness and
the square root of the yield stress.
Vp = 0.58FyDtw Shear strengüí of webs within the elastic range in
C = ratio of the elastic-shear-buckling the most slender web regime is a hyperbolic function of
strength to the shear-yield strength slenderness.
The shear-buckling coefficient, k w , is set equal to
The ratio,.C, shall be taken as follows: 5 for an unstiffened panel, which has an assumed infi-
nite length.
Since the bend-buckling strength has been adjusted
C =1.0 for — < 1.10 Eq. (6-5) for coincident shear, there is no need to adjust the shear
Eq. (6-6)
for 1.10 E. * * 1.38

1.52Ek,,
C= for — > 1.38 Eq. (6-7)
t,,,
where:
kw = shear-buckling coeffícient
_ £
6.3 TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED WEBS C6.3
Web slenderness, D/tw, shall not exceed 150. The The máximum transverse stiffener spacing, d0, is
actual transverse stiffener spacing, d0, shall not exceed limited to D, which is consisten! with the limit in the
D, except at sections along the girder where transverse Guide Spec and in Hanshin (1988). There has been no
stiffeners are no longer required for shear, but the web research that indicates a greater spacing of transverse
slenderness exceeds the máximum slenderness permit- stiffeners is appropriate on curved girder webs.
ted for an unstiffened web according to Article 6.2, d0 The máximum spacing of transverse stiffeners at
shall not exceed the folio wing: simple supports is conservatively limited to one-half the
web depth to provide an anchor panel against buckling.
For R < 700 feet There is evidence suggesting that transverse stiff-
eners help retain the cross section shape of curved
d = D Eq. (6-7 a) girders (Yoo, 1996). Therefore, at sections along the
girder where transverse stiffeners are no longer re-
For R > 700 feet quired for shear, but the web slenderness exceeds the
máximum slenderness permitted for an unstiffened web
d0 = [1 .0 + 0.00 1 54(R - 700)] D < 3D Eq. (6-7b) according to Article 6.2, transverse stiffeners should
still be provided to help retain the cross section shape
of the girder. The actual spacing of these transverse
where:
stiffeners should not exceed the spacing given by
R = minimum girder radius in the panel (ft) Equation (6-7a) or (6-7b), as applicable. The máximum
permitted slenderness for an unstiffened web ulereases
At simple supports, the actual transverse stiffener linearly from 100 at a radius of 700 feet up to 150 at a
spacing, d0, shall not exceed 0.5D. radius of 2,000 feet according to Equation (6-2). Ac-
cording to the handling requirement given in
AASHTO Article 10.48.8.3, the máximum permitted
transverse stiffener spacing for a straight-girder web at
a slenderness of 150 is 3D. Therefore, according to
Equation (6-7b), the máximum permitted spacing of
these additional required stiffeners is also increased
linearly from D at a radius of 700 feet up to 3D at a
radius of 2,000 feet and beyond.
The critical compressive longitudinal stress in the The bend-buckling constant has been increased to 9.0
web, Fcr, shall be taken as: from 7.2 for the unstiffened case because transverse stiff-
eners tend to strengthen curved girder webs (Yoo, 1996),
09Ek and because of the unrecognized post-buckling bending
Eq. (6-8)
and shear strength of transversely stiffened webs.
A minimum limit of the bend-buckling coeffícient
equal to 7.2 is provided for Equation (6-8) when both
edges of the web are in compression. This valué is
where: based on the elastic buckling strength of a píate sub-
jected to uniform compression.
k = bend-buckling coeffícient Although elastic bend-buckling of fíat plates is not
= 9(D/DJ 2 related to transverse stiffener spacing on fíat plates,
there is some evidence that transverse stiffeners im-
When both edges of the web are in compression, k prove the bending capacity of curved webs (Nakai, et
shall be taken equal to 7.2. al, 1984 and Yoo, 1996).

The critical shear strength, Vcr, shall be taken as The required stiffener spacing, d, is used in Equa-
defined in Article 6.2.2, except that the shear-buckling tion (6-9) since it is the valué to be determined from
constant, kw, shall be taken as: Article 6.2.2. The actual stiffener spacing, d0, may be
less than d because transverse stiffeners are normally
uniformly spaced between cross frame connection
Eq. (6-9)
piales, which act as transverse stiffeners.
where:
d = required spacing of transverse stiffener (in)
The actual transverse stiffener spacing, do, shall

not exceed d, the required spacing.
6.4 LONGITUDINALLY AND TRANSVERSELY C6.4

STIFFENED WEBS
One or two longitudinal web stiffeners may be There has been no research performed on curved
used in conjunction with transverse stiffeners when the girders with longitudinal web stiffeners in the U.S. For
web slenderness, D/t,,, exceeds 150. The web slender- mis reason, web slendemess is limited to 300 (less than
ness shall not exceed 300 for a longitudinally stiffened the slenderness permitted for straight girders in
web. Transverse stiffeners shall be spaced according to AASHTO). There have been several longitudinally
the provisions of Article 6.3. The panel depth, D, shall stiffened curved girder specimens tested in Japan; and
be taken as the distance along the web between flanges. longitudinally stiffened webs are permitted in Hanshin
(1988). The máximum web slenderness permitted in
Hanshin is approximately 250 for webs with a single
longitudinal stiffener; a slendemess ratio of approxi-
mately 300 is permitted with two longitudinal web
stiffeners (Hanshin, 1988).
The critical compressive longitudinal stress in the The purpose of the longitudinal web stiffener is to
web, Fcr, shall be taken as: restrain the web from elastic bend-buckling in the
first mode. By forcing the second mode, the buckling
stress is increased. These provisions permit the buck-
Eq. (6-10) ling stress to be computed for a web with a longitudi-
nal stiffener in any vertical location. Thus, non-
composite and composite load conditions can be in-
vestigated.
where: Alternately, it is possible to place the stiffener on
the web so that the bend-buckling stress is satisfac-
tory with either edge of the web in compression.
k = 5. 171— for - - > 0.4 Eq. (6-11) Since the web must be adequate for several different
d.
stress states, and the longitudinal stiffener may be
placed at an inefficient location that results in a very
low bend-buckling coefficient from either Equation
k = 11.641 Eq. (6-12)
ID C -<LJ DC (6-11) or (6-12), the web bend-buckling capacity is
not permitted to be less than that of a web with only
where: transverse stiffeners. Note that this limitation need
only be checked when Equation (6-11) controls.
ds = distance along web between longitudinal stiff- When both edges of the web are in compression,
ener and compression flange (in) the bend-buckling coefficient is taken equal to 7.2,
The bend-buckling coefficient, k, shall not be less which is based on the elastic buckling strength of a
than that computed according to the provisions of Article píate sufrjected to uniform compression.
6.3.1. The critical compressive stress for the web should
When both edges of the web are in compression, k not exceed the critical compressive stress for the adja-
shall be taken equal to 7.2. cent flange adjusted for the thickness of the flange.
The critical shear strength, Vcr, shall be taken as

