Anticipated load on the Substation upto horizon year may be considered for fixing power

transformer capacities. A minimum of two numbers power transformers of suitable

capacities shall be selected.

Transformer is the largest piece of equipment and it is therefore important from the
point of view of station layout. One of the important factors governing the layout of the
substation is whether the transformer is a three-phase unit or a bank of three single
phase transformers. Space requirements with single phase banks are much larger than
those with three phase ones. In the case of single phase banks it is usual to provide one
spare single phase transformer installed in the yard, requiring additional space.
Transformers up to 315 MVA, 400kV are available as three phase units. Transformers
with larger capacities and medium capacity transformers where transport constraints
restrict the movement limiting weight and size, will be normally single phase units.

Provision for additional transformer and feeder bays (preferably with foundation laid) to
be made to take care of likely future expansions.

TRANSFORMER FOUNDATIONS: It shall consist of a R.C.C. soak pit having pedestal

for supporting the transformer/reactor and its cooling bank etc. The size of the soak pit
shall be 1.0 M bigger all round than the plan size of transformer. The depth of soak pit
shall be adequate to accommodate the full quantity of oil contained in the transformer
plus 50% of emulsifier water in voids of metal filling inside the soak pit.

The metal size to be filled in the soak pit shall be of 60 mm to 40 mm nominal size and
it shall be ensured that 40% of voids are available in the metal filling after its packing in
soak pit. The top of the metal filling inside the soak pit shall be 200 mm below the top of
the rail.

Central Oil collecting Pit: A common R.C.C central oil-collecting pit shall be provided for
all the transformers. This pit shall be closed type and waterproof construction with
necessary manholes and rungs etc. for maintenance purposes. The soak pits of
transformers shall be connected to this central oil-collecting pit through underground
R.C.C pipes and manholes.

The central oil collecting pit shall have provision for installing 2 Nos. of 100% capacity
sump pumps with all accessories like suction and discharge pipes for transferring
discharge to oil-water separator such that each pump can pump oil/rain
water/emulsifier discharge of auto-transformer of biggest transformer in the switchyard.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:

Tank: Tank shall be of welded construction and fabricated from tested quality low
carbon steel of adequate thickness.
Conservator Tank

a) The conservator tank shall have adequate capacity between highest and
lowest visible levels to meet the requirement of expansion of the total cold
 oil volume in the transformer and cooling equipment from minimum
ambient temperature to 90 deg.C
b) The conservator shall be fitted with magnetic oil level gauge with low level
electrically insulated alarm contact.
c) Separate conservator tank shall be provided for OLTC.

Two types of Conservator tanks

a) Conventional Conservator system: In this type of oil preservation system

conservator shall be fitted with a dehydrating filter breather. It shall be so
designed that:
• Passage of air is through a dust filter and silica gel.
• Silica gel is isolated from atmosphere by an oil seal.
• Moisture absorption indicated by a change in colour of the tinted crystals can
be easily observed from a distance.
• Breather is mounted not more than 1400 mm above rail top level.

b) Diaphragm seal type constant oil pressure system : In this system contact of the
oil with atmosphere shall be prohibited by using a flexible or nitrite rubber
reinforced with nylon cloth air cell. Diaphragm used shall be suitable for
continuous operation in an atmosphere of 100 deg.C to which transformer oil is
likely to rise. The connection of the air cell to the top of the reservoir is by an air
proof seal permitting entrance of air into the cell only. The Diaphragm of the
conservator shall withstand the vacuum during installation and maintenance.

Buchholz Relay: A double float type Buchholz relay shall be provided. All the gases
evolved in the transformer shall collect in this relay. The relay shall be provided with a
test cock suitable for a flexible pipe connection for checking its operation and taking gas
sample. The device shall be provided with two electrically independent ungrounded
contacts, one for alarm on gas accumulation and the other for tripping on sudden rise of
pressure.

Pressure Relief Device: The device shall operate at a static pressure of less than the
hydraulic test pressure of transformer tank. It shall be mounted direct on the tank. One
set of electrically insulated contacts shall be provided for alarm/tripping.

Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI): Transformers shall be provided with a 150 mm dial
type thermometer for top oil temperature indication.

Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI): A device for measuring the hot spot
temperature of the windings shall be provided (HV & LV). It shall comprise of the
following:
• Temperature sensing element.
• Image coil.
• Auxiliary CTs, if required to match the image coil, shall be furnished and
mounted in the cooler control cabinet.
• 150 mm dia local indicating instrument with maximum reading pointer
mounted in cooler control cabinet and with two adjustable electrically
 independent ungrounded contacts (besides that required for control of
cooling equipment), one for high winding temperature alarm and one for
trip.
• Calibration device.

Earthing Terminals: Two (2) earthing pads (each complete with two (2) Nos. tapped
holes, M 10 bolts, plain and spring washers) suitable for connection to 50 x 8 galvanized
steel flat shall be provided each at position close to the two (2) diagonally bottom corners
of tank.

Core: The core shall be constructed from high grade non-ageing cold rolled super grain
oriented silicon steel laminations, of HI-B grade steel.

Core and winding shall be capable of withstanding the shock during transport,
installation, service and adequate provision shall be made to prevent movement of core
and winding relative to tank during these conditions.

The maximum flux density in any part of the core and yoke at rated MVA, voltage and
frequency at any tap shall not exceed 1.6 tesla. A margin of 10 to 12.5%for over fluxing
may be provided for the worst combination of voltage and frequency within the ranges
specified.

Windings: The conductors shall be of electrolytic grade copper. Better insulating material
shall be used and compression of the windings after drying out shall be carried out at a
pressure exceeding 1.5 to 2 times the force which can occur in the transformer; to impart
greater mechanical strength to the windings against heavy short circuit stresses.

Insulating/Transformer oil serves mainly two purposes one it is liquid

insulation in electrical power transformer and two it dissipates heat of the
transformer i.e. acts as coolant. In addition to these, this oil serves other two
purposes, it helps to preserve the core and winding as these are fully
immersed inside oil and another important purpose of this oil is, it prevents
direct contact of atmospheric oxygen with cellulose made paper insulation of
windings, which is susceptible to oxidation.
Properties of Transformer Insulating Oil
Some specific parameters of insulating oil should be considered to determined the
serviceability of that oil.

Properties of Transformer Oil

The properties of transformer oil are categorized as,

1. Electrical properties:–
 Dielectric strength(60KV)
 Specific resistance
 Dielectric dissipation factor (0.002).
2. Chemical properties: - Water content (10ppm), acidity, sludge content(0.02 %).
3. Physical properties: - Inter facial tension, viscosity, flash point (140 Deg), pour
point(-10deg).
Bushings: Bushings of 132kV and above (EHV Class) shall be oil impregnated paper
condenser type and 33kV and below shall be of plain porcelain. Condenser type bushings
shall be provided with Oil level gauge; Oil filling plug and drain valve and Tap for
measurement of capacitance/tan delta

Terminal Connectors: Terminal connectors for HV & LV side shall be suitable for
connecting required size and no of conductors specified and suitable for horizontal or
vertical takeoff. The short time rating of terminal connector shall correspond to the
short time rating of respective bushing.

Bushing current transformers: It shall be possible to remove turret mounted CTs from
the transformer tank without removing the tank cover. Necessary precaution shall be
taken to minimize the eddy currents and local heat generated in the turret.

Neutral Earthing Arrangement: The neutral terminals of the star connected winding
shall be brought to the ground level by a galvanized steel grounding bar which shall be
supported from the tank by porcelain insulators. The end of the GS bar shall be brought
to the ground level, at a convenient point, for connection in the substation ground
network through two (2) 50x8 mm galvanized steel flats.

Tap Changer - General Requirement: On Load Tap changer shall be provided towards
the neutral end of HV winding for variation of HV voltage over a range (to be specified) to
regulate voltage on LV side for a two winding transformer. In an Auto transformer the
OLTC shall be provided on the LV side of Auto winding.

On Load Tap Changing Gear (OLTC):

• The tap changer shall change the effective transformation ratio without producing
phase displacement.
• The current diverting contacts shall be housed in a separate oil chamber not
communicating with the oil in main tank of the transformer.
The contacts shall be accessible for inspection without lowering oil level in the
main tank and the contact tips shall be replaceable.
• The OLTC oil chamber shall have oil filling and drain plug, oil sampling valve,
relief vent and level glass. It shall also be fitted with an oil surge relay the outlet to
which shall be connected to a separate conservator tank.

Cooling Equipment and its Controls: The cooler shall be designed using 2x50%
radiator banks mounted one on each side of transformer tank. One standby fan of at
least 20% capacity shall also be provided and identified with each radiator block.

Cooling Equipment Control (ONAN/ONAF COOLING): In addition to manual control

facility for cooler fans, automatic operation control (switching in and out) of fans shall
be provided (with temperature change) from contacts of winding temperature indicator.

Transformers absorb reactive power in proportion to the load on the transformers up to

a maximum, equal to 50% of their percentage impedance at rated load. Eg: A 100 MVA
transformer with 10% impedance will absorb 5 MVAR at rated load of 100MVA and
2.5MVAR at 50% load.

Painting: The internal and external surfaces including oil filled chambers and
structural steel work to be painted shall be shot or sand blasted to remove all rust and
scale of foreign adhering matter or grease. All steel surfaces in contact with insulating
oil shall be painted with two coats of heat resistant, oil insoluble, insulating varnish.

The minimum thickness of each coat of outside painting of tank shall be 20 microns
and the total thickness shall be minimum 80 microns.

Transformers in transmission system normally have a vector group of YNyn0 for

two winding transformers. Transformers of 100MVA rating and above and 220kV class
and above and where transformation ratio is small, shall normally be auto transformers
with a tertiary winding having a vector group of YNa0d11(star connected hv winding
with neutral brought out, auto transformer with 0 degrees displacement. Lv winding
delta connected leading hv winding by 30 degrees).
The tertiary winding is intended for stabilizing purpose only. Tertiary windings for
220/132 kV auto transformers shall be of 11kV and that of 400/220kV auto
transformers shall be of 33kV class.

To withstand short circuit stresses and higher transferred surge voltages the following
special design features for tertiary windings shall be considered.
a) Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIIL) of the tertiary winding shall be suitable for
higher voltage class than that of the voltage class of tertiary winding to withstand
transfer surges.
b) Eg:11kV tertiary winding will have BIL170kV peak and 33kV winding will have
250kV peak.
c) Rating of the tertiary winding, shall be at least 1/3 rd of the rating of main
transformer.
d) Leakage reactance between primary to tertiary and secondary to tertiary shall be
at least 35% and 25% respectively with only positive tolerances up to 10%, to
reduce level of short circuit stresses and its impact on tertiary winding since it is
closer to the core.

What is Tertiary Winding? What is Three Winding Transformer?

In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and secondary
winding is used. This additional winding, apart from primary and secondary windings,
is known as Tertiary winding of transformer. Because of this third winding,
the transformer is called three winding transformer.

Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in Transformer

A tertiary delta winding transformer would be used for the following:

1) To limit the fault level on the LV system by subdividing the infeed that is, double
secondary transformers.

2) The interconnection of several power systems operating at different supply voltages.

3) The regulation of system voltage and of reactive power by means of a synchronous
capacitor connected to the terminals of one winding.

It is desirable that a three-phase transformer should have one set of three-phase

windings connected in delta thus providing a low-impedance path for third-
harmonic currents. The presence of a delta connected winding also allows current
to circulate around the delta in the event of unbalance in the loading between
phases, so that this unbalance is reduced and not so greatly fed back through the
system.

Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet one or more of the
following requirements-
1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase load.
2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.
3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage level in
addition to its main secondary load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary
winding of three winding transformer.
4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding transformer, it
assists in limitation of fault current in the event of a short circuit from line to neutral.

Stabilization by Tertiary Winding of Transformer

In star-star transformer comprising three single units or a single unit with 5 limb core
offers high impedance to the flow of unbalanced load between the line and neutral.

Any unbalanced current in three phase system can be divided into three sets of
components likewise positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence
components. The zero sequence current is actually co-phasial current in three lines. If
value of co-phasial current in each line is Io, then total current flows through the neutral
of secondary side of transformer is In = 3.Io. This current cannot be balanced by primary
current as the zero sequence current cannot flow through the isolated neutral star
connected primary. Hence the said current in the secondary side set up a magnetic
flux in the core. As we discussed earlier in this chapter, low reluctance path is available
for the zero sequence flux in a bank of single phase units and in the 5 limb core
consequently; the impedance offered to the zero sequence current is very high. The delta
connected tertiary winding of transformer permits the circulation of zero sequence
current in it. This circulating current in this delta winding balances the zero sequence
component of unbalance load, hence prevents unnecessary development of unbalance
zero sequence flux in the transformer core. In few words it can be said that, placement
of tertiary winding in star-star-neutral transformer considerably reduces the zero
sequence impedance of transformer.

Rating of Tertiary Winding of Transformer

Rating of tertiary winding of transformer depends upon its use. If it has to supply
additional load, its winding cross - section and design philosophy is decided as per load,
and three phase dead short circuit on its terminal with power flow from both sides of HV
and MV.
In case it is to be provided for stabilizing purpose only, its cross-section and design has
to be decided from thermal and mechanical consideration for the short duration fault
currents during various fault conditions single line to ground fault being the most
onerous.

Transformer vector group

The vector groups are used for three phase transformers for representing their winding
connections. Let us assume the following winding connections:

Now we have to find vector group of the above transformer. The currents on primary
side are IA, IB, IC and currents on secondary side are Ia, Ib, Ic. Now let us assume
currents in secondary windings are ia', ib', ic'. so

Ia= ia'-ib'

Now representing this in vector form (vector displacement of ib' is 120 deg from ia') :
So, Ia is derived in above figure. As Ia is leading IA by 30 deg. the vector group is
d11. Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (international adopted convention)

In the vector group: a means auto transformer

First symbol/symbols, capital letters: HV winding connection.
Second symbol/symbols, small letters: LV winding connection.
Third symbol, number: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number.

Zig-Zag Transformer
Occasionally electrical engineers use a combination of YD and zigzag windings to achieve a vector
phase shift. For example, an electrical network may have a transmission network of 220 kV/66 kV
star/star transformers, with 66 kV/11 kV delta/star for the high voltage distribution network.

If a transformation is required directly between the 220 kV/11 kV network the most obvious option is
to use 220 kV/11 kV star/delta. The problem is that the 11 kV delta no longer has an earth reference
point.

Installing a zigzag transformer near the secondary side of the 220 kV/11 kV transformer provides the
required earth reference point.
 PRINCIPAL PARAMETERS:

Auto transformer Two winding

Sl.No. Item
with tertiary transformer
1 Type of power transformer 3 Phase suitable for outdoor
installation

2 a) Voltage rating 400/220/33 kV 132/33, 132/11kV

(HV/IV/LV) 220/132/11 kV 220/33,220/11kV

b) Capacity rating(MVA) 315 (400kV class) 80, 50 ,31.5, 25

160,100(220kV (220 or 132kV
class) class)

3 Type of mounting ---- On wheels mounted on rails ----

Suitable for system
4 frequency ---- 50 Hz ± 5 % ----
5 No. of phases 3 3
6 No. of windings Two Two
(Auto + tertiary) (HV & LV)

7 Type of cooling ONAN/ ONAF ONAN/ ONAF

ONAN/ ONAF &
OFAF

8 MVA rating corresponding to

cooling system
a) ONAN cooling 60% 60%
b) ONAF/OFAF cooling 100% 100%

9 Method of connection HV - star HV – star(for 33kV)

IV – star LV – star
LV – delta(tertiary) HV – star(for 11kV)
LV – star or delta
10 Connection symbol YNA0 d11 YNyn0 or YND11
11 System earthing Solidly grounded neutral system
12 10±10%
Percentage impedance(%) (up to 25MVA
voltage at normal tap and rating)
MVA base corresponding to 12.5±!0%(315MVA) 12.5±10%
HV/LV rating and 10±10 % (above 25MVA
permissible tolerance (160 & 100MVA) rating)

13 Anticipated continuous Not to exceed 110% of rated capacity

loading of windings HV &LV
 Tap changing gear On load On load
i. Provided on IV side HV side towards
ii. Tap range +10% to – 10% neutral end
14 iii. Tap step +25% to – 5% +5% to – 25%

Over voltage operating 125% rated voltage for 60 secs

15 capability and duration 140% rated voltage for 5 secs.
16 Maximum air core reactance 20% 20%
of HV windings
17 Minimum knee point voltage 110 % rated voltage
18 Max. flux density in any part 1.6 Tesla 1.6 Tesla
of the core and yoke at rated
MVA, frequency and normal
voltage

19 Type of winding Graded for star winding

insulation HV/ LV
winding Uniform for delta winding
For 400kV
20 system 40kA/ 1 second
System short circuit level and 220kV
duration for which transformer system 40kA/ 1 second
shall be capable to withstand 132kV
thermal and dynamic system 31.5kA/ 1second
stresses 33& 11 kV system 25kA/ 1 second
21 Noise level at rated voltage 75 dB
and frequency (Max)
22 Permissible temperature rise
over ambient temperature of
50 0 C Of oil measured by 50 0 C 50 0 C
thermometer of winding 55 0 C 55 0 C
measured by resistance

Insulation Levels Voltage Class Windings Bushings

(kV)
a) 1.2/50µs wave 400 1450 1550
shape impulse 220 950 1050
withstand (kVp) 132 550 650
 33 70
11 25

b) Power frequency 400 630

Voltage 220 460
withstand (kV rms) 132 275
33 70
11 25

GENERAL TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSFORMER

Duty Requirements: The transformers and all its accessories like CTs etc., shall be
designed to withstand without injury, the thermal and mechanical effects of any
external short circuit to earth and of short circuits at the terminals of any winding of
values specified above for a period of 1 sec.
- 150% Overload
- voltage variation of plus or minus 10%.

Radio interference: The transformers shall be designed with particular attention to

suppression of maximum harmonic voltage especially the third and fifth so as to
eliminate wave form distortion and minimize interference with communication circuits.

- The noise level, when energized at normal voltage and frequency with fans running
shall not exceed 75 dB
- Total failure of power supply to cooling fans the transformer shall be able to operate
at full load for at least ten (10) minutes without the calculated winding hot spot
temperature exceeding 140 deg. C.

Transformer losses: are basically Iron losses(No load losses) due to excitation of the
magnetic core, copper losses(load losses) due to current carried by the conductors and
auxiliary losses due to power consumed by auxiliaries such as cooling fans, pumps etc.

Clearances: The bottom most portion of any insulator or bushing in service is at an

absolute minimum height of 2500 mm above ground level.

The transformer bay width in the sub station for 400kV will be 27000mm, 220 kV will
be 17000 mm and 132kV will be12000mm. Height of boom will be 11000 mm. These
aspects may be noted while designing the transformer size.
 ERECTION OF TRANSFORMER
Oil should be admitted into the transformer from its bottom valve and suction
side to be connected to the top valve to evacuate nitrogen/dry air inside the
transformer as the oil fills from the bottom. It is preferable to fill the oil received
from the works (in barrels) into an oil tanker of sufficient capacity and filter this oil
separately. This helps in removing moisture absorbed in the oil during transport
and storage. Fairly moisture free filtered oil now can be admitted from the oil tanker
to the transformer.

The following check list provides various checks to be conducted for transformer
assembly.

1 Availability of erection drawings and literature at site Yes/No

2 Whether all components available at site in good condition Yes/No
Rinsed all the piping, radiators blocked with dummy plates,
4 conservator etc. with 60kV tested oil and Yes/No
Filtered the oil for 60kV BDV and recorded in the erection
3 register Yes/No
5 Measured the IR values of HV, MV condenser type Yes/No
bushings(with a 5kVmegger) and observed more than 5000 MΩ
after removing coverings, wrappers etc and cleaning
7 Assembled the bushing after fixing corona shield and removing Yes/No
links and bends in pull through leads, on the turret at proper
incline
9 Completed all piping work, conservator, explosion vent, Yes/No
equalizer pipes etc. as per the drawing and filled with oil ,
Bucholz relay checked
Filled radiator after washing individually and ensuring removal
of blanking plates and free movement of butterfly valves both
10 top and bottom Yes/No
Measured IR values with temperature after filling of oil and
11 compared with factory test value and recorded in the register. Yes/No
12 For drying out of Transformer
(a) Applied proper lagging around the transformer. Fire fighting
equipment kept at site Yes/No
(b) Filter machine cleaned and filled with transformer oil Yes/No
(c) Filter connected with outlet into the conservator and inlet
from the bottom tank Yes/No
(d) Filter heaters switched on and the filter temperature
maintained less than 60ºC and filter vacuum maintained at
755mm of mercury
Yes/No
(e) Dehydration process for 7 days maintained oil temperature
60ºC in the transformer (thermometer pockets filled with oil) Yes/No

Filled the radiators with 60kV BDV tested oil. Opened the
13 bottom butterfly Yes/No
 valve provided between main tank and radiators after opening
top air release valve to communicate with main tank
All gases released from different release points in the order of
14 ascending heights Yes/No
HV, LV, Tertiary Neutral earthing provided. Body earthing at
15 two sides, earthing of DM and FCC provided Yes/No
Petroleum jelly applied in clamps and connectors in the
16 transformer bushing studs and checked the tightness Yes/No
Blue silica gel crystals of 2.5 to 4mm size filled in the breather.
Breather filled with oil after removing bottom cup, transit
17 protection cover, cork packing etc. Yes/No
Removed blanking plates on explosion vent pipe and fixed
18 diaphragm Yes/No
In case of transformers provided with thermo-siphon filter and
air-cell (pronol bag) breathing arrangement checked up as
19 per manufacturers recommendations Yes/No
All air release points and other points thoroughly checked to
20 ensure that there is no oil leakage Yes/No
21 Connecting test taps of all 132,220,400kV condenser bushings Yes/no
22 Oil level in main & OLTC conservators upto the mark Yes/No
23 Filling of oil in oil packets of OTI & WTI Yes/No
TRANSFORMERS MAINTENANCE:

In order to provide long and trouble free service, it is important that a careful and
regular supervision and maintenance of the transformer and its components is
carried out

All work done on transformers should be recorded in history register for future
reference.

General Supervision:

Dirt and Dust: The external transformer surfaces shall be inspected regularly; and
when required cleaned of dust, insects and other air borne dirt. All Marshalling
Boxes and OLTC cubicle are to be kept properly closed so that there will not be
entry of dust inside, which is difficult to clean.

Rust and Treatment: A regular inspection is to be done on the external surface of

the transformer tank and radiators. Possible rust damages shall be removed and
the surface restored to original state by means of the primer and finish-paints of the
transformer to minimize the risk of corrosion and its subsequent spreading.

Mechanical Damage: Checks must be carried out for mechanical damage to the
fabrications and associated equipment. Particular attention should be given to
vulnerable areas such as radiators.

Check out all Joints for Signs of Leakage: All joints, both welded and gasketed,
must be checked for signs of oil leakage. If there is any doubt of a leak, the area
must be cleaned of oil, using a suitable solvent (methyl alcohol) and sprayed with
liquid chalk. This will promote the flow of the leak and give a good indication as to
the exact location of the leak, if there is one. Other areas commonly associated with
oil leaks are drain plugs in radiators, valves in the oil management and cooling
system and the gas and oil actuated relay.

Check for Oil Level: All oil levels associated with the equipment including oil
conservator and all oil filled bushings shall be checked. Also the oil in the oil seal
should be maintained. External leak on bushing will lead to indicate low oil level.
This is to be observed accordingly and if there is leak, action is to be initiated
immediately as bushing failure may lead to failure of entire transformer.

OLTC oil conservators are always kept at lower level compared to the main
conservator tank so that OLTC oil will not mix with main tank oil. An increase in
level of oil in OLTC conservator tank indicates internal leakage and action is to be
taken accordingly.

Silica Gel Breather: In open breathing transformer, the breather plays active role in
maintaining- the transformer dry by admitting dry air when transformer breathes.
In transformers having air cell or diaphragm, the breather ensures dry air inside the
air cell or above the diaphragm. The silica gel inside the breather becomes pink from
bottom to top over a period of time.

Any de-colorization at top or sides indicates leakage in container and needs to be

attended immediately. In order to prevent severe deterioration of the silica gel, it is
recommended that it is replaced when half to two thirds of the silica gel has become
pink in color. Failure to do so will severely retard the drying efficiency of the
breather. The silica gel can be reactivated by heating it to 130°C-140°C in a
ventilated oven until it has achieved bright blue color. Check that the oil level is
correct in the Oil Cup at the breather base and fill oil if the level is found low.

Note: Do not exceed the temperature stated above, otherwise the color impregnation
will be destroyed and the silica gel will turn black.

Checks for conservator:

Visual Check for Conservator Oil Level: The transformer oil conservator is
provided with an oil-level indicator indicating "low" to "full" with grading. These
indications are relative to temperature of the operating equipment. The oil level
indicated should be recorded along with top oil temperature.

If corrected oil level is normal, no additional action is required, whereas if it is above

or below the normal level, it may be necessary to remove or add some oil. The
correct oil-filling level is specified on an information plate that is placed on the
transformer rating plate panel. At an oil temperature of + 45°C, the conservator
should be half filled; if the level exceeds the "full", oil must be drained off. If the
value is "low" or "min", oil must be filled in.

Leakage Test for Air Cell:

Normally leakage test for air cell fitted inside the conservator is carried out before
installing the conservator in its position or at the time of major overhaul. During
service, the leakage in the cell or in the sealing of the conservator can be detected by
the oil level in the prismatic oil level indicator, if provided, on the conservator. If
there is no leakage, the prismatic oil level indicator will show "Full" oil level.
However, in case of leakage, the oil level in the prismatic oil level gauge shall be
lower than "Full" level.

For releasing air from Conservator fitted with Air Cell: Pressurize the Air Cell up to
the maximum pressure specified by the manufacturer and open the air vent valves
provided on the top of the conservator until oil starts coming out. Then close the
valves. Release pressure from the Air cell and refit breather.

Marshalling kiosks/Cubicles: Checks on physical parameters like condition of

paint, condition of door seal, lights and heaters, cable tightness etc shall be done.

Operation of alarms and indicating lamps to cover all system functions shall be
ensured.
Valve Operational Checks: Transformer and associated equipment must be out of
service, isolated and earthed while carrying out these checks. Valve operational
checks are done at the time of erection or at the time of major overhaul.

The checks include checking each valve for free operation, adequate greasing
and for padlocking wherever provided.

Each valve shall be returned to its “in service” operating position (open or closed)
and locked after the checks have been completed.

Checks for Auxiliaries

Cooling System: The cooling surfaces of radiators shall be inspected regularly and
cleaned of dust and dirt. The cleaning is suitably carried out by means of water
flushing at high pressure. Precaution should be taken to cover the fan-motor so that
water may not go inside. Alternatively cleaning can be done with cleaning solution
and cloth.

Cooling System-Fans-Controls: Fan controls are designed to operate both

manually and automatically with set temperature. Manual, Control is to be turned
'ON' to operate cooling system for checking. Oil pumps need to be checked by
observing their flow gauges. Measurement of pump current reveals any abnormality.

Calibration of OTI/ WTI: Temperature indicators in transformers are used for both
indication purpose and as protective device. The accuracy of these devises is to be
ensured for correct operation of alarm and tripping and also to prevent mal
operation. The Indicator temperature bulb is to be removed from its well on the
side/ top of transformer. Using a temperature controlled calibration instrument in
oil bath the temperature of the bulb should be slowly raised in steps of 5°C and
observed for temperature reading. If the temperature deviation is more than ±5°C
compared to the standard thermometer reading, the thermometers are to be
replaced with healthy one.

Checking of Cooler Control, Alarm and Trip Settings: Setting of temperature

should be as per approved scheme. Access the local winding / oil temperature
indicator and rotate the temperature indicator pointer slowly to the first stage
cooling value (say 65°C). Check that the fans of those coolers set to first stage are
operating. Continue rotating the pointer to the second stage cooling value (say
80°C). Check that the fans of those coolers set to second stage are operating.
Continue rotating the pointer to the alarm value (say 110°C). Continue rotating the
pointer to the trip value (say 125°C). Observe for alarm and trip signals in the panel.

Pressure Relief Device: The Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) is mounted at the
transformer top body. Internal arcing in oil inside transformer generates excessive
gas pressures that can severely damage equipment and cause extreme hazards to
personnel. The pressure relief device is intended to minimize the extent of damage
by quickly operating and venting out the pressure. It will reset when the pressure
becomes normal. A pointer is provided to indicate the operation of this relay and the
relay is connected for tripping the transformer on operation. There will be oil
spillage whenever the relay operates. Smaller transformers are provided with
explosion vent where the diaphragm will rupture due to heavy internal pressure and
releases the pressure. The diaphragm needs to be replaced when it operates. There
are some transformers fitted with sensitive sudden pressure relay, which operates
on rate of change of differential pressure and trips the equipment.

Buchholz Relays: The use of gas-operated relay as protection for oil-immersed

transformers is based on the fact that faults as flashover, short-circuit and local
overheating normally result in gas-generation. The gas-bubbles gathering in the
gas-operated relay affect a float-controlled contact that gives an alarm signal.

For testing of the contact functions, buchholz relays are provided with a test knob
on the cover.

Bushings: Bushings are most failure prone in any transformer/ reactor. Failure of
bushings could lead to the fire in transformer and total damage. For uniform voltage
distribution across capacitance graded bushings, bushing porcelains shall be
cleaned from dust and dirt during shutdown maintenance. In areas where the air
contains impurities such as salt, cement dust, smoke or chemical substances,
shorter intervals are required.

On Load Tap Changer: OLTC being a current interrupting device requires periodic
inspection and maintenance. The frequency of inspection is based on time in
service, range of use and number of operations.

Precautions: Testing of OLTC shall be done under shutdown i.e. after de-energizing
the transformer by isolating the transformer from all sides.

Tap Changer Hand Operation: Check hand operation of the tap changer up and
down the full range before electrical operation is attempted and that the handle
interlock switch does not allow electrical operation while the handle is inserted. In
addition where single phase tap changers are employed check their tap positions
agree and are reached simultaneously at motor drive unit head. Continuity check
should be done for any discontinuity during tap changing operation by connecting
an analogue multiMETER
 Testing of Transformer

All transformers are subjected to the following Routine tests:

 Insulation resistance Test.

 Winding resistance Test.
 Turns Ration / Voltage ratio Test
 Polarity / Vector group Test.
 No-load losses and current Test.
 Short-circuit impedance and load loss Test.
 Continuity Test.
 Magnetizing Current Test.
 Magnetic Balance Test.
 High Voltage Test.
 Dielectric tests (Separate source AC voltage/ Induced overvoltage/ Lightning impulse tests).
 Test on On-load tap changers, where appropriate.

Type tests

Type tests are tests made on a transformer which is representative of other transformers to demonstrate that they
comply with specified requirements not covered by routine tests:

 Temperature rise test (IEC 60076-2).

 Dielectric type tests (IEC 60076-3).

Special tests

Special tests are tests, other than routine or type tests, agreed between manufacturer and purchaser.

 Dielectric special tests.

 Zero-sequence impedance on three-phase transformers.
 Short-circuit test.
 Harmonics on the no-load current.
 Power taken by fan and oil-pump motors.
 Determination of sound levels.
 Determination of capacitances between windings and earth, and between windings.
 Determination of transient voltage transfer between windings.
 Tests intended to be repeated in the field to confirm no damage during shipment, for example Frequency
Response Analysis.

Pre commissioning Tests

The Test performed before commissioning the transformer at site is called pre commissioning test of transformer. These
tests are done to assess the condition of transformer after installation and compare the test results of all the low voltage
tests with the factory test reports. All transformers are subjected to the following Pre commissioning tests:

 IR value of transformer and cables

 Winding Resistance
 Transformer Turns Ratio
 Polarity Test
 Magnetizing Current
 Vector Group
 Magnetic Balance
 Bushing & Winding Tan Delta (HV)
 Protective relay testing
 Transformer oil testing
 Hipot test.
Tests for reference (Signature): The following tests should be done before commissioning
and the results compared with the factory test results. These results should be kept as
reference values for comparison with the future test results of these tests while conducting,
as a part of O&M later.

• Measurement of Capacitance and tanδ of windings, Condenser Bushings

• Dissolved Gas analysis
• Furan Analysis (to measure degree of polymerization)
• Frequency Response Analysis
• Recovery Voltage Measurement
• Oil sample test for Dielectric strength, acidity, specific resistance, moisture content
and tanδ

Testing of Auxiliary Protective devices

Checking of operation of alarms and trips of following auxiliary relays
i) High temperature settings for oil and winding temperatures
ii) Bucholz relay and OLTC oil surge relay
iii) Checking of PRD operation.

iii) Pressure relief device

iv) MOG of conservator
Checking for running /stopping of cooler fans and/or oil circulating pumps in groups
at the set temperarures/pressures. Conduct all checks and tests on turret mounted
CTs as indicated under CTs

CONDITION BASED MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

- Measurement of Insulation Resistance

- Tan ∂ and Capacitance Measurement
- Winding Resistance Measurement
- Magnetic Balance Test
- Magnetizing Current Measurement
- Voltage Ratio Test
- Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA):
- Furfuraldehyde Analysis
- Recovery Voltage Measurement
- Frequency Response Analysis
- Inspection and Maintenance of OLTCs
Measurement of Insulation Resistance: Insulation resistance (IR) measurement is the
basic test to check the soundness of transformer solid insulation. This test generally
reveals the condition of insulation (i.e., degree of dryness of paper insulation), presence of
any contaminants in oil and also any gross defect inside the transformer. IR value
measurements of EHV transformers shall preferably be done with 5 kV motorized megger.
This will help constant application of voltage for a longer period for evaluation of
Polarization Index.

Precautions:
- Jumpers are to be disconnected for performing this test so that lightning arrestors and
associated equipments are not connected with the transformer.
- As any dirt on bushings may result in erroneous results, the bushing porcelains are to
be cleaned by wiping with a piece of dry cloth.
- When using a megger, observe the usual accident preventive rules as it operates on
High Voltage Direct Current.
- Neutral connection to earth is removed.
- Transformer windings possess a substantial capacitance and therefore, the current
carrying parts can only be touched after discharging them.
- Lead wires from the bushing line lead and tank earth to megger shall be as short as
possible without joints and shall not touch tank or each other.

Testing Procedure: IR measurements shall be taken between the windings to body (i.e. to
earthed tank). Windings on each side HV, IV and LV shall be connected together. Following
measurements shall be taken.

Shunt Two winding

Auto- Reactor transformer Three winding transformer
transformer
HV+IV to LV Winding to E HV to LV HV+IV to LV
HV+IV to E HV to E HV+LV to IV
LV to E LV to E HV+IV+LV to E

HV- High voltage, IV -Intermediate voltage, LV -Low voltage/ Tertiary voltage windings, E-Earth

Date and time of measurement, Sl.No. Make of megger; oil temperature and IR values at
intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes should be recorded.

Min insulation resistance values for one minute measurements for transformers may be
determined by using the following empirical formula:

IR = CE / √ KVA where IR = Insulation Resistance, in MΩ

C = 1.5 for oil filled transformers at 20 0C, assuming that transformer oil is dry,
acid free and sludge free.
= 30.0 for un-tanked oil-impregnated transformers

E= Voltage rating, in V, of the windings (ph-to-ph for delta connected and ph-to-
neutral for star connected transformers)
KVA = Rated capacity of the winding under test (If the winding under test is three-
phase and the three individual windings are being tested as one, rated capacity of
the three phase winding is used).
IR test results below this minimum value would indicate probable insulation breakdown. A
zero or a very low value of ohms would indicate a grounded winding, a winding-to-winding
short or heavy carbon tracking.

The following IR values as a thumb rule may be considered as the minimum satisfactory
values at 30°C (one minute measurements) at the time of commissioning. Even if the
insulation is dry, IR values will be low if the resistivity of oil is poor.

11kV = 300M Ω, 33kV = 400 MΩ, 66kV and above = 500 MΩ

With the duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The increase in insulation
resistance is an indication of dryness of insulation. The ratio of 60 seconds insulation
resistance to 15 seconds insulation resistance value is called Absorption Coefficient and
the ratio of 600 seconds insulation resistance to 60 seconds insulation resistance value is
called Polarization Index. The following table gives a general guideline for evaluation of
insulation.

Polarization
Index Insulation Condition
Less than 1 Wet
1.0-1.1 Poor
1-1.25 Fair
1.25-2.0 Good
Above 2.0 Dry

Tan ∂ and Capacitance Measurement:

Dielectric Dissipation Factor: Dissipation or loss factor (tan ∂) is defined as the ratio of
the resistive component of (Ir) of current to the capacitive current(Ic) flowing in an
insulating material (see figure below). The more the resistive component of current, the
more is the dissipation of dielectric indicating deterioration of insulation.

Power factor is the ratio of resistive current to that of total current. For very low value of
resistive currents, the capacitive current will be almost equal to the total current and
hence values of dissipation factor and power factor are same Insulation power factor or
dissipation factor (Tan delta) and capacitance measurement of bushings provide an
indication of the quality of the insulation in the bushing.

Adverse Effects of Moisture in Paper Insulation: Dielectric strength of insulation

decreases with increase in moisture content. And also, moisture in cellulose insulation can
lead to bubble formation under high load conditions. Moisture accelerates the ageing of
paper insulation. If moisture content in paper insulation increases from 1 % to about 2%, it
will lead to increase in ageing of the insulation by almost two times.

At high temperature, moisture is pushed out of the paper insulation into the oil. As
insulation cools down, water begins to migrate slowly from the oil into the paper. The time
for the temperature drop in the oil may be much quicker than the water can return to the
cellulose insulation. Hence depending upon these conditions, dissipation factor also
changes.

Modes of Selection for Tan∂ Measurement:

(a) Ungrounded Specimen Test (UST): Test set connected for ungrounded specimen test
mode. This is used when specimen is isolated from earth, e.g., Transformer bushing, CTs
with test tap, CVTs, etc. In this mode of measurement, the current which flows to the
ground will not enter the measurement winding (N2) and directed straight to the source as
shown in Fig. below. For UST mode of measurement, removal of jumpers from the
termination of the equipment has less influence compared to the other mode of tan∂ and
capacitance measurement.

(b) Grounded Specimen Test (GST): Test set connected for grounded specimen test mode.
This is used when specimen do not have two specific points isolated from ground for Tan∂
measurement, e.g., Transformer/ Reactor windings, CTs without test tap etc. Here
Capacitance and tan∂ is measured using GST mode. As shown in Fig. below, during GST
mode operation, all current which flows to ground shall pass through the measurement
winding and -influence the reading. In GST mode measurement, it is necessary to isolate
the measuring portion from other parallel ground path by-removing the connected terminal
jumper connections. In this measurement capacitance for the parallel combination of HV to
earth and between the windings shall be obtained.
b) Grounded Specimen Test with guard (GSTg): Grounded Specimen Test mode is used
whenever a portion of the test specimen is required to be eliminated from the
measurement. It also separates the total values of a GST test into separate parts for better
analysis. The connection in the measurement kit shall be as shown in fig below. The
current flowing through the guarded portion is directed towards the source and it will not
influence the measurement. In GSTg measurement, HV to Earth Capacitance is measured.
By interchanging the HV and LV leads of the kit LV to earth capacitance can be measured
directly.

The three capacitors shown in unknown specimen in the above figures are generally HV
winding to ground, HV winding to LV winding and LV winding to ground. For measurement
on transformers with more than two windings, the figure shall be made accordingly for
proper measurement. Measurement of capacitance and Tan∂ between windings is carried
out in UST mode and measurement of capacitance and Tan∂ from windings to ground is
measured in GSTg/ GST mode.

Interference Suppresser: This circuit permits suppression of power frequency interference

signal to the bridge signal. There are measurement kits that operate at other than power
frequency to avoid interference, but compute the capacitance and tan∂ at power frequency
using software. If interference is more in the switch yard, balancing of the kit at highest
sensitivity will be difficult and readings may not be accurate.

Tan∂ and Capacitance of Bushings: In bushing, conducting layers are arranged within the
insulating material for the purpose of uniform distribution of the electric field in the
bushing as shown in the figure. Bushing test tap is a connection to the last of the
conducting layers of a capacitance graded bushing to ground, with a disconnector for
measurement of partial discharge, power factor and capacitance values of the bushings.

The main Capacitance, C2, of a bushing is the capacitance between the high-voltage
conductor and the test tap. The tap capacitance C1, of a capacitance-graded bushing is the
capacitance between the test tap and mounting flange (Ground) as shown in Fig.

The capacitance C of a bushing without a voltage or test tap is the capacitance between the
high-voltage conductor and mounting flange (ground).

For measurement of tan∂ and capacitance of bushings it is strongly advised to short HV

terminals of all bushings of the same winding and all other winding bushing terminals be
shorted and grounded to avoid influence of capacitance of other windings.

Measurement of C1 capacitance and tan∂: HV lead of the test kit to be connected to the
shorted bushing top and LV lead to be connected to the test tap of the bushing under test:
Test is to be carried out in ungrounded specimen test mode at the rated test voltage of the
kit.
Measurement of C2 capacitance and tan∂: HV lead to be connected to the test tap of the
bushing under test (if required additional crocodile type clip may be used) and LV of the kit
to be connected to the ground. HV of the bushing is to be connected to the Guard terminal
of the test kit. Test to be carried out in GSTg mode at 1.0 kV.

Precautions: The test set is a source of high voltage electrical energy and operator must
use all practical safety precautions to prevent contact with energized parts of the test
equipment and related circuits. The ground cable must be connected first and removed
last. It should also be ensured that test specimen is de-energized and grounded before
making any further connection and no person may come in contact with HV output
terminal or any material energized by the output.

All the jumpers connected on the bushings are to be removed to have proper isolation and
removal of parallel paths in case of measurement in GST and GSTg mode. In case tertiary
is also connected, ensure the isolation of the same prior to commencement of test.

Tan∂ and Capacitance of Winding Insulation: Dissipation factor/ Loss factor and
capacitance measurement of winding is carried out to ascertain the general healthiness of
the ground and inter-winding insulation of transformer and reactors.

Measurement Combination: The combination for tan∂ measurement of winding is same as

that of measurement of IR value. The probable combination is given below:

Auto-
transformer Test Shunt 3 winding
Test mode transformer Test mode
(Two winding) mode reactor
HV + IV to LV UST HV to E GST H V to LV I UST
HV + IV to E GSTg H V to LV 2 UST
LV to E GSTg LV I to LV 2 UST
HV to Ground GSTg
LV I to Ground GSTg
LV 2 to Ground GSTg

Test Voltage: Normally C and Tan∂ measurement can be performed at site at about 10 kV
to 12 kV. It is a good practice to have tan∂ and capacitance tested at factory at these
voltages to have reference.

Effect of Ambient Temperature: At 20° C, value of tan delta (Dissipation Factor) should
not be more than 0.007. If tan delta measurement is carried out at temperature other than
20°C, then correction factor furnished by manufacturer are to be applied. It is however
advisable to carryout the test between 20°C to 40°C of winding temperature as ,in this
range the values are almost constant and do not vary much.

Evaluation of Test Results: An increase of Dissipation Factor accompanied by a marked

increase in Capacitance usually indicates excessive moisture in the insulation. Increase of
DF alone may be caused by thermal deterioration or by contamination other than water.
The changes in C and Tan ∂ values are caused by deterioration of the insulation,
contamination or physical damage.

Maximum values of Dissipation Factor (Tan delta) of class A insulation, e.g., oil
impregnated insulation is 0.007. Rate of change of tan delta and capacitance is very
important. Comparison of test results with earlier results and that of pre-commissioning
test results shall give desired information for trend analysis. Winding temperature
correction to be applied only if indicated by the manufacturer. It is always desirable to test
at about same temperature for better comparison.

Winding Resistance Measurement: Winding resistance is measured at site in order to

check for any abnormalities due to loose connections, broken strands and high contact
resistance in tap changers as a pre-commissioning check and compare the measured
values with the factory test values.

Precautions: As the transformer windings have low resistance, measurement shall be done
with Kelvin Double Bridge/Transformer ohm meter. To reduce the high inductance effect it
is advised to use a sufficiently high current to saturate the core. This will reduce the time
required to get a stabilized reading. It is essential to note the temperature of the windings
as the resistance varies in proportion to temperature.

Care shall be taken to ensure that direct current circulating in the windings has settled
down before the measurement is done. In some cases this may take several minutes
depending on the winding inductance.

Test Procedure: For star connected winding with neutral brought out, the resistance shall
be measured between the line and neutral terