WCN
WCN
NETWORKS
BY
Dr.K.Venkata Murali Mohan
Professor
1
UNIT I
The Cellular Concept-System
Design Fundamentals
2
Cellular Concept
• Proposed by Bell Labs 1971
Geographic Service divided into
smaller “cells”
3
Cellular Networks
• Propagation models represent cell as a circular area
• Approximate cell coverage with a hexagon - allows easier analysis
• Frequency assignment of F MHz for the system
• The multiple access techniques translates F to T traffic channels
• Cluster of cells K = group of adjacent cells which use all of the systems
frequency
assignment
4
Cellular Concept
• Why not a large radio tower and large service area?
–Number of simultaneous users would be very limited
(to total number of traffic channels T)
– Mobile handset would have greater power requirement
• Cellular concept - small cells with frequency reuse
– Advantages
• lower power handsets
• Increases system capacity with frequency reuse
– Drawbacks:
• Cost of cells
• Handoffs between cells must be supported
• Need to track user to route incoming call/message
5
Cellular Concept (cont)
• Let T = total number of duplex channels
K cells = size of cell cluster (typically 4, 7,12,
21) N = T/K = number of channels per cell
• For a specific geographic area, if clusters are replicatedM
times, then total number of channels
–system capacity = M x T
–Choice of K determines distance between cells using
the same frequencies – termed co-channel cells
–K depends on how much interference can be
tolerated by mobile stations
6
Cellular Design Reuse Pattern
• Example: cell cluster size K = 7,
frequency reuse factor = 1/7,
assume T = 490 total channels, N
= T/K = 70 channels per cell
• Assume T = 490 total channels,
• K = 7, N = 70 channels/cell
• Clusters are replicated M=3 times
• System capacity = 3x490 = 1470
total channels
7
Cluster Size
• From geometry of grid of hexagons only
• certain values of K are possible if
replicating cluster without gaps
• K = i2 + ij + j2 where i andjare
non-negative integers
8
Cellular Concepts
(Co-Channel Cells)
D/R = √3K
9
Cellular Concepts
In this caseK=19
(i=3, j=2)
10
Frequency Reuse
• Relate Cluster size K to the Co-channel interference C/I at the edge of the
cell
• In general signal-to-noise ratio can be written as;
Sr= Pdesired / Σi Pinterference,i
• Pdesired is the signal from the desired BS and Pinterference,i is the signal from
the ith undesired BS
• The signal strength falls as some power of α called power-distance
gradient or path loss component
• If Pt is the tranmitted power, d is the distance then, received power will be
Pr=Pt Ld-α
Where, d is in meters
L is the constant depending on frequency
11
Frequency Assignment
• Aim: To increase the number of available channels without compromising
the quality of service e.g.
1) Efficient Utilization of Spectrum
2) Increase Capacity
3) Minimize Interference
• Two Types
– Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
• The number of traffic channels is fixed. If all channels are busy a
new call to or from a mobile will be blocked (rejected by BS)
– Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)
• The BS requests a channel for the MSC when needed
• The MSC allocates the channel taking into account
12
Frequency Assignment (cont)
a) likelihood of future blocking within the cell
b) the frequencies of use of the candidate channel
c) the reuse distance of the channel
• The dynamic channel assignment reduces the probability of blocking
(the number of available channels to a cell is increased)
• Increase in the complexity of the MSC which has to collect data on;
a) Channel Occupancy
b) Traffic distribution
c) Radio signal strength of all channels
• Cell borrowing technique: a case of FCA in which a cell is allowed to
borrow a channel from its neighbour under MSC’ssupervision
13
Handoff Strategies
• When a mobile moves from one cell to the
next during a call the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging
to the next cell. This operation is called
HANDOFF
• Handoff is similar to an initial call request
• The handoff has the priority over a new call to
avoid call cut off in the mid conversation
margin is Δ= Phandoff - Pmin
14
• In reality, a fraction of total channels can bereserved
for handoff requests in eachcell
15
Improper Handoff
16
Proper Handoff
17
Handoff (cont)
• If the margin is too large there are too frequent and unnecessary handoffs
which burden the MSC
• If the margin is too small, there may be not enough time to complete the
handoff, particularly when the mobile moves fast
• The time a mobile spends in a cell without handoff is called dwell time
• For high speed mobiles, large umbrella cells with wide range are used
• For low speed mobile, microcells with small coverage area areused
18
Interference and System
Capacity
• Interference is a limiting factor in the performance of cellular systems
19
Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
• Let R be the radius of a cell and let D be the distance between the centers
of co-channel cells
• By reducing Q
– The systems traffic capacity is increased (the number of channels per cell
is increased)
20
– CCI is increased
CCI (cont)
• By increasing Q
– Cluster size K is increased
– The system capacity is decreased
– CCI is decreased
• Mathematically, CCI ratio Calculation
• Let Ni be the number of co-channel cells
• Signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) is;
S/I = S / (ΣNi Ii)
Where S is power from desired BS and li is the power from i-th interferer
BSi
• Let P0 be the received power at a distance d0 from the transmitter.
• The received power of the mobile at the distance d from the transmitter is
Pr=P0 (d/d0)-n
21
CCI Ratio (cont)
• Where α is the path loss component and n=2,3,4
• In dBm we have
Pr (dBm) = P0 (dBm)-10 α log 10 (d/d0)
• The least value of desired signal S is at theedge
of
the cell, which is R, thus
S= P0 (R/d0)-n
• For hexagonal cellular systems, most of the
CCI results from the first tier
• Let Di be the distance from the mobile to the i-th
BS. Assuming all BSs transmit the same power
P0, we have
Ii= P0 (Di/d0)-n
• if we assume that Di=D and Ni=6, then
S/I = (D/R)n / Ni = Qn/ Ni= Qn/6 22
Adjacent Channel Interference
23
Improving Capacity in Cellular
Systems
• Aim: To provide more channels per unit coverage area
• Techniques: Three techniques are used to improve capacity
• SECTORING:
– Use directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency
reuse of channels.
– Examples: Omni, 120O, 60O and 90O
24
Sectoring
• The sectoring is done by replacing a single omni-directional antenna with 3
directional antennas (120O sectoring) or with 6 directional antennas (60O
sectoring)
• In this scheme, each cell is divided into 3 or 6 sectors. Each sector uses a
directional antenna at the BS and is assigned a set of channels.
Drawbacks:
• If the radius of a cell is reduced from R to R/2, the area of the cell is
reduced fromArea to Area/4. The number of available channels is also
increased.
• Cell splitting is usually done on demand; when in a certain cell there is too
much traffic which causes too much blocking of calls. The cell is split into
smaller microcells.
26
27
Cell Splitting Drawbacks
• In practice not all cells are split simultaneously, therefore we may have
cells of different sizes.
• Also the handoff between the cells and microcells has to be taken care off
so that high speed and low speed mobiles are equally served.
• Decreasing cell size results in more handoffs per call and higherprocessing
load per subscriber. Thus, the handoff rate will increase exponentially
28
Exercise
Considering this radio coverage, could you identify the topology of
the different areas?
20
20 20
40
20
100 60 60 60
20
100
100
20
60 100
100
20
20
20
Figures indicates Base Stations
Erlang capacity
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Solution: Topology of Different
Areas
20
20 20
40
20
100 60 60 60
20
100
100
20
60 100
100
Town 20
20
Suburb
Highway 20
Rural
30
Channel Assignment
Strategies
Channel Allocation Techniques
To satisfy the user, a channel needs to be available on request.
Channel Borrowing
33
Features of Fixed Channel Allocation
Techniques
FCA is the optimum allocation strategy for uniformtraffic across the
cells.
34
Channel Borrowing
35
Dynamic Channel Allocation
All channels are placed in a pool, and are assigned to new calls according
to the reuse pattern. Signal is returned to the pool, when call is completed.
36
Comparison of Channel Allocation
Techniques
Fixed ChannelAllocation
Advantages:
Less load on MSC
Simple
Disadvantages:
Blocking may happen
Dynamic Channel Allocation
Advantages:
Voice channels are not allocated permanently. That is shared on need-basis
Disadvantages:
Requires MSC for processing---burden on MSC
May be very complicated
37
Hand off
38
UNIT II
Mobile Radio Propagation
Large-scale Path loss
1
Introduction
The mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on
the performance of a wireless communication system
The wireless transmission path may be
Line of Sight (LOS)
Non line of Sight (NLOS)
Radio channels are random and time varying
Modeling radio channels have been one of the difficult parts of
mobile radio design and is done in statistical manner
When electrons move, they create EM waves that can
propagate through space.
By using antennas we can transmit and receive these EM wave
Microwave ,Infrared visible light and radio waves can be used.
2
Properties of Radio Waves
Are easy to generate
3
Properties of Radio Waves
Frequency dependence
4
Propagation Models
The statistical modeling is usually done based on data
measurements made specifically for
the intended communication system
the intended spectrum
5
Propagation Models
Large Scale Propagation Model:
6
Propagation Models
Small Scale or Fading Models:
7
Small-scale and large-scale fading
8
Free Space Propagation Model
For clear LOS between T-R
Ex: satellite & microwave communications
9
Free Space Propagation Model
EffectiveApertureAe is related to physical size ofantenna.
λ= c/f.
c is speed of light,
Pt and Pr must be in sameunits
Gt ad Gr aredimensionless
An isotropic radiator, an ideal radiator which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions, and is often used asreference
10
Free Space Propagation Model
In practice Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is used instead of
(EIRP)
11
Free Space Propagation Model
Path Loss (PL) represents signal attenuation and is defined as
difference between the effective transmitted power and
received power
Path loss PL(dB) = 10 log [Pt/Pr]
= -10 log {GtGr λ^2/(4π)^2d^2}
PL = - 10 log { λ^2/(4π)^2d^2}
Friis free space model is valid predictor for Pr for values of d
which are in the far-field of transmitting antenna
12
Free Space Propagation Model
The far field or Fraunhofer region that is beyond far field distancedf
given
as : df=2D2/λ
D is the largest physical linear dimension of the transmitterantenna
Additionally, df>>D and df>>λ
The Friis free space equation does not hold ford=0
Large Scale Propagation models use a close-in distance, do, asreceived
power reference point, chosen such that do>=df
Received power in free space at a distance greater thendo
Pr (d)=Pr(do )(do /d)2 d>do>df
Pr with reference to 1 mW is represented as
Pr(d)=10log(Pr(do)/0.001W)+20log (do /d)
Electrostatic,inductive and radiated fields are launched, due to flow of
current from anntena.
Regions far away from transmitter electrostatic and inductive fields
become negligible and only radiated field components areconsidered. 13
Propagation Mechanisms
Three basic propagation mechanism which impact
propagation in mobile radio communication system are:
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
17
Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave
impinges on an object which has very large dimensions as
compared to wavelength e.g. surface of earth , buildings, walls
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and
receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
irregularities(edges)
Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments
without a line of sight path
18
Reflection
Occurs when a radio wave propagating in one medium
impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties
If radio wave is incident on a perfect dielectric
Part of energy is reflected back
Part of energy is transmitted
In addition to the change of direction, the interaction between
the wave and boundary causes the energy to be split between
reflected and transmitted waves
The amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves are
given relative to the incident wave amplitude by Fresnel
reflection coefficients
19
Vertical and Horizontal polarization
20
Reflection- Dielectrics
21
Reflection
E η sinθ −η sinθ
Γ(ǁ)= E r/= η 2 sinθt +η1 sinθi (Paralell E-field polarization)
i 1 t 1 i
Er η2sinθi−η1sinθt
Γ(┴)= E = η sinθ +η sinθ (Perpendicular E-field polarization)
i 1 i 1 t
μ=permeability,ε=permittivity
22
Reflection-Perfect Conductor
If incident on a perfect conductor the entire EM energy is
reflected back
Γ(parallel)= 1
Γ(perpendicular)= -1
23
Reflection - Brewster Angle
It is the angle at which no reflection occur in the medium of
origin. It occurs when the incident angle is such that the
reflection coefficient Γ(parallel) is equal to zero.
It is given in terms of as given below
1
=
1+ 2
24
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model
25
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model
26
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model
62
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model
28
Path Difference
29
Phase difference
ℎ2 ℎ2
= 4
30
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of wave fronts around obstacles.
31
Diffraction
32
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction
of radio waves over hills and buildings is essential in
predicting the field strength in a given service area.
34
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
The difference between the direct path and diffracted path, call
excess path length
where = ℎ( 1+ 2 )
1 2
35
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
36
Fresnel zones
Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a
path length from the TX to the RX which are nλ/2 greater in path length
than of the LOS path. The plane below illustrates successive Fresnelzones.
37
Fresnel zones
38
Diffraction gain
The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge,as
compared to the free space E-field
39
Graphical Calculation of diffraction
attenuation
40
Multiple Knife Edge Diffraction
47
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles
per unit volume is large.
small objects,
48
Scattering
Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted
by reflection/diffraction models alone
49
Scattering
Rayleigh criterion: used for testing surface roughness
A surface is considered smooth if its min to max protuberance
(bumps) h is less than critical height hc
hc = λ/8sinΘi
50
Scattering
51
Outdoor propagation Environment
Based on the coverage area, the Outdoor
propagation environment may be divided into
three categories
52
Outdoor propagation Environment
53
Outdoor propagation Models
Outdoor radio transmission takes place over
an irregular terrain.
The terrain profile must be taken into
consideration for estimating the path loss
e.g. trees buildings and hills must be taken
into consideration
Some common models used are
Longley Rice Model
Okumura Model
Hatta model
54
Longley Rice Model
Longley Rice Model is applicable to point to point
communication.
It covers 40MHz to 300 GHz
It can be used in wide range of terrain
Path geometry of terrain and the refractivity of
troposphere is used for transmission path loss
calculations
Geometrical optics is also used along with the two
ray model for the calculation of signal strength.
Two modes
Point to point mode prediction
Area mode prediction
55
Longley Rice Model
Longley Rice Model is normally available as a
computer program which takes inputs as
Transmission frequency
Path length
Polarization
Antenna heights
Surface reflectivity
Ground conductivity and dialectic constants
Climate factors
A problem with Longley rice is that It doesn't
take into account the buildings and multipath.
56
Okumura Model
In 1968 Okumura did a lot of measurements and
produce a new model.
The new model was used for signal prediction in Urban
areas.
Okumura introduced a graphical method to predict the
median attenuation relative to free-space for a quasi-
smooth terrain
The model consists of a set of curves developed from
measurements and is valid for a particular set of system
parameters in terms of carrier frequency, antenna height, etc.
57
Okumura Model
First of all the model determined the free space path loss
of link.
After the free-space path loss has been computed, the
median attenuation, as given by Okumura’s curves has to be
taken to account
The model was designed for use in the frequency range 200
up to 1920 MHz and mostly in an urban propagation
environment.
Okumura’s model assumes that the path loss between the TX
and RX in the terrestrial propagation environment can be
expressed as:
58
Okumura Model
Estimating path loss using Okumura Model
5959
Okumura Model
Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of
frequencies
Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB or 10dB per decade
h
G(h te ) = 20log te 10m < h te < 1000m
200
G(h re ) = 10 log hre hre
3 3m
100
70 UrbanArea
ht = 200m 80
60 hr = 3m 70
60
50 50
40
40 30
d(km)
Amu(f,d) (dB)
20
10
30 5
2
20 1
10
62
Indoor Models
Indoor Channels are different from traditional
channels in two ways
1. The distances covered are much smaller
2. The variability of environment is much greater
for a much small range of Tx and Rx separation.
68
Indoor Models
Portable receiver usually experience
- Rayleigh fading for OBS propagation paths
- Ricean fading for LOS propagation path
Indoors models are effected by type of building e.g.
Residential buildings, offices, stores and sports area etc.
Multipath delay spread
- Building with small amount of metal and hard partition
have small delay spread 30 to 60ns
- Building with large amount of metal and open
isles have delay spread up to 300ns
69
Partition losses (same floor)
Two types of partitions
1. hard partitions: Walls of room
2. Soft partitions : Moveable partitions that
donot span to ceiling
71
Partitions losses (between floors)
Partition losses between the two floors
depend on
1. External dimension and material used for buildings
2. Types of construction used to create floors
3. External surroundings
4. No of windows used
5. Tinting on the windows
72
Log distance path loss model
Path loss can be given as
74
Ericsson Multiple Break Point Model
76
Attenuation factor model
Obtained by measurement in multiple floors building
77
Attenuation factor model
78
Signal penetration intobuilding
Effect of frequency
- Penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency
Effect of Height
Penetration loss decreases with the height of building up to
some certain height.
- At lower heights the Urban clutter induces greater attenuation
- Up to some height attenuation decreases but then again increase after
a few floors
- Increase in attenuation at higher floors is due to the Shadowing
effects of adjacent buildings
79