defíned in Article 6.3.2.
6.5 TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS C6.5
Transverso web stiffeners preferably shall be made According to these provisions, transverse stiffeners
of the same material grade as the web to which they are are designed to forcé a nodal point to form at each
attached. Transverse web stiffeners may be designed stiffener when the web buckles due to shear loading.
singly or in pairs on opposite sides of the web. When When single transverse stiffeners are used, they
single transverso stiffeners are used, they preferably shall are preferably attached to both flanges to prevent tor-
be attached to both flanges. When pairs of transverso sional buckling of the flanges and to help retain the
stiffeners are used, they shall be fitted tightly to both cross sectional configuration of the girder when sub-
flanges. Stiffeners used as connection plates shall be jected to non-uniform torsión. The fitting of pairs of
attached to the flanges by welding or bolting with ade- transverse stiffeners firmly against the flanges is re-
quate strength to transfer horizontal forcé in the cross quired for the same reason.
members to the flanges. The distance between the termi- The minimum width-to-thickness ratio of trans-
nus of the web-to-transverse stiffener weld and the near verse stiffeners is taken from AASHTO LRFD Article
edge of the adjacent flange or longitudinal web stiffener 6.10.8.1.2. The minimum width finds its origin in
weld shall not be less than 4tw ñor more than 6tw. Ketchum (1920).
The width-to-thickness ratio of the outstanding The rigidity required by Equation (6-14) against
element of transverso web stiffeners shall satisfy: in-plane buckling has an added requirement to account
for the radial forcé that occurs in curved girder webs.
This radial forcé is manifest by the tendency of a
-5-< 0.48 Eq. (6-13) curved web to bow away from its center of curvature
t.
and is accounted for by the curvature parameter, Z
(Hanshin, 1988). The yield stress of the stiffener is
where: preferred to be equal to that of the web to ensure the
t, = stiffener thickness (in) required stiffness is provided without yielding of the
bs =f stiffener width (in) stiffener. However, there is no evidence that a lower
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of stiffener (ksi) yield strength stiffener would yield prematurely.
The actual stiffener spacing, d0, is used to compute
X and Z in Equations (6-16) through (6-18) since these
The width of a transverse web stiffener shall be not curvature parameters are dependent on the restraint
less than 2 inches plus D/30, ñor one-fourth the width actually provided by the transverse stiffeners. The ac-
of the widest compression flange within the field sec- tual stiffener spacing is also used to compute Ite in
tion under consideration. The outer edge of all trans-
verse stiffeners shall not be closer than 1 inch from the Equation (6-14) to allow a smaller stiffener to be used.
outer edge of any flange. If desired, the required stiffener spacing, d, may be
The moment of inertia of a single transverse stiff- substituted for do in these equations. However, larger
ener about the face of the web, or a pair of átiffeners with required stiffener sizes will generally result.
respect to the mid-plane of the web, I ts , shall satisfy:
Eq. (6-14)
where:
1.S8V
J = "'_ X>0.5 Eq. (6-15)
.d/Dj
X = 1.0 for a < 0.78 Eq. (6-16)
X = for 0.78<a<1.0 Eq. (6-17)
a = aspect ratio
= do.
D
O
Z = s. < 10 Eq. (6-18)
Rt
d0 = actual distance between transversa stiffeners (in)
R = minimum girder radius in the panel (ft)
6.6 LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS C6.6
Longitudinal web stiffeners shall preferably be The rigidity required of longitudinal web stiffeners
made of the same material grade as the web to which on curved webs is greater than that required for similar
they are attached. However, in no case shall the fac- stiffeners on straight webs because of the tendency of
tored bending stress in the stiffener exceed 75 percent curved webs to bow. In Equation (6-19), p is a simpli-
of its yield stress. The vertical location of the stiff- fication of the requirement in the Hanshin (1988) pro-
ener(s) shall be such that the longitudinal stress in the visions for longitudinal stiffeners used on curved gird-
web shall not exceed the critical compressive longitu- ers. The yield stress of the stiffener should be equal to
dinal stress determined according to the provisions of that of the web to ensure the required stiffness is pro-
Article 6.4.1 for each limit state. vided without yielding of the stiffener. A limit of 75
Two longitudinal stiffeners may be used on a web percent of the yield stress of the stiffener should ensure
section where stress reversal occurs. that the stiffener has adequate capacity to resist distor-
Longitudinal stiffeners preferably shall be made of tion of the web and lateral bending in the stiffener.
a single bar, píate or angle attached on one side of the The required rigidity provided by Equation (6-19)
web. Transverse stiffeners preferably shall be placed on was derived based on the assumption that longitudinal
the other side of the web. stiffeners are continuous across transverse stiffeners.
Longitudinal stiffeners preferably shall be continu- Thus, transverse stiffeners are best placed on the oppo-
ous at transverse stiffeners, connection plates and site side of the web from the longitudinal web stiffener
bearing stiffeners located on the same side of the web. to minimize intersections of the stiffeners. At bearing
Transverse web elements interrupted by longitudinal stiffeners and at connection plates where the longitudi-
stiffeners shall be attached to the longitudinal stiffener nal and vertical stiffeners must intersect, the designer
with adequate strength to develop the bending and axial may discontinué either the transverse element or the
strength of the transverse web element across the lon- longitudinal stiffener. Transverse web elements inter-
gitudinal stiffener. rupted by longitudinal stiffeners must be fitted and
The moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener, attached to both sides of the longitudinal stiffener with
l(s , and a portion of the web equal to 1 8tw, taken about a connection capable of developing the bending and
axial strength of the transverse web element. The con-
the neutral axis of the combined section, shall satisfy: nection may be made by bolting, fíllet welds or a ñill-
penetration weld. The detail could be similar to that
I/g >Dt 3 w (2.4a 2 - 0.13) P Eq. (6-19) used to connect transverse stiffeners used as connection
plates to tensión flanges. Copes should be provided to
where: avoid intersecting welds. It is permissible to also attach
longitudinal stiffeners to transverse web elements if
— +1 when the longitudinal stiffener is on the they are connected to the transverse web element with
6 a connection sufficient to develop the bending and ax-
side of the web away from the center of cur- ial strength of the longitudinal stiffener. Should the
vature longitudinal stiffener be interrupted and not be con-
2 nected to the transverse web element, the interruptions
P = — + 1 when the longitudinal stiffener is on the
must be carefully designed with respect to fatigue.
side of the web toward the center of curvature If the web undergoes stress reversal, it may be de-
sirable, or necessary, to use two longitudinal stiffeners
a and Z are defined in Article 6.5. on the web.
The width-to-thickness ratio of the outstanding

element of the longitudinal stiffener shall satisfy Equa-
tion (6-13).
6.7 BEARING STIFFENERS C6.7

*»
Bearing stiffeners shall be placed in pairs on the These provisions address centrally loaded and
girder web or diaphragm that receives reactions or eccentrically loaded bearing stiffeners. The stiffeners
other concentrated loads. Bearing stiffeners preferably may be attached to vertical webs or diaphragms.
shall be attached to diaphragms rather than inclined When box girders with inclined webs are used, bear-
webs. Bearing stiffeners may not be required if the web ing stiffeners should be attached to either an intemal or
or diaphragm is restrained by concrete. If the web is external diaphragm rather than to the webs so that the
restrained by concrete, adequate shear connection ac- bearing stiffeners are perpendicular to the solé píate.
cording to the provisions of Section 7 shall be provided Bearing stiffeners should be designed for eccentricity due
to transfer the reaction or concentrated load between to thermal movements. Eccentricity is usually most criti-
the concrete and the steel elements. cal when bearing stiffeners are attached to diaphragms.
Bearing stiffeners preferably shall consist of pairs Bearing of the stiffener plates on the bottom flange
of angles bolted to the web or diaphragm, or pairs of can be ensured by welding the stiffeners to the bottom
bars or plates welded to the web or diaphragm. Bearing flange. The size of weld is to be adequate to transfer
stiffeners shall be made of the same or lower yield the reaction in shear. Full-penetration welds may be
stress material grade as the member to which they are used, but are not required when stiffeners are milled.
attached. The width-to-thickness ratio of the outstand- When concrete diaphragms are used, they are con-
ing elements of the bearing stiffeners shall satisfy nected with shear connectors to the webs or to a steel
Equation(6-13). diaphragm. The shear connectors should be adequate to
The outstanding elements of the bearing stiffeners transfer the reaction plus any other action considered in
shall extend as near as practical to the edge of the the design. However, the reaction should not be carried
bearing solé píate. Bearing stiffeners shall be milled to through the shear connectors without another load path
bear tightly against either the flange through which through the steel element since the concrete is likely to
they receive the concentrated load, or attached to that creep around the shear connectors.
flange by a weld of adequate size to transfer the reac- Any rotation of the girder due to dead load about
tions. The stiffener-to-fiange weld shall be capable of either axis at the bearing may cause the bearing stiffen-
transmitting the concentrated load through the flange to ers to be unevenly loaded. The girders can be cambered
the bearings. When the stiffeners are milled to bear, the for rotation about the transverse axis and about the
factored bearing stress shall not be greater than 1.35Fy, longitudinal axis to ensure uniform bearing.
where Fy shall be taken as the specifíed mínimum yield
stress of the stiffeners.
A centrally located portion of the web or dia-
phragm equal to 18tw may be considered effective be-
tween each pair of bearing stiffeners.
If the concentrated load is applied concentrically
with respect to the centroidal axes of the bearing stiff-
ener, the bearing stiffener assembly may be designed as
a centrally loaded compression member according to
the provisions of AASHTO Article 10.54.1. The ef-
fective length factor, K, shall be taken as 0.75.
Eccentricity of the concentrated load with respect
to the centroidal axes of the bearing stiffener shall pref-
erably be considered by designing the bearing stiffener
assembly as a beam-column according to the provisions
of AASHTO Article 10.54.2. The effective length
factor, K, shall be taken as 0.75. The equivalent mo-
ment factor, C, shall be taken as 1.0.
The final attitude at the bearing stiffeners shall be
vertical.
SECTION 7
SHEAR CONNECTORS
7.1 GENERAL C7.1
The ultímate strength of shear connectors shall be These strength provisions are based on AASHTO
determined according to the provisions of Articles 7.2.1 and the fatigue provisions are based on AASHTO
and 7.3.2. Shear connectors shall also satisfy the provi- LRFD. However, there are additional radial shear
sions of AASHTO Article 10.38.2. Shear connectors forces on the shear connectors in curved bridges that
shall be designed for fatigue according to AASHTO are considered.
LRFD Articles 6.10.7.4.1b and 6.10.7.4.2, except as Shear connectors are to be provided in negative
modified in Articles 7.2.2 and 7.3.3. Shear connectors moment regions because torsional shear exists in the
shall be provided in negative moment regions. Shear negative moment regions as well as in the positive
connector pitch preferably shall be uniform between moment regions and because the deck is assumed to be
each point of máximum positive live load moment and uncracked in negative moment regions for serviceabil-
an adjacent end of the girder and between each point of ity, fatigue and constructibility limit states. Shear con-
máximum positive live load moment and the adjacent nectors also help control cracking when the deck is
point of greatest negative moment in continuous spans. subjected to tensile stress and has longitudinal rein-
forcement.
There is no known occurrence in the fíeld of a fa-
tigue failure in a tensión flange at shear connector
welds when shear connectors have been provided over
the entire girder. There have been fatigue failures in
tensión flanges at shear connector welds when shear
connectors have been terminated at points of dead load
contraflexure.
7.2 I-GIRDERS C7.2
7.2.1 Strength C7.2.1
The minimum number of shear connectors, N, The number of shear connectors between a simple
between a point of máximum positive live load moment support and the adjacent point of máximum positive
and an adjacent end of the girder shall be computed as: live load moment is based on AASHTO Article
10.38.5 and the modifications given herein. The point
of máximum positive live load moment is specified
Eq. (7-1)
because it applies to the composite section and is easier
to lócate than a máximum of the sum of the moments
acting on the composite section.
where:
The radial effect of curvature is included in Equa-
tion (7-2), whereas an approximate method has been
<kc = 0.85 used to account for the radial effect in the Guide Spec.
Su = strength of one shear connector according to The radial forcé is required to bring into equilibrium
AASHTO Article 10.38.5.1.2 (kip) the smallest of the longitudinal forces in either the deck
P = forcé in slab at point of máximum positive live or the girder. The longitudinal forcé is conservatively
load moment given by Equation (7-2) (kip) assumed to be constant over the entire length, L p ,
when computing the radial component.
Eq. (7-2) The number of shear connectors between points of
máximum positive live load moment and greatest
negative live load moment in continuous spans is com-
where: puted from the sum of the critical forces at the máxi-
mum positive and negative moment locations. Since
P = longitudinal forcé in the slab at point of there is no point where moment always changes from
máximum positive live load moment com- positive to negative, many shear connectors resist re-
puted as the smaller of Plp or P2p from Equa- versing action in the concrete slab depending on the
live load position. However, the number of shear con-
tions (7-3) and (7-4) (kip) nectors is determined from the sum of the two critical
47
Fp = radial forcé in the slab at point of máximum forces at the máximum moment locations. Thus, ade-
quate shear capacity for any live load position is pro-
positive live load moment computed from vided.
Equation (7-5) (kip)
The tensión forcé in the deck is defined as 45 per-
cent of the specified 28-day strength of concrete. This
P, =A S F V Eq.(7-3) is a conservativo approximation, which accounts for
the longitudinal reinforcing steel plus the concrete that
where: remains effective in tensión based on its modulus of
rupture. More precise numbers might be substituted. It
As = área of steel girder (in2) was desired to be conservativo in this región to ensure
that sufficient shear connectors are provided to resist
P 2p =0.85f c 'b d t d Eq. (7-4) both the torsional shears, which develop in the full
composite section along the entire span, and the hori-
where: zontal shears in curved girder flanges.
fc' = specifíed 28-day compressive stress of con-

crete (ksi)
bd = effective concrete width as specified in Arricie
4.5.2 (in)
td = average concrete thickness (in)
Eq. (7-5)
R
where:
Lp = are length between an end of the girder and an

adjacent point of máximum positive live load
moment (ft)
R = mínimum girder radius over the length, Lp (ft)
The mínimum number of shear connectors, N,

between a point of máximum positive live load moment
and an adjacent point of greatest negative live load
moment shall be computed by Equation (7-1), where
the forcé in the slab, P, is computed as:
Eq. (7-6)
where:
PT = longitudinal forcé in the concrete slab at point

of greatest negative live load moment com-
puted from Equation (7-7) (kip)
FT = radial forcé in the concrete slab at point of
greatest negative live load moment computed
from Equation (7-10) (kip)
Eq. (7-7)
where:
Pn = the smaller of Pln or P2n (kip)
Eq. (7-8)
P 2n =0.45f c 'b d t d Eq. (7-9)
F =PrfT
IV — " Eq. (7-10)
R
where:
L = are length between a point of máximum posi-

tive live load moment and an adjacent point of
greatest negative live load moment (ft)
R = minimum girder radius over me length, Ln (ft)
Shear connector pitch shall be checked for fatigue Shear connectors are designed in fatigue for the
at changes of girder section, at supports and at cross range of live load shear between the deck and the top
frames. The range of horizontal shear, Vsr, for fatigue flange of the girder. The shear range normally is due to
design of shear connectors at a section shall be com- only vertical bending in straight girders if torsión is
puted using the factored fatigue truck specified in Arti- ignored. Curvature, skew and other conditions may
cle3.5.7.1. Vsr shall be computed as follows: cause torsión, which introduces a radial component.
These provisions provide for consideration of both of
these components of the shear to be added vectorially
according to Equation (7-11). An uncracked section is
to be used along the entire span when determining the
where: shear connector pitch for fatigue.
The longitudinal shear range, Vfat, equals shear
V6t = longitudinal fatigue shear range/unit length
due to vertical bending due to the fatigue truck placed
(k/in) to the right and to the left of the point under considera-
Ffat = radial fatigue shear range/unit length (k/in) tion. The radial shear range, F fat , typically is computed
for the fatigue truck positioned to produce máximum
The effective width of deck shall be as specified in positive and negative girder moments. Therefore, vec-
Article 4.5.2. The valué of Ffatused in Equation (7-11) torial addition of the two valúes is conservative be-
shall be the larger of the valúes computed from Equa- cause the longitudinal and radial shears are not pro-
tions (7-12) and (7-13). duced by concurren! loads.
Equation (7-12) may be used to determine the ra-
A. rr- / dial forcé created by curvature between brace points.
Eq. (7-12) The forcé is taken as the radial component of the
wR
máximum longitudinal range of forcé in the bottom
where: flange between brace points, which is used as a meas-
ure of the vertical bending moment. The radial forcé is
Abot = área of bottom flange (in2) distributed over an effective lengíh of girder flange, w.
aflg = range of fatigue stress in the bottom flange (ksi) Equation (7-12) gives the same units as Vfat. At simple
supports, w is halved.
i = distance between brace points (ft)
Ffat also may be determined by Equation (7-13).
R = minimum girder radius within the panel (ft)
w = effective length of deck (in) This equation will typically govern when torsión is due
to causes other than curvature, such as skew. The two
or equations yield approximately the same valué if the
girder is curved and there is no other source of torsión.
Equations (7-12) and (7-13) are included to ensure
Eq. (7-13)
W that a load path is provided through the shear connec-
tors to satisfy equilibrium at a transverse section
where: through the girders, deck and cross frame.
FCR = net range of cross frame forcé at the top flange

(kip)
The effective length of deck, w, may be taken as

48 inches, except at simple supports where w may be
taken as 24 inches.
The shear connector pitch, p, for fatigue shall be

computed as foliows:
P = ^- Eq.(7-14)
where:
n = number of shear connectors in a cross section

Z, = shear fatigue strength of an individual shear
connector determined as specified in
AASHTO LRFD Article 6.10.7.4.2 (kip)
V = range of horizontal shear for fatigue from
Equation (7-11) (kip)
7.3 CLOSED BOX AND TUB GIRDERS C7.3
Shear connectors are to be designed for strength The interaction between torsión and shear due to
and fatigue with the I-girder provisions of Article 7.2, moving loads is too complex to treat practically. In-
except as modified herein. stead, the provisions provide for the design of shear
Shear connector forcé range shall be determined by connectors based on the assumption that torsión and
computing the portion of the shear resisted by the con- bending shear are additive. A further conservative as-
crete acting with the steel flange. The shear connectors sumption is that shear is the same on both sides of the
shall be designed for torsional shear in addition to ver- box. If live load flexural and torsional actions are de-
tical bending shear. termined separately, addition of the shears may be
quite conservative.
Shear due to bending and torsión is additive on
one web and is used to determine the critical pitch. The
top flange over the other web should contain an equal
number of shear connectors.
7.3.2 Strength C7.3.2

The cross sectional área of the steel box girder and
the effective área of the concrete associated with the
box shall be used in determining P by Equations (7-3),
(7-4), (7-8), and (7-9).
The longitudinal shear range, Vfat, for one flange The necessary shear connectors for the critical side
of a tub girder shall be computed for the web which is of the box are determined and the same numbers are
subjected to additive flexural and torsional shears. The used on the other side. Because of the inherent conser-
radial shear range, Ffat, due to curvature may be ig- vatism of the requirements, the radial shear range need
nored in the design of box girders. not be included in computing the horizontal shear
The shear connector pitch for the top flange at- range for closed box and tub girders.
tached to the non-critical web of tub girders shall be the
same as for the web on the critical side of the box.
Shear connectors shall be distributed across the width
of composite box flanges according to the provisions of
Article 10.4.3.5.
SECTION 8
BEARINGS
8.1 GENERAL C8.1
The superstructure may be supported by bearing de- When integral piers or abutments are used, the
vices or through direct attachment to the substructure. substructure and superstructure are connected such that
The effects of curvature, skew, rotations and support additional restraints against superstructure rotation are
restraint shall be recognized in the analysis. Friction introduced.
within bearing devices shall be considered with regard to Internal friction of sliding bearings and shear resis-
horizontal forces transmitted to the substructure. tance of rubber bearings should be considered. If the
Bearing devices shall be designed according to the substructure is flexible, significant movement may occur
appropriate AASHTO provisions. due to the frictional resistance at a "free" bearing.
8.2 FORCES C8.2
8.2.1 Vertical Forces C8.2.1
Supports shall be designed to resist vertical forces If two bearings are used at a support of a box
due to factored construction loads and the factored de- girder, the vertical reactions should be computed with
sign loads specified in AASHTO Table 3.22.1A. consideration of the torque resisted by the pair of
bearings.
8.2.2 Horizontal Forces C8.2.2
Supports shall be designed to resist longitudinal Bridges tend to move transversely, as well as lon-
and transverse forces due to factored construction loads gitudinally. Relatively wide curved and skewed bridges
and the factored design loads specified in AASHTO often undergo significant diagonal thermal movement,
Table 3.22.1A. which introduces large transverse movements or large
transverse forces if the bridge is restrained against such
movements.
Horizontal forces are often created by the lateral
and tangential restraint of the structure. The location of
bearings off the neutral axes of the girders can créate
horizontal forces due to elastic shortening of the gird-
ers when subjected to vertical loads.
8.2.3 Shear Forces C8.2.3
Adequate shear cormection shall be provided be- Integral substructures tend to restrain girder rota-
tween the girders and the substructure to transmit shear tion through shear at the interface between the girders
forces from the girder to integral piers or abutments. and the substructure.
8.2.4 Prestressing Forces C8.2.4
The forces resulting from transverse or longitudi- Prestressing of the deck causes changes in the ver-
nal prestressing of the concrete deck or steel girders tical reactions due to the eccentricity of the forces,
shall be considered in the design of the bearings. which creates restoring forces. Effects of creep and
shrinkage also should be considered.
8.3 MOVEMENTS C8.3
Bearings shall be designed to accommodate forces Thermal stresses are minimized when bearings are
due to factored loads as specified herein. oriented such that they permit free translation along
Bearings shall be designed to permit translations rays from a single point. With bearings arranged to
due to the temperature changes in the superstructure permit such movement along these rays, there will be
specified in Article 3.6. no thermal forces generated when the superstructure
51
Bearings shall be designed to accommodate com- temperature changes uniformly. Any other orientation
puted rotations about the tangential axis and about the of the bearings will induce thermal forces into the su-
radial axis of the girder. Rotations that occur during perstructure and substructure. However, other consid-
construction shall be considered in determining the erations often make impractical the orientation along
design-rotation capacity of the bearing. rays emanating from a single point.
Girder rotation occurs about all girder axes. Unless
the bridge is skewed, rotation about the tangential axis
of the girders is usually minimal. Analysis often shows
that rotation capacity of the bearing about the girder
tangential axis need not be provided. Unanticipated
eccentric loading of bearings or girder rotations may
lead to premature failure of the bearings.
A variety of bearings are appropriate for use on
curved girder bridges. When the required translations,
rotations and reactions that bearings must accommodate
are known, bearings can be selected to provide the nec-
essary freedom and restraint in an economical manner.
8.4 BEARING REPLACEMENT C8.4
Provisión should be made for jacking the super- Stability of the structure, while supported on the
structure to accommodate replacement of bearings, as temporary jacks, should be investigated. Thermal,
directed by the Owner. wind, dead and live loads should be considered.
SECTION 9
I-GIRDERS
9.1 GENERAL C9.1
I-girders may be either welded or rolled shapes. The minimum size of the flanges is provided as a
The web shall be attached at mid-width of the flanges. function of the web depth and width to ensure that the
Flanges may be either compact or non-compact. The web is adequately restrained against buckling (Zureick
web may be unstiffened, transversely stiffened only, or and Shih, 1994). Although their study was limited to
longitudinally and transversely stiffened. The compres- doubly-symmetric sections, the recommended mini-
sion flange width preferably shall be not less than 0.2 mum flange dimensions are adequate for reasonably
times the web depth, but in no case shall it be less than proportioned singly-symmetric I-girders. If the com-
0.15 times the web depth. The compression flange pression flange of the girder is smaller than the tensión
thickness preferably shall be not less than 1.5 times the flange, the minimum flange width may be based on a
web thickness. depth of 2DC rather than the web depth, D. The mini-
mum specified flange width also provides a more sta-
ble girder that is easier to handle.
9.2 VARIABLE DEPTH GIRDERS C9.2
Variable depth I-girders may be used. The effect Although variable depth girders were not consid-
of bottom flange inclination shall be considered in cal- ered in the development of curved girder strength
culating the bottom flange vertical bending stress in equations, many variable depth curved girders have
variable web depth members. Where permitted by been designed and built successfully. Vertical bending
static equilibrium, the web dead-load shear may be and lateral bending stresses need to be checked at both
reduced by the vertical component of the flange forcé. brace points of the flange. Dabrowski (1968) discusses
At points where the bottom flange becomes hori- the torsional behavior of variable depth girders.
zontal, the transfer of the vertical component of the If only the flexural stiffness is considered in the
flange forcé back into the web shall be considered in analysis, the bottom flange vertical bending stress is
determining the need for additional local stiffening of the underestimated. If the flange inclination is large, the
web and in the design of the web-to-bottom flange resultant forcé along the longitudinal axis of the bottom
welds. flange can be become significant and should be used to
adjust the bottom flange vertical bending stress
(Blodgett, 1982).
For cases where the flange inclination is large,
consideration should also be given to checking for web
yielding under the combined stresses on the web at the
critical section due to shear, vertical bending and the
radial flange forces. Blodgett (1982) provides a rational
approach for making this check using an equation
similar in formal to Equation (C10-3).
The horizontal component of the resultant bottom
flange forcé balances the horizontal forcé in the top
flange. The vertical component of the flange forcé
affects the web shear. For simple-span girders or posi-
tive-moment regions of continuous-span girders with
tapered or parabolic haunches sloping downward to-
ward the supports, the web shear is increased by the
vertical component of the flange forcé. For fish belly
haunches, there is no vertical component of the flange
forcé near the supports. For all other cases, the web
shear is reduced by the vertical component of the
flange forcé. In these cases, if only the flexural stiff-
ness is considered in the analysis, the shear component
of the flange forcé is not computed; therefore, the web
shear is overestimated. These provisions permit the
Engineer to reduce the web dead-load shear accord-
53
ingly. Reduction of the live-load shear is problematic

because numerous sets of concurrent moments and
shears must be evaluated in order to determine the
critical or smallest shear reduction and is not likely
worth the effort.
At points where an inclined flange becomes hori-
zontal, the shear component in the flange is transferred
back into the web. This transfer may require additional
local stiffening of the web and may cause an increased
stress in the web-to-bottom flange welds.
9.3 CROSS FRAMES AND DIAPHRAGMS C9.3
Cross frames and diaphragms shall be considered Since cross frames and diaphragms resist forces
primary members. Cross frames shall contain top and that are critical to the proper functioning of curved
bottom chords. Cross frames and diaphragms pref- girder bridges, they are considered primary members.
erably shall be as cióse as practical to full-depth of the If the cross frame chords and diaphragm flanges
girders. Eccentricity between the working point of the are not attached to the girder flanges, forces from these
cross frame or diaphragm members and the girder elements are transferred through the connection piales.
flanges shall be recognized in determining a satisfac- Single angles are loaded through one leg and are
tory load path to transfer the net forcé between the subject to eccentricity and twist, which often is not
cross frame or diaphragm members and the girder recognized in computing the effective length. K is set
flanges. equal to 1.0 to more closely match the strength pro-
Compression members shall be designed according vided in the 1971 Guide for Pesien of Steel Transmis-
to AASHTO Article 10.54. The effective length factor, sion Towers. ASCE Manual No. 52. End moments due
K, for single angles shall be taken as 1.0. K shall pref- to the eccentricities within the connection should still
erably be taken as 0.9 for any other compression mem- be considered. Other bracing members that have more
ber. predictable behavior may be designed with K equal to
The effective net área of bolted tensión elements 0.9.
shall be defined according to the provisions of Relative movement of adjacent girders may cause
AASHTO Article 10.16.14. Connections for bracing the ends of the bracing members to transíate with re-
members in tensión shall meet the requirements of Ar- spect to each other. In these cases, K may be further
ticle 11.2. increased beyond 1.0.
Diaphragms with span-to-depth ratios greater than When diaphragms are too stocky to be considered
4 may be designed as beams. Shear deformation shall properly by elementary beam theory, more refined
be considered in the design of diaphragms having a analysis methods that consider shear deformations are
span-to-depth ratio of 4 or less. required.
9.3.2 Arrangement C9.3.2
A means of transferring radial component of forcé Intermediate cross frames should be spaced as
from the superstructure to the bearing shall be provided nearly uniform as practical to ensure that the flange
at bearings that furnish radial restraint. strength equations are appropriate.
Cross frames or diaphragms shall be provided at Equation (C9-1) may be used as a guide for pre-
the ends of the bridge to support the deck and expan- liminary framing.
sión device. However, cross frames or diaphragms need
not be used along skewed interior supports if radially
oriented cross frames or diaphragms are provided at •rjlbf Eq. (C9-1)
36
bearings that resist radial forcé.
Intermedíate cross frames or diaphragms shall be where:
used to control lateral flange bending stresses and pro-
vide stability to the girders. i = cross frame spacing (ft)
Cross frame spacing shall not exceed 25 feet if the
bridge is analyzed under the provisions of Article 4.2, = desired bending stress ratio,
but in no case shall the spacing exceed 30 feet.
Intermediate cross frames or diaphragms in bridges R = girder radius (ft)
with radial supports preferably shall be placed in con- b = flange width (in)
tiguous radial lines. Intermedíate cross frames or dia- A máximum valué of 0.3 may be used for the
phragms may be placed in contiguous skewed lines bending stress ratio, r0. Equation (C9-1) was derived
parallel to skewed supports when supports are skewed from the V-load concept, Curved Girder Workshop
not more than 20 degrees from radial. Where supports Lecture Notes (Richardson, Cordón and Associates,
are skewed more than 20 degrees from radial, cross 1976). It has been shown that Equation (C9-1) yields a
frames or diaphragms may be placed in staggered pat- fairly good correlation compared with three-
terns. dimensional finite element analysis results (Davidson,
et al, 1996).
Allowance of skewed cross frames up to 20 de-
grees from radial is consistent with the provisions of
AASHTO Article 10.20.1.
If the bridge is skewed more than 20 degrees from
radial, it may be necessary to stagger the cross frame
spacing in such a manner that the transverse stiffness is
reduced. Staggered cross frames have the effect of de-
creasing the cross frame forces and increasing lateral
flange bending. The actual lateral flange stresses with
staggered cross frames may differ from those estimated
by the V-load method. Therefore, a special investiga-
tion of cross frame forces and lateral flange moments
may be advisable in this case.
The connection piales should be oriented in the
plañe of the cross frame for skewed cross frames. The
connection píate must be able to transfer forcé between
the girder and the cross frame without undue distortion.
Welding of skewed connection plates to the girder may
be problematic where the píate forms an acute angle
with the girder.
9.3.3 Load Effects C9.3.3
Cross frames or diaphragms shall be designed for When the deck hardens, it works compositely with
load effects as determined from the analysis for the the cross frames, which induces transverse shear be-
appropriate factored loads. An effective length of the tween the deck and the steel via the shear connectors.
hardened deck concrete, w, as defined in Article 7.2.2, The transverse deck reinforcing and shear connectors
may be considered to act compositely with cross frames should be checked for the additional forcé.
or diaphragms for loads applied after the deck hardens. When the girders have been analyzed neglecting
curvature as provided in Article 4.2, the cross frames
may be analyzed by the V-load method or other ra-
tional means.
9.4 FLANGE LATERAL BRACING C9.4
When flange lateral bracing is present, it shall be Bottom lateral flange bracing creates a pseudo-
considered in the analysis and the members shall be closed section formed by the I-girders connected with
designed as primary members according to the provi- the bracing and the hardened deck. The cross frame
sions of Article 9.3.1. forces increase with the addition of bottom flange
Lateral bracing preferably shall be placed in the bracing because the cross frames act to retain the shape
plañe of the girder flanges. of the pseudo-box section. Moments in the braced gird-
ers become less different. These effects need to be rec-
ognized by a refined analysis.
When curvature is sharp and temporary supports
are not practical, it may be desirable to use top and
bottom lateral bracing to ensure box action while the
bridge is under construction. Top and bottom lateral
bracing provides stability to a pair of curved I-girders.
Such bracing need not be used over the whole girder
length.
9.5 PERMANENT DEFLECTION C9.5
Flexural stresses in the flanges shall be checked for Permanent deflection, or set, is controlled by lim-
overload as defmed in Article 3.5.4. iting the factored stress in primary members at over-
The average flange stress in continuously braced load, which is a serviceability limit state criterion.
flanges subject to tensión or compression, and in par- The average flange stress in continuously braced
tially braced tensión flanges at overload shall not ex- flanges subject to tensión or compression and in par-
ceed 0.95Fy. tially braced tensión flanges at overload is limited to
The average flange stress at overload in partially 0.95Fy, as specifíed for composite sections in
braced compression flanges shall not exceed the lesser AASHTO Article 10.57. The coefficient, 0.95, was
of the critical stress defined in Article 5.2.2, Equation derived from the 1962 AASHO Road Test Report 4
(5-8), and 0.95Fy. Bridge Research, where permanent set was observed
Stress in other primary steel members shall not ex- after a large number of passages of overweight trucks.
ceed the speciííed mínimum yield stress of the member The average flange stress in partially braced com-
at overload. pression flanges due to overload is limited by the non-
The máximum compressive stress in the web at compact flange criteria in order to ensure that the sec-
overload shall not exceed the bend-buckling stress ac- ondary effects of curvature are considered.
cording to the provisions of Section 6. All flange stresses in composite sections at over-
The uncracked section shall be used to compute load for both positive and negative bending are to be
bending stresses in composite sections at overload. computed using the uncracked section, which requires
that the provisions of Article 2.4.3 be satisfied.
Lateral flange bending stresses at brace points are
not checked at overload because these stresses occur
only over a small portion of the flange so they should
not cause permanent deflection. However, potential
buckling of a partially braced compression flange at
overload is checked using Equation (5-8).
The web is checked against elastic bend-buckling at
overload also using the uncracked section for computing
bending stresses in composite sections for both positive
and negative bending. In negative bending at the
strength limit state, where a cracked section is normally
assumed for computing the bending stresses in compos-
ite sections, the neutral axis is usually cióse to the center
of the girder depth. Assuming an uncracked section at
overload when computing these stresses causes the neu-
tral axis to be much closer to the tensión flange, which
causes a greater portion of the web to be in compression.
9.6 FATIGUE C9.6
The uncracked section shall be used to compute

bending stresses due to fatigue loading.
9.6.2 Flanges C9.6.2
The fatigue stress range due to vertical bending The heat-affected zone near flange-to-web welds is
plus lateral bending at base metal adjacent to welded checked for the stress range due to vertical bending
attachments shall be checked for the appropriate fatigue since the weld is at the center of the flange.
category. The butt welds on partially braced flanges are
Fatigue stress range due to vertical bending and checked at the flange tip. Likewise, attachments
lateral bending at the tip of flange butt welds shall be welded to flanges, such as transverso stiffeners, must
checked for Category B. be checked for the average flange stress range plus the
lateral flange stress range at the critical transverso lo-
cation on the flange.
Welded gusset piales that receive lateral bracing
also are attached to the flanges where the lateral flange
stress range is significan!
9.5 PERMANENT DEFLECTION C9.5
Flexural stresses in the flanges shall be checked for Permanent deflection, or set, is controlled by lim-
overload as defmed in Article 3.5.4. iting the factored stress in primary members at over-
The average flange stress in continuously braced load, which is a serviceability limit state criterion.
flanges subject to tensión or compression, and in par- The average flange stress in continuously braced
tially braced tensión flanges at overload shall not ex- flanges subject to tensión or compression and in par-
ceed 0.95Fy. tially braced tensión flanges at overload is limited to
The average flange stress at overload in partially 0.95Fy, as specifíed for composite sections in
braced compression flanges shall not exceed the lesser AASHTO Article 10.57. The coefficient, 0.95, was
of the critical stress defined in Article 5.2.2, Equation derived from the 1962 AASHO Road Test Report 4
(5-8), and 0.95Fy. Bridge Research, where permanent set was observed
Stress in other primary steel members shall not ex- after a large number of passages of overweight trucks.
ceed the speciííed minimum yield stress of the member The average flange stress in partially braced com-
at overload. pression flanges due to overload is limited by the non-
The máximum compressive stress in the web at compact flange criteria in order to ensure that the sec-
overload shall not exceed the bend-buckling stress ac- ondary effects of curvature are considered.
cording to the provisions of Section 6. All flange stresses in composite sections at over-
The uncracked section shall be used to compute load for both positive and negative bending are to be
bending stresses in composite sections at overload. computed using the uncracked section, which requires
that the provisions of Article 2.4.3 be satisñed.
Lateral flange bending stresses at brace points are
not checked at overload because these stresses occur
only over a small portion of the flange so they should
not cause permanent deflection. However, potential
buckling of a partially braced compression flange at
overload is checked using Equation (5-8).
The web is checked against elastic bend-buckling at
overload also using the uncracked section for computing
bending stresses in composite sections for both positive
and negative bending. In negative bending at the
strength limit state, where a cracked section is normally
assumed for computing the bending stresses in compos-
ite sections, the neutral axis is usually cióse to the center
of the girder depth. Assuming an uncracked section at
overload when computing these stresses causes the neu-
tral axis to be much closer to the tensión flange, which
causes a greater portion of the web to be in compression.
9.6 FATIGUE C9.6
The uncracked section shall be used to compute

bending stresses due to fatigue loading.
9.6.2 Flanges C9.6.2
The fatigue stress range due to vertical bending The heat-affected zone near flange-to-web welds is
plus lateral bending at base metal adjacent to welded checked for the stress range due to vertical bending
attachments shall be checked for the appropriate fatigue since the weld is at the center of the flange.
category. The butt welds on partially braced flanges are
Fatigue stress range due to vertical bending and checked at the flange tip. Likewise, attachments
lateral bending at the tip of flange butt welds shall be welded to flanges, such as transverse stiffeners, must
checked for Category B. be checked for the average flange stress range plus the
lateral flange stress range at the critical transverse lo-
cation on the flange.
Welded gusset plates that receive lateral bracing
also are attached to the flanges where the lateral flange
stress range is significant.
9.6.3 Webs and Stiffeners C9.6.3
The fatigue stress range in base metal adjacent to If a longitudinal stiffener is welded to the web, its
the terminus of fillet welds connecting transverse stiff- point of termination is likely to be a Category E or E'
eners, connection piales or other elements to the web detail according to AASHTO LRFD Table 6.6.1.2.3-1.
shall be checked for the proper fatigue category. Special termination details may be used to obtain a less
critical category. Through-thickness bending in the
web at the terminus of connection plates, called "dis-
tortion-induced fatigue," is not a problem because the
horizontal forcé from the cross frame elements is trans-
ferred to the flanges by either welding or bolting of the
connection píate to the flanges. These connections for-
bid cross-section distortion between the flange and the
web.
9.6.4 Cross Frames, Diaphragms and Flange Bracing C9.6.4
The stress range in cross frames and diaphragms

due to axial stress plus bending stresses induced by
eccentricity of connections shall be checked for the
appropriate fatigue category.
Fatigue loading shall be applied in accordance with
the provisions of Article 3.5.7.2 for transverse mem-
bers. *
SECTION 10
CLOSED BOX AND TUB GIRDERS
10.1 GENERAL C10.1
The inclination of web plates to a plañe normal to Closed box and tub girders are capable of resisting
the bottom flange shall not exceed 1 to 4. Webs shall be torsión with limited distortion of the cross section.
designed according to the provisions of Section 6. Web Since distortion is limited, torsión is resisted mainly by
shear shall be the sum of flexural and torsional shears St. Venant shear flow. Thus, warping shear and longi-
at all limit states. tudinal stresses are quite small but not zero.
Top flanges of tub girders shall be braced with lat- Transverse bending stresses in the box flanges and
eral bracing capable of resisting torsional shear flow. webs due to distortion of the box cross section occur
Top flanges of tub girders shall be designed according due to changes of the shear flow vector. The transverse
to the provisions of Section 5, as applicable. For fac- bending stiffness of the webs and flanges alone is not
tored construction loads, top flanges of tub girders shall sufficient to retain the box shape so internal cross
be designed according to the applicable provisions of bracing is required. Tests have shown that the cross
Articles 5.2.2, 5.3, and 5.4 with Equation (5-11) re- section of steel box girders distorts when subjected to
placed by Equation (5-9) for partially braced top large torsión (Culver and Mozer, 1971). As a result,
flanges in tensión. Panel length of top flanges of tub classical strength of materials theory may overestimate
girders preferably shall be defmed as the distance be- the torsional stiffness of steel box girders. When tor-
tween interior cross frames or diaphragms. sión is large, it is recommended that a strength of mate-
rials analysis be augmented to consider the reduction in
torsional stiffness due to distortion of the cross section.
Usually the box webs are detailed with equal
height webs. If the deck is superelevated, the box may
be rotated to match the deck slope. The result is that
the inclination of one web is increased over what it
would have been if the box were not rotated. The com-
puted shear in that web should be adjusted for verti-
cally applied loads.
When the box webs are inclined, a transverse forcé
is induced into the flanges equal to the shear in the web
times the sine of the angle the web makes with an axis
perpendicular to the flange. The change in this trans-
verse forcé plus the change in the St. Venant torsional
shear per unit length along the girder acts as a uni-
formly distributed transverse load on the girder flanges.
Since a rational analysis of the entire superstruc-
ture is required by these provisions and the use of live-
load distribution factors is therefore not required, there
is no limitation on the number of box girders as is
specified in AASHTO Article 10.51. Also, the cross-
sectional limitations given in AASHTO Article 10.51
do not apply.
10.2 FRAMING C10.2
10.2.1 Bearings C10.2.1
Single or double bearings may be used at supports. Bearing arrangement dictates how the torsión is re-
Double bearings may be located between box webs or sisted at supports. Torque may be removed from the
outside of the webs. box via diaphragms between boxes when a single
bearing arrangement is used. Double bearings resist
torque by acting as a couple. Bearings may be located
outboard of the box to reduce uplift. Integral cap beams
of steel or concrete are often used with box girders
instead of bearings.
59
10.2.2 Interna! Bracing and Diaphragms C10.2.2
10.2.2.1 General C10.2.2.1
Cross frame members and diaphragms shall be de-

signed according to the provisions of Article 9.3, except
as modiñed herein. A mínimum of two bolts shall be
used in each connection of a bracing member.
10.2.2.2 Interna! Diaphragms at Supports C10.2.2.2
A diaphragm shall be provided inside boxes at Thermal movements of the bridge may cause the
each support. Diaphragms may be of steel or concrete. diaphragm to be eccentric with respect to the bear-
Connection of the diaphragm to the box shall be ade- ing(s). This eccentricity should be recognized in the
quate to transmit the computed bending and torsional design of the diaphragm and bearing stiffeners.
shears between the box and the diaphragm. Reñned fínite element analysis of internal dia-
The effect of access holes in the diaphragm shall phragms at supports is usually desirable because of the
be considered. Diaphragms shall bear against the bot- number of load points and complex details, such as
tom flange. However, if a composite box flange is used stiffening, around access holes.
in the bottom of the box, diaphragms at interior sup- The combined principal stresses in the diaphragm
ports preferably shall be designed to permit the con- due to the factored loads can be checked using the gen-
crete to be continuous through the diaphragm over a eral form of the Huber-von Mises-Hencky yield crite-
distancie not less than one-half of the cross-sectional rion as follows:
área of the concrete.
At expansión bearings, bearing stiffeners and dia- <F Eq. (C10-1)
phragms shall preferably be designed for eccentricity
due to thermal movement. where:
The principal stresses in the diaphragm shall be
determined. The combined principal stresses due to the !,CT2 = critical máximum and minimum principal
factored loads at the strength limit state shall not ex- stresses in the diaphragm (ksi)
ceed the specified mínimum yield stress of the dia-
phragm.
Eq. (C10-2)
cjy = stress in the diaphragm due to vertical bending

of the diaphragm over the bearing solé píate
(ksi)
CTZ = stress in the diaphragm due to bending of the
diaphragm about its longitudinal axis (ksi)
fv = shear stress in the diaphragm (ksi)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the dia-
phragm (ksi)
For a box supported on two bearings, crv is typically

relatively small and can often be neglected. az is also
typically neglected. From Equation (C10-2), if no
bending is assumed, the two principal stresses are sim-
ply equal tensile and compressive stresses with a mag-
nitude equal to the shear stress. For this case where a2
= -CTI, the principal stress, CTI, in the diaphragm, which
is equal to the shear stress in the diaphragm due to the
factored loads, must be limited to the shear yield stress,
T y = F y/ /v3 , according to Equation (C10-1). For cases
where bending of the diaphragm is considered, more
than one loading condition may need to be investigated
in order to determine the critical principal stresses.
When the magnitude of the principal tensile stress
due to the factored loads is significant, the Engineer
may wish to consider the magnitude of this stress under

the factored fatigue live load, which may preclude the
use of certain fatigue-sensitive details on the dia-
phragm.
10.2.2.3 Intermedíate Internal Bracing C10.2.2.3
Intermedíate internal bracing may be composed of Internal bracing is necessary to retain the shape of
cross bracing or diaphragms. Spacing of internal brac- the box or tub. By limiting warping stresses to 10 per-
ing shall be such that the longitudinal warping stress in cent of the longitudinal stress, warping need not be
the box does not exceed 10 percent of the longitudinal considered in the design of the flanges for the strength
stress due to vertical bending at the strength limit state. limit state. The torsional stiffness of the box or tub is
Spacing of intermediate internal bracing shall not ex- adequate to permit classical strength of materials as-
ceed 30 feet. Transverso bending stress shall not exceed sumptions to be used to compute the distribution of
20 ksi at the strength limit state. loads. Warping is best controlled by reducing the
Transverso bracing members shall be attached to spacing of internal cross bracing.
the box flange unless longitudinal flange stiffeners are The limit on transverse bending stress of 20 ksi is
used, in which case the transverse member shall be taken from Article 1.27(B) of the Cuide Spec.
attached to the longitudinal stiffener(s) by bolting. The Transverse bracing members across the bottom
cross sectional área and stiffness of the top and bottom and top of the box or tub are required as part of the
transverse bracing members shall be not smaller than interior bracing to ensure that the cross-section shape is
the área and stiffness of the diagonal members. Where retained. Transverse bracing members are attached to
longitudinal flange stiffeners are present, the moment the box flanges or to the longitudinal flange stiffeners
of inertia of the bottom transverse bracing member to control transverse distortion of the box flange.
shall not be less than the moment of inertia of the lon-
gitudinal stiffener about an axis parallel to the flange at
the base of the stiffener.
Transverse bracing preferably shall be detailed
such that the working lines of the members are as cióse
as practical to web-to-flange junctures, except when
longitudinal flange stiffening or composite concrete
causes the bracing to be offset from the flange. When
the bottom flange is composite, the transverse bracing
member shall be located above the concrete.
10.2.3 Externa! Bracing C10.2.3
External cross frames or diaphragms shall be used External bracing at other than support points is
between boxes at end supports. External cross frames usually not necessary. If analysis shows that the boxes
or diaphragms may be used between boxes at interior will rotate excessively when the deck is placed, tempo-
supports and at intermediate locations between sup- rary external bracing may be desirable. However, the
ports. There shall be corresponding bracing inside the effect of removal of any temporary bracing needs to be
boxes to receive the forces from the external bracing. considered. The removal of bracing tends to cause in-
If the aspect ratio of the diaphragm is less than 4.0, creased deck stresses.
the principal stresses in the diaphragm shall be deter- The combined principal stresses in the diaphragm
mined. The combined principal stresses due to the fac- can be checked using Equation (C10-1), where ay is
tored loads at the strength limit state shall not exceed taken as the vertical bending stress in the external dia-
the specified mínimum yield stress of the diaphragm. phragm.
10.2.4 Bracing of Tub Flanges C10.2.4
Top flange bracing of tub girders preferably shall Torsional analysis of the non-composite tub should
be connected to top flanges. Otherwise, top flange recognize the truc location of top flange bracing when
bracing frames shall be located as cióse as practical to computing the enclosed box área.
the plañe of the top flanges, and provisión shall be Once the deck has hardened, it acts as the top flange
made to transfer top flange bracing forces to the top and is capable of transferring the shear. Since the deck is
flanges. usually stiffer than the bracing, the bracing is less effec-
Top flange bracing shall have adequate capacity to tive. A comparison of the shear stiffness of the deck to
resist shear flow and forces induced by vertical and the bracing can be made to determine the shear that
62 AASHTO GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL GIRDER HIGHWAV BRIDGES
lateral bending in the non-composite section at the con- would be resisted by the bracing once the deck hardens.
structibility limit state. Bracing members shall be de- Top flange bracing should be continuous across
signed according to the provisions of Article 9.4. field splice locations.
10.2.5 Access Holes C10.2.5
Access holes in box sections preferably shall be lo- Outside access holes should be large enough to
cated in the bottom flange in áreas of low stress. The provide easy access for inspection. Covers or screens
flange at access holes preferably shall be reinforced as should be provided over outside access holes to keep
necessary. out unauthorized persons, birds and vermin.
10.3 STRESS DETERMINATIONS C10.3
10.3.1 General C10.3.1
The average longitudinal stress in the box flange Longitudinal stress may be assumed to be uniform
shall be considered at the strength, serviceability and across box flanges because warping stress is limited to
constructibility limit states. Shear lag shall be consid- 10 percent of the longitudinal stress. However, warping
ered for box flanges wider than one-fifth of the distance stress is to be considered for fatigue. Shear lag must
between points of contraflexure or between a simple also be considered for wide box flanges.
support and a point of contraflexure. Transverse bending, or through-thickness stress,
Longitudinal warping stresses shall be considered associated with box distortion is controlled by the in-
for fetigue. Shear due to vertical bending and torsión ternal cross bracing. Transverse bending stress may be
shall be considered for all limit states. computed by the beam-on-elastic-foundation (BEF)
Transverse bending stresses shall be computed us- method presented by Wright and Abdel-Samad (1968).
ing a rational method. Transverse stiffeners attached to The 1981 Designer's Guide to Steel Box Girder
the web or box flange should be considered effective in Bridges (Bethlehem Steel Corporation, 1981) demón-
resisting transverse bending. strales sample calculations based on the BEF method.
Torsión acting on the composite bridge introduces
horizontal shear in the deck that should be considered
when designing the reinforcing steel.
The total shear in one web is greater than in the
other web at the same section since torsional shear is of
opposite sign in the two webs. As a matter of practical-
ity, both webs can be designed for the critical shear.
10.3.2 Variable Depth Girders C10.3.2
Variable depth box and tub girders may be used. Variable depth box and tub girders are permitted
The effect of bottom flange inclination shall be consid- by these provisions. If only the flexural stiffness is
ered in calculating the bottom flange longitudinal stress considered in the analysis, the longitudinal bottom
in variable web depth members. Where permitted by flange stress is underestimated. If the flange inclina-
static equilibrium, the vertical web dead-load shear tion is large, the resultant forcé along the longitudinal
may be reduced by the vertical component of the flange axis of the bottom flange can be become signifícant
forcé. and should be used to adjust the longitudinal bottom
At points where the bottom flange becomes hori- flange stress (Blodgett, 1982).
zontal, the transfer of the vertical component of the For cases where the flange inclination is large,
flange forcé back into the web shall be considered in consideration should also be given to checking for web
determining the need for additional local stiffening of yielding under the combined stresses on the web at the
the web and in the design of the web-to-bottom flange critical section due to shear, vertical bending and the
welds. radial flange forces. Blodgett (1982) provides a rational
The inclination of the webs preferably shall remain approach for making this check using an equation
constant. The width of the bottom flange may be var- similar in formal to Equation (C10-3).
ied. The horizontal component of the resultant bottom
flange forcé balances the horizontal forcé in the top
flange. The vertical component of the flange forcé af-
fects the vertical web shear. For simple-span girders or
positive-moment regions of continuous-span girders
with tapered or parabolic haunches sloping downward
toward the supports, the vertical web shear is increased
by the vertical component of the flange forcé. For fish

belly haunches, there is no vertical component of the
flange forcé near the supports. For all other cases, the
vertical web shear is reduced by the vertical component
of the flange forcé. In these cases, if only the flexural
stiffness is considered in the analysis, the shear com-
ponent of the flange forcé is not computed; therefore,
the web shear is overestimated. These provisions per-
mit the Engineer to reduce the vertical web dead-load
shear accordingly. Reduction of the live-load shear is
problematic because numerous sets of concurrent mo-
ments and shears must be evaluated in order to deter-
mine the critical or smallest shear reduction and is not
likely worth the effort.
At points where an inclined flange becomes hori-
zontal, the shear component in the flange is transferred
back into the web. This transfer may require additional
local stiffening of the web and may cause an increased
stress in the web-to-bottom flange welds.
The distance between webs at the top of the box
should be kept constant to simplify fabrication and
simplify analysis of the top flanges.
10.4 STRENGTH OF BOX FLANGES C10.4
10.4.1 General C10.4.1
The computed average longitudinal flange stress

due to the appropriate factored loads shall not exceed
the critical stresses defined herein. If shear lag is con-
sidered, the longitudinal stress at the webs shall not
exceed the critical stress defined herein.
10.4.2 Non-Composite Box Flanges C10.4.2
10.4.2.1 General C10.4.2.1
The weight of fresh concrete and other temporary Non-composite box flanges on top of the box re-
or permanent loads placed on the box flange may be ceive the deck concrete. Non-composite box flanges in
considered by assuming the box flange acts as a simple the bottom of the box may receive concrete to act as
beam spanning between webs. The máximum vertical stiffening and to act compositely with the flange to
deflection of the box flange due to self-weight and ap- resist bending. Transverse and/or longitudinal stiffen-
plied permanent loads shall not exceed 1 /360 times ing of the box flange may be required to control box
the transverse span between the webs. The through- flange deflection and stresses.
thickness bending stress shall not exceed 20 ksi at the The bottom flange píate at interior supports is
constructibility limit state. Transverse and/or longitudi- subjected to biaxial stresses due to vertical bending in
nal stiffening of the box flange may be required to the girder and vertical bending in the diaphragm over
control box flange deflection and stresses due to self- the bearing solé píate. Torsional shear is also present
weight and the weight of the concrete before it hardens. and its effect must be considered.
The box flange may be considered effective with For such cases, the combined stress in the flange
the diaphragm at supports. A flange width equal to 18 due to the factored loads can be checked using the gen-
times its thickness may be considered effective with the eral form of the Huber-von Mises-Hencky yield crite-
diaphragm. The combined stress in the flange due to rion as foliows:
vertical bending in the box girder and diaphragm and
due to the diaphragm plus torsional shear, caused by Eq.(C10-3)
the factored loads, shall not exceed the specified mini-
mum yield stress of the flange.
where:
= average longitudinal stress in the bottom flange

due to vertical bending of the girder (ksi)
av = stress in the bottom flange due to vertical

bending of the diaphragm over the bearing
solé píate (ksi)
fv = shear stress in the bottom flange due to the
sum of the diaphragm and torsional shears
(ksi)
Fv = specified minimum yield stress of the bottom
flange (ksi)
For a box supported on two bearings, av is typically

relatively small and can often be neglected. If so, ax
can simply be checked against the critical stress given
by Equation (10-2), which results from Equation (C10-
3) when ay is taken equal to zero.
10.4.2.2 Shear C10.4.2.2
The critical shear stress, Fv, shall be taken as: Torsional shear in the box flange constitutes a
major difference between these strength provisions and
F,, the flange provisions for straight box girders in
Eq. (10-1) AASHTO Article 10.51. Shear flow can be calculated
from torque using the following equation:
SF = -I- Eq.(C10-4)
where:
SF = shear flow (k/in)

T = computed torque (k-in)
A0 = enelosed área of box (in2)
The critical shear stress is taken as 0.75Fy A/3

rather than F y /VJ as done in the Guide Spec because
stresses above 0.75Fy/v3 cause a signifícant reduc-
tion in bending capacity by limiting the compressive
stress in the flange.
10.4.2.3 Tensión Flanges C10.4.2.3
The critical tensile stress, Fcr, shall be taken as: The critical tensile stress is determined according
to the Huber-von Mises-Hencky yield criterion that
F c r =F y A Eq.(10-2) recognizes the deleterious effect of shear.
where:
A = 1-3 ^ Eq. (10-3)
f v = factored torsional shear stress in the flange (ksi)

10.4.2.4 Compression Flanges C10.4.2.4
10.4.2.4.1 Unstiffened Flanges C10.4.2.4.1
The critical compressive stress, Fcr, shall be taken In the slendemess range less than R b the critical
stress is defined according to the Huber-von Mises-
Hencky yield criterion. The strength of more slender
flanges is based on elastic buckling of an infinitely
FCT=FyAfor J É J - á R , Eq. (10-4) long píate with clamped edges subjected to a uniform
in-plane compressive stress and shear stress (Ti-
moshenko and Gere, 1961).
where:
bf = flange width between webs (in)

tf = flange thickness (in)
for R. shall be taken as:
V
R. = , Eq.(10-5)
where:
k = plate-buckling coefficient = 4.0

ks = shear-buckling coefficient = 5.34
/ f i v 1 1N\
71
R 2 '~V F y
A -0.4 < l-sin
2 R 2 -R,
\ . V / J)
Eq. (10-6)
for R , < —
where R shall be taken as:
2!OVk
A-0.4 +
Eq. (10-7)
f,2k
F c r =26.21xl0 3 k|^-| -
bf
26.21 x!03k2 -
Eq. (10-8)
10.4.2.4.2 Longitudinally Stiffened Flanges C10.4.2.4.2
The number of equally spaced longitudinal flange When an unstiffened compression flange is so
stiffeners preferably shall not exceed two. slender that the critical stress decreases to impractical
Transverso stiffening of the flange shall be pro- levéis, longitudinal stiffeners can be used. Longitudinal
vided at the point of máximum compressive flexural stiffeners must ha ve the same yield stress as the flange.
stress in the flange as specifíed in Article 10.2.2.3. The provisions preferably limit the number of longitu-
The strength of longitudinally stiffened flanges dinal stiffeners to two, where up to five are permitted
shall be determined according to Article 10.4.2.4.1 by in AASHTO Article 10.51.5.4. Transverso stiffening
substituting the spacing between longitudinal stiffeners used with one or two longitudinal stiffeners must meet
or between the web and the adjacent longitudinal stiff- the requirements of Article 10.2.2.3.
ener, b s , for the flange width, b f , and by substituting If the box flange is exceptionally wide, more than
the buckling coefficients, k and ks, defined by Equa- two longitudinal flange stiffeners may be desired. The
tions (10-10) and (10-9) for the buckling coefficients, assumption that the stiffeners are infinitely long is used
4.0 and 5.34, respectively. in the derivation of Equation (10-10). This leads to
The shear-buckling coefficient, ks, shall be taken as: very large longitudinal stiffeners when more than two
longitudinal stiffeners are used. By introducing trans-
verse flange stiffeners, the use of three or more longi-
5.34 + 2.84 tudinal stiffeners becomes more practical. Provisions to
design flanges of straight composite box girders with
ks=- < 5.34 Eq. (10-9) both longitudinal and transverso stiffeners are available
in AASHTO Article 10.39.4.4. These provisions do
not recognize the effect of torsional shear in the flange
where: and are presented in working stress design formal.
A transverso flange stiffener is required at the
n = number of equally spaced longitudinal flange point of máximum compressive stress to ensure that the
stiffeners longitudinal stiffeners remain true.
I, = actual moment of inertia of one longitudinal If the longitudinal stiffener is very rigid, i.e., k = 4,
flange stiffener about an axis parallel to the nodes are formed at the longitudinal stiffeners. A less
flange at the base of the stiffener (in4) rigid stiffener, i.e., k < 4, yields a correspondingly
tf = thickness of the flange píate (in)
lower flange buckling stress and smaller longitudinal
distance between longitudinal flange stiffeners stiffeners. Longitudinal flange stiffeners should be in-
or between the web and the adjacent longitu- cluded in the section properties of the box or tub.
dinal stiffener (in) Longitudinal flange stiffeners are best discontin-
ued at field splice locations at the free edge of the
The required moment of inertia of a longitudinal flange where the flange stress is zero. Otherwise, a
flange stiffener about an axis parallel to the flange at potential fatigue problem is created and the base metal
the base of the stiffener, I' shall be taken as: at the termination of the stiffener-to-flange weld must
be checked for fatigue according to the terminus detail.
Eq. (10-10) The compressive strength of the unstiffened bottom
flange across from the flange stiffener termination
where: should be checked.
0.125k3 f o r n = l
1.120k3 forn = 2
k = píate bend-buckling coefficient
(2<k<4)
10.4.3 Composite Box Flanges C10.4.3
10.4.3.1 General C10.4.3.1
A composite box flange is defined as a box flange Top flange box girders are rare in the United States
composed of steel with reinforced concrete attached to because the cost of working inside closed boxes is pro-
the flange with shear connectors. For load applied prior hibitivo due to safety requirements. However, concrete
to hardening of the concrete, composite box flanges has been used on the bottom flange of box girders
shall be designed as non-composite box flanges ac- where it contributes to the section properties of the box
cording to the provisions of Article 10.4.2. Torsión and and acts to stiffen the compression flange.
torsional shear stresses shall be computed using the
uncracked section for all limit states. Concrete flexural

AASTHO Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges 2003 - Part1

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AASTHO Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges 2003 - Part1

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AASHTO Cuide Specifications for

Horizontally Curved Steel

With Design Examples for

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Copyright ©2003 by the American Association of State

President: James C. Codell, III, Kentucky

REGIÓN I: Carol Murray, New Hampshire, One-Year Term

REGIÓN II: Fred Van Kirk, West Virginia, One-Year Term

REGIÓN III: Henry Hungerbeeler, Missouri, One-Year Term

REGIÓN IV: Mike Behrens, Texas, One-Year Term

Immediate Past President: Dan Flowers, Arkansas

TOM LULAY, OREGON, Chairman

ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H. Connor RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhoumand

The following terms are used to identify particular specifications:

SECTION 2: LIMIT STATES 17

SECTION4: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 27

SECTIONIO: CLOSED Box AND TUB GIRDERS 59

SECTION 11: SPLICES AND CONNECTIONS 71

2.6.4 Girder Lengths 92

SECTION3: TRANSPORTATION PLAN 95

SECTION 1: OBJECTIVES 107

5.2.3 Comparison of Analyses 116

D. SELECTED DESIGN FORCES AND GIRDER 4 SECTION PROPERTIES 163

G. FIELD SECTION PROFILES 269

HORIZONTALLY CURVEO STEEL BOX-GIRDER DESIGN EXAMPLE

SECTION 1: OBJECTIVES 275

SECTION 6: LIMIT STATES 289

C. COMPARISON OF ANALYSES 307

D. SELECTED DESIGN FORCES AND GIRDER 2 SECTION PROPERTIES 315

Figure 3.2.1 I-Girder Bridge Cross Section 111

Component —A constituent part of a structure.

Deck—The roadway composed of reinforced concrete.

Girder Radius—The radius of the circumferential centerline of a segment of a curved girder.

Hooke 's Law—Stress in a material is proportional to strain in the elastic range.

I-Girder—A bending member that has an I-shaped cross section.

Lateral Bending Stress—Bending stress caused by lateral flange bending.

Model—A mathematical idealization of a structure or component used for analysis.

Negative Moment—Moment producing tensión at the top of a bending element.

Positive Moment—Moment producing tensión at the bottom of a bending element.

Shear Strength—Shear capacity of a component as computed using these provisions.

Slab—Deck composed of concrete and reinforcement.

Span Length—See Are Span.

Strong-Axis—The centroidal axis about which the moment of inertia is a máximum.

Torsional Shear Stress—Shear stress induced by St. Venant torsión.

Yield Stress—The specifíed minimum yield stress for the steel.

Abot = área of bottom flange (in2) (7.2.2)

plástic shear capacity of a web (kip) (6.2.2)

1.1 SCOPE Cl.l

tests of curved hybrid girders; and there has been no

1.2 PRINCIPLES C1.2

1.2.1 Statics Cl.2.1

1.2.2 Stability Cl.2.2

1.2.3 Strength of Materials Cl.2.3

1.2.4 Small-Deflection Elastie Behavior Cl.2.4

1.2.5 Large-Deflection Inelastic Behavior Cl.2.5

Steel is considered to be elastic-perfectly-plastic. The provisions do not require inelastic analyses;

2.1 GENERAL C2.1

2.2 STRENGTH C2.2

2.3 FATIGUE C2.3

2.4 SERVICEABILITY C2.4