WIELESS COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS

IV BTECH II SEM (JNTUH- R16)

BY
Dr.K.Venkata Murali Mohan
Professor

1
 UNIT I
The Cellular Concept-System
Design Fundamentals

2
 Cellular Concept
• Proposed by Bell Labs 1971
Geographic Service divided into
smaller “cells”

• Neighboring cells do not use same set

of frequencies to prevent interference

• Often approximate coverage area

of a cell by an idealized hexagon

• Increase system capacity

by frequency reuse.

3
 Cellular Networks
• Propagation models represent cell as a circular area
• Approximate cell coverage with a hexagon - allows easier analysis
• Frequency assignment of F MHz for the system
• The multiple access techniques translates F to T traffic channels
• Cluster of cells K = group of adjacent cells which use all of the systems
frequency
assignment

4
 Cellular Concept
• Why not a large radio tower and large service area?
–Number of simultaneous users would be very limited
(to total number of traffic channels T)
– Mobile handset would have greater power requirement
• Cellular concept - small cells with frequency reuse
– Advantages
• lower power handsets
• Increases system capacity with frequency reuse
– Drawbacks:
• Cost of cells
• Handoffs between cells must be supported
• Need to track user to route incoming call/message

5
 Cellular Concept (cont)
• Let T = total number of duplex channels
K cells = size of cell cluster (typically 4, 7,12,
21) N = T/K = number of channels per cell
• For a specific geographic area, if clusters are replicatedM
times, then total number of channels
–system capacity = M x T
–Choice of K determines distance between cells using
the same frequencies – termed co-channel cells
–K depends on how much interference can be
tolerated by mobile stations

6
 Cellular Design Reuse Pattern
• Example: cell cluster size K = 7,
frequency reuse factor = 1/7,
assume T = 490 total channels, N
= T/K = 70 channels per cell
• Assume T = 490 total channels,
• K = 7, N = 70 channels/cell
• Clusters are replicated M=3 times
• System capacity = 3x490 = 1470
total channels

7
 Cluster Size
• From geometry of grid of hexagons only
• certain values of K are possible if
replicating cluster without gaps
• K = i2 + ij + j2 where i andjare
non-negative integers

8
 Cellular Concepts
(Co-Channel Cells)

• To find co-channel neighbors of a cell, move i cells perpendicular to the

hexagon boundry, turn 60 degrees counterclockwise, and move j cells
(example: i=2, j=2, K=12)
• In order to maximize capacity, Co-channel cells are placed as far apart as
possible for a given cluster size
• The relationship among the distance between the Co-channel cells, D, the
cluster size K and the cell radius R is given as;

D/R = √3K

9
Cellular Concepts

In this caseK=19
(i=3, j=2)

10
 Frequency Reuse
• Relate Cluster size K to the Co-channel interference C/I at the edge of the
cell
• In general signal-to-noise ratio can be written as;
Sr= Pdesired / Σi Pinterference,i

• Pdesired is the signal from the desired BS and Pinterference,i is the signal from
the ith undesired BS
• The signal strength falls as some power of α called power-distance
gradient or path loss component
• If Pt is the tranmitted power, d is the distance then, received power will be
Pr=Pt Ld-α
Where, d is in meters
L is the constant depending on frequency

11
 Frequency Assignment
• Aim: To increase the number of available channels without compromising
the quality of service e.g.
1) Efficient Utilization of Spectrum
2) Increase Capacity
3) Minimize Interference
• Two Types
– Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
• The number of traffic channels is fixed. If all channels are busy a
new call to or from a mobile will be blocked (rejected by BS)
– Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)
• The BS requests a channel for the MSC when needed
• The MSC allocates the channel taking into account

12
 Frequency Assignment (cont)
a) likelihood of future blocking within the cell
b) the frequencies of use of the candidate channel
c) the reuse distance of the channel
• The dynamic channel assignment reduces the probability of blocking
(the number of available channels to a cell is increased)
• Increase in the complexity of the MSC which has to collect data on;
a) Channel Occupancy
b) Traffic distribution
c) Radio signal strength of all channels
• Cell borrowing technique: a case of FCA in which a cell is allowed to
borrow a channel from its neighbour under MSC’ssupervision

13
 Handoff Strategies
• When a mobile moves from one cell to the
next during a call the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging
to the next cell. This operation is called
HANDOFF
• Handoff is similar to an initial call request
• The handoff has the priority over a new call to
avoid call cut off in the mid conversation
margin is Δ= Phandoff - Pmin

14
• In reality, a fraction of total channels can bereserved
for handoff requests in eachcell

• The handoff must be successful, as infrequent as

possible and unnoticeable to the user

• The minimum acceptable level is establised for the

received signal to maintain the call. The handoff
threshold is slightly above that level. The

15
Improper Handoff

16
Proper Handoff

17
 Handoff (cont)
• If the margin is too large there are too frequent and unnecessary handoffs
which burden the MSC

• If the margin is too small, there may be not enough time to complete the
handoff, particularly when the mobile moves fast

• The time a mobile spends in a cell without handoff is called dwell time

• For high speed mobiles, large umbrella cells with wide range are used

• For low speed mobile, microcells with small coverage area areused

• The speed is estimated by the BS or MSC from average signal strength

18
 Interference and System
Capacity
• Interference is a limiting factor in the performance of cellular systems

• Co-Channel interference (CCI) is caused by signals at the same frequency

• Adjacent channel interference (ACI) is caused by signals from
neighbouring frequencies

• In traffic channels, interference causes crosstalk from undesired users

• In control channels, interference causes errors which result in wrong
instructions

• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be separated

sufficiently

19
 Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
• Let R be the radius of a cell and let D be the distance between the centers
of co-channel cells

• The CCI is independent of the transmit power

• By increasing the ratio D/R we reduce CCI

• We define the co-channel frequency reuse ratio as Q=D/R, then for
hexagonal cells, Q=√3K

• By reducing Q

– The cluster size K is reduced

– The systems traffic capacity is increased (the number of channels per cell
is increased)
20
– CCI is increased
 CCI (cont)
• By increasing Q
– Cluster size K is increased
– The system capacity is decreased
– CCI is decreased
• Mathematically, CCI ratio Calculation
• Let Ni be the number of co-channel cells
• Signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) is;
S/I = S / (ΣNi Ii)
Where S is power from desired BS and li is the power from i-th interferer
BSi
• Let P0 be the received power at a distance d0 from the transmitter.
• The received power of the mobile at the distance d from the transmitter is
Pr=P0 (d/d0)-n

21
 CCI Ratio (cont)
• Where α is the path loss component and n=2,3,4
• In dBm we have
Pr (dBm) = P0 (dBm)-10 α log 10 (d/d0)
• The least value of desired signal S is at theedge
of
the cell, which is R, thus
S= P0 (R/d0)-n
• For hexagonal cellular systems, most of the
CCI results from the first tier
• Let Di be the distance from the mobile to the i-th
BS. Assuming all BSs transmit the same power
P0, we have
Ii= P0 (Di/d0)-n
• if we assume that Di=D and Ni=6, then
S/I = (D/R)n / Ni = Qn/ Ni= Qn/6 22
 Adjacent Channel Interference

• ACI is caused by signals from neighbouring frequencies

• Particularly severe when the mobile is far away from its BS and verynear
to an adjacent channel transmitter (near-far effect)
• Also happens when a mobile close to BS uses a channel which is adjacent
to a very weak mobile transmitting to the same BS
• ACI can be reduced by careful frequency assignment
• As a cell only has a fraction of channels, these channels do not have to be
adjacent in frequency
• ACI is reduced if we maximize the separationbetween adjacent channels
in a cell
• Power control of all mobiles

23
 Improving Capacity in Cellular
Systems
• Aim: To provide more channels per unit coverage area
• Techniques: Three techniques are used to improve capacity
• SECTORING:
– Use directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency
reuse of channels.
– Examples: Omni, 120O, 60O and 90O

24
 Sectoring
• The sectoring is done by replacing a single omni-directional antenna with 3
directional antennas (120O sectoring) or with 6 directional antennas (60O
sectoring)

• In this scheme, each cell is divided into 3 or 6 sectors. Each sector uses a
directional antenna at the BS and is assigned a set of channels.

• The number of channels in each sector is the number of channels in a cell

divided by the number of sectors. The amount of co-channel interferer is
also reduced by the number of sectors.

Drawbacks:

• Increase the number of antennas at each BS

• The number of handoffs increases when the mobile moves fromone
25
sector to another.
 Cell Splitting
• Cell splitting is the process of splitting a mobile cell into severalsmaller
cells. This is usually done to make more voice channels available to
accommodate traffic growth in the area covered by the original cell

• If the radius of a cell is reduced from R to R/2, the area of the cell is
reduced fromArea to Area/4. The number of available channels is also
increased.

• Cell splitting is usually done on demand; when in a certain cell there is too
much traffic which causes too much blocking of calls. The cell is split into
smaller microcells.

26
27
 Cell Splitting Drawbacks

• In practice not all cells are split simultaneously, therefore we may have
cells of different sizes.

• Also the handoff between the cells and microcells has to be taken care off
so that high speed and low speed mobiles are equally served.

• Decreasing cell size results in more handoffs per call and higherprocessing
load per subscriber. Thus, the handoff rate will increase exponentially

28
 Exercise
Considering this radio coverage, could you identify the topology of
the different areas?

20

20 20

40
20

100 60 60 60
20

100
100

20
60 100

100

20
20

20
Figures indicates Base Stations
Erlang capacity

29
Solution: Topology of Different
Areas
20

20 20

40
20

100 60 60 60
20

100
100

20
60 100

100

Town 20
20
Suburb
Highway 20
Rural

30
Channel Assignment
Strategies
 Channel Allocation Techniques
 To satisfy the user, a channel needs to be available on request.

 Reasonable probability of call blockage (GOS) is 2%.

 GOS fluctuate with location and time.

 The goal is to keep a uniform GOS across the system.

 Reduction of variations in GOS allow more users – an increasein
capacity.

 Three types of algorithms for channel allocation:

 Fixed channel allocation (FCA)

 Channel Borrowing

 Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)

32
 Fixed Channel Allocation Techniques

 Available spectrum is W Hz and each channel is B Hz. Total number

of channels:
Nc = W/B

 For a cluster size N, the number of channels per cell:

Cc = Nc/N

 To minimize interference, assign adjacent channels to different cells.

33
 Features of Fixed Channel Allocation
Techniques
 FCA is the optimum allocation strategy for uniformtraffic across the
cells.

 A non uniform FCA strategy, when it is possible to evaluate GOS in real

time and adjust the FCA accordingly. This requires a more complex
algorithm.

34
 Channel Borrowing

 Borrow frequencies from low traffic cells to high trafficcells.

 Temporary channel borrowing: channel is returned after call is

completed.

 If all the channels in a cell are occupied, channels are borrowed

from neighboring cells.
 The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures
disruption free service.

35
 Dynamic Channel Allocation

 All channels are placed in a pool, and are assigned to new calls according
to the reuse pattern. Signal is returned to the pool, when call is completed.

 Issues related to channel allocation are still under research.

36
 Comparison of Channel Allocation
Techniques
 Fixed ChannelAllocation
 Advantages:
 Less load on MSC
 Simple
 Disadvantages:
 Blocking may happen
 Dynamic Channel Allocation
 Advantages:
 Voice channels are not allocated permanently. That is shared on need-basis
 Disadvantages:
 Requires MSC for processing---burden on MSC
 May be very complicated

37
 Hand off

 HANDOFF: The process of transferring a call across the cell

boundaries.

 Handoffs are prioritized over new calls.

 Handoffs need to be performed infrequently.

38
 UNIT II
Mobile Radio Propagation
Large-scale Path loss

1
 Introduction
 The mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on
the performance of a wireless communication system
 The wireless transmission path may be
Line of Sight (LOS)
Non line of Sight (NLOS)
 Radio channels are random and time varying
 Modeling radio channels have been one of the difficult parts of
mobile radio design and is done in statistical manner
 When electrons move, they create EM waves that can
propagate through space.
 By using antennas we can transmit and receive these EM wave
 Microwave ,Infrared visible light and radio waves can be used.

2
 Properties of Radio Waves
 Are easy to generate

 Can travel long distances

 Can penetrate buildings

 May be used for both indoor and outdoor coverage

 Are omni-directional-can travel in all directions

 Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies(>100MHz) using

parabolic antenna

3
 Properties of Radio Waves
 Frequency dependence

Behave more like light at high frequencies

Difficulty in passing obstacle
Follow direct paths
Absorbed by rain

Behave more like radio at lower frequencies

 Can pass obstacles

 Power falls off sharply with distance from source

 Subject to interference from other radio waves

4
 Propagation Models
The statistical modeling is usually done based on data
measurements made specifically for
the intended communication system
the intended spectrum

 They are tools used for:

Predicting the average signal strength at a given
distance from the transmitter

Estimating the variability of the signal strength in close

spatial proximity to a particular locations

5
 Propagation Models
 Large Scale Propagation Model:

Predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary

transmitter-receiver(T-R) separation

Estimate radio coverage of a transmitter

Characterize signal strength over large T-R

separation distances(several 100’s to 1000’s
meters)

6
 Propagation Models
 Small Scale or Fading Models:

Characterize rapid fluctuations of received signal

strength over

 Very short travel distances( a few wavelengths)

 Short time durations(on the order of seconds)

7
Small-scale and large-scale fading

8
Free Space Propagation Model
For clear LOS between T-R
Ex: satellite & microwave communications

Assumes that received power decays as a function of T-Rdistance

separation raised to some power.

Given by Friis free space eqn:

‘L’ is the system lossfactor

L >1 indicates loss due to transmission line attenuation,filter losses &
antenna losses
L = 1 indicates no loss in the systemhardware
Gain of antenna is related to its effective aperture Ae by
G=4 π Ae /λ2

9
Free Space Propagation Model
 EffectiveApertureAe is related to physical size ofantenna.
λ= c/f.
 c is speed of light,
 Pt and Pr must be in sameunits
 Gt ad Gr aredimensionless

 An isotropic radiator, an ideal radiator which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions, and is often used asreference

 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is defined as

EIRP= Pt Gt
 Represents the max radiated power available from a transmitter in
direction
of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropicradiator

10
Free Space Propagation Model
 In practice Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is used instead of
(EIRP)

 Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is radiated power compared

to half wave dipole antennas

 Since dipole antenna has gain of 1.64(2.15 dB)

ERP=EIRP-2.15(dB)

 the ERP will be 2.15dB smaller than the EIRP forsame

Transmission medium

11
Free Space Propagation Model
 Path Loss (PL) represents signal attenuation and is defined as
difference between the effective transmitted power and
received power
Path loss PL(dB) = 10 log [Pt/Pr]
= -10 log {GtGr λ^2/(4π)^2d^2}

 Without antenna gains (with unit antenna gains)

PL = - 10 log { λ^2/(4π)^2d^2}
Friis free space model is valid predictor for Pr for values of d
which are in the far-field of transmitting antenna

12
 Free Space Propagation Model
 The far field or Fraunhofer region that is beyond far field distancedf
given
as : df=2D2/λ
 D is the largest physical linear dimension of the transmitterantenna
 Additionally, df>>D and df>>λ
 The Friis free space equation does not hold ford=0
 Large Scale Propagation models use a close-in distance, do, asreceived
power reference point, chosen such that do>=df
 Received power in free space at a distance greater thendo
Pr (d)=Pr(do )(do /d)2 d>do>df
Pr with reference to 1 mW is represented as
Pr(d)=10log(Pr(do)/0.001W)+20log (do /d)
Electrostatic,inductive and radiated fields are launched, due to flow of
current from anntena.
Regions far away from transmitter electrostatic and inductive fields
become negligible and only radiated field components areconsidered. 13
 Propagation Mechanisms
 Three basic propagation mechanism which impact
propagation in mobile radio communication system are:

Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

17
 Propagation Mechanisms
 Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave
impinges on an object which has very large dimensions as
compared to wavelength e.g. surface of earth , buildings, walls

 Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and
receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
irregularities(edges)
Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments
without a line of sight path

 Scattering occurs when medium has objects that are smaller

or comparable to the wavelength (small objects, irregularities
on channel, foliage, street signs etc)

18
 Reflection
 Occurs when a radio wave propagating in one medium
impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties
 If radio wave is incident on a perfect dielectric
Part of energy is reflected back
Part of energy is transmitted
 In addition to the change of direction, the interaction between
the wave and boundary causes the energy to be split between
reflected and transmitted waves
 The amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves are
given relative to the incident wave amplitude by Fresnel
reflection coefficients

19
Vertical and Horizontal polarization

20
Reflection- Dielectrics

21
 Reflection
E η sinθ −η sinθ
 Γ(ǁ)= E r/= η 2 sinθt +η1 sinθi (Paralell E-field polarization)
i 1 t 1 i

Er η2sinθi−η1sinθt
Γ(┴)= E = η sinθ +η sinθ (Perpendicular E-field polarization)
i 1 i 1 t

 These expressions express ratio of reflected electric fields to the

incident electric field and depend on impedance of media and on angles

 η is the intrinsic impedance given by (μ/ε)

 μ=permeability,ε=permittivity

22
 Reflection-Perfect Conductor
 If incident on a perfect conductor the entire EM energy is
reflected back

 Here we have θr= θi

 Ei= Er (E-field in plane of incidence)

 Ei= -Er (E field normal to plane ofincidence)

 Γ(parallel)= 1

 Γ(perpendicular)= -1

23
 Reflection - Brewster Angle
 It is the angle at which no reflection occur in the medium of
origin. It occurs when the incident angle is such that the
reflection coefficient Γ(parallel) is equal to zero.
 It is given in terms of as given below
1
=
1+ 2

 When first medium is a free space and second medium

has an relative permittivity of ℎ
−1
=
2− 1
 Brewster angle only occur for parallel polarization

24
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

 In mobile radio channel, single direct path between base

station and mobile and is seldom only physical means for
propagation
 Free space model as a stand alone is inaccurate
 Two ray ground reflection model is useful
Based on geometric optics
Considers both direct and ground reflected path
 Reasonably accurate for predicting large scale signal strength
over several kms that use tall tower height
 Assumption: The height of Transmitter >50 meters

25
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

26
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

62
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

28
Path Difference

29
Phase difference

ETOT (t)  2 E0d0 sin   

d  2
  2hr ht
 0.3 rad
2 d
E d 2 hr ht  k
ETOT (t)  2 0 0 V/m
d d d 2

ℎ2 ℎ2
= 4

30
 Diffraction
 Diffraction is the bending of wave fronts around obstacles.

 Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate behind obstructions

and is thus one of the factors why we receive signals at locations
where there is no line-of-sight from base stations

 Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver

moves deeper into an obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction
field still exists and often has sufficient signal strength to produce
a useful signal.

31
Diffraction

32
 Knife-edge Diffraction Model
 Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction
of radio waves over hills and buildings is essential in
predicting the field strength in a given service area.

 As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over

a knife edge gives good in sight into the order of magnitude
diffraction loss.

 When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a

building, the attenuation caused by diffraction can be
estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting
knife edge
33
 Knife-edge Diffraction Model
Consider a receiver at point R located in the shadowed region. The field strength
at point R is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the secondary Huygens sources
in the plane above the knife edge.

34
 Knife-edge Diffraction Model
 The difference between the direct path and diffracted path, call
excess path length

 The corresponding phase difference

 Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter is used to normalize the

phased term and given as
Which gives

 where = ℎ( 1+ 2 )
1 2

35
Knife-edge Diffraction Model

36
 Fresnel zones
 Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a
path length from the TX to the RX which are nλ/2 greater in path length
than of the LOS path. The plane below illustrates successive Fresnelzones.

37
Fresnel zones

38
 Diffraction gain
 The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge,as
compared to the free space E-field

 The electric field strength, Ed, of a knife edge diffracted wave is

given by

 Eo : is the free space field strength in the absence of both the

ground and the knife edge.
 F(v): is the complex fresnel integral.
 v: is the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter

39
Graphical Calculation of diffraction
attenuation

40
Multiple Knife Edge Diffraction

47
 Scattering
 Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles
per unit volume is large.

 Scattered waves are produced by

rough surfaces,

small objects,

or by other irregularities in the channel.

 Scattering is caused by trees, lamp posts, towers, etc.

48
 Scattering
 Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted
by reflection/diffraction models alone

 The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is

scattered in many directions and provides more energy at a
receiver
energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected
to the Rx.

 flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)

 rough surface → EM scattering (many directions)

49
 Scattering
 Rayleigh criterion: used for testing surface roughness
 A surface is considered smooth if its min to max protuberance
(bumps) h is less than critical height hc
hc = λ/8sinΘi

 Scattering path loss factor ρs is given by

ρs =exp[-8[(π*σh *sinΘi)/ λ] 2]
Where h is surface height and σh is standard deviation of surface
height about mean surface height.

 For rough surface, the flat surface reflection coefficient is multiplied

by scattering loss factor ρs to account for diminished electricfield

 Reflected E-fields for h> hc for rough surface can be calculated as

Гrough= ρsГ

50
Scattering

51
Outdoor propagation Environment
 Based on the coverage area, the Outdoor
propagation environment may be divided into
three categories

1. Propagation in Macro cells

2. Propagation in Micro cells

3. Propagation in street Micro cells

52
Outdoor propagation Environment

53
Outdoor propagation Models
 Outdoor radio transmission takes place over
an irregular terrain.
 The terrain profile must be taken into
consideration for estimating the path loss
e.g. trees buildings and hills must be taken
into consideration
 Some common models used are
 Longley Rice Model
 Okumura Model
 Hatta model

54
 Longley Rice Model
 Longley Rice Model is applicable to point to point
communication.
 It covers 40MHz to 300 GHz
 It can be used in wide range of terrain
 Path geometry of terrain and the refractivity of
troposphere is used for transmission path loss
calculations
 Geometrical optics is also used along with the two
ray model for the calculation of signal strength.
 Two modes
 Point to point mode prediction
 Area mode prediction
55
 Longley Rice Model
 Longley Rice Model is normally available as a
computer program which takes inputs as
Transmission frequency
Path length
Polarization
Antenna heights
Surface reflectivity
Ground conductivity and dialectic constants
Climate factors
 A problem with Longley rice is that It doesn't
take into account the buildings and multipath.
56
 Okumura Model
 In 1968 Okumura did a lot of measurements and
produce a new model.
 The new model was used for signal prediction in Urban
areas.
 Okumura introduced a graphical method to predict the
median attenuation relative to free-space for a quasi-
smooth terrain
 The model consists of a set of curves developed from
measurements and is valid for a particular set of system
parameters in terms of carrier frequency, antenna height, etc.

57
 Okumura Model
 First of all the model determined the free space path loss
of link.
 After the free-space path loss has been computed, the
median attenuation, as given by Okumura’s curves has to be
taken to account
 The model was designed for use in the frequency range 200
up to 1920 MHz and mostly in an urban propagation
environment.
 Okumura’s model assumes that the path loss between the TX
and RX in the terrestrial propagation environment can be
expressed as:

58
 Okumura Model
 Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. Determine free space loss and Amu(f ,d ), between points of interest

2. Add Amu(f ,d) and correction factors to account forterrain

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment

5959
 Okumura Model
 Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of
frequencies
 Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB or 10dB per decade
h
G(h te ) = 20log te 10m < h te < 1000m
200
G(h re ) = 10 log hre hre
3 3m

G(h re ) = 20log hre 3m < h re <10m

3
 model corrected for
h = terrain undulation height, isolated ridge height
average terrain slope and mixed land/sea parameter
60
Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space = Amu(f,d) (dB)

100
70 UrbanArea
ht = 200m 80
60 hr = 3m 70
60
50 50
40
40 30

d(km)
Amu(f,d) (dB)

20
10
30 5
2
20 1

10

100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 f (MHz)

691
0
Correction Factor GAREA

62
 Indoor Models
 Indoor Channels are different from traditional
channels in two ways
1. The distances covered are much smaller
2. The variability of environment is much greater
for a much small range of Tx and Rx separation.

 Propagation inside a building is influenced

by:
- Layout of the building
- Construction materials
- Building Type: office , Home or factory
67
 Indoor Models
 Indoor models are dominated by the same
mechanism as out door models:
- Reflection, Diffraction and scattering
 Conditions are much more variable
- Doors/Windows open or not
- Antenna mounting : desk ceiling etc
- The levels of floor
 Indoor models are classifies as
- Line of sight (LOS)
- Obstructed (OBS) with varying degree of clutter

68
 Indoor Models
 Portable receiver usually experience
- Rayleigh fading for OBS propagation paths
- Ricean fading for LOS propagation path
 Indoors models are effected by type of building e.g.
Residential buildings, offices, stores and sports area etc.
 Multipath delay spread
- Building with small amount of metal and hard partition
have small delay spread 30 to 60ns
- Building with large amount of metal and open
isles have delay spread up to 300ns

69
Partition losses (same floor)
 Two types of partitions
1. hard partitions: Walls of room
2. Soft partitions : Moveable partitions that
donot span to ceiling

 Partitions vary widely in their Physical and

electrical properties.

 Path loss depend upon the types of partitions

70
Partition losses (same floor)

71
Partitions losses (between floors)
 Partition losses between the two floors
depend on
1. External dimension and material used for buildings
2. Types of construction used to create floors
3. External surroundings
4. No of windows used
5. Tinting on the windows

 Floor Attenuation Factor (FAF) increases as we

increase the no of floors

72
Log distance path loss model
 Path loss can be given as

where n is path loss exponent and σ is

standard deviation
 n and σ depend on the building type.
 Smaller value of σ indicates better accuracy of
path loss model

74
Ericsson Multiple Break Point Model

76
 Attenuation factor model
 Obtained by measurement in multiple floors building

77
Attenuation factor model

78
 Signal penetration intobuilding
 Effect of frequency
- Penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency

 Effect of Height
 Penetration loss decreases with the height of building up to
some certain height.
- At lower heights the Urban clutter induces greater attenuation
- Up to some height attenuation decreases but then again increase after
a few floors
- Increase in attenuation at higher floors is due to the Shadowing
effects of adjacent buildings

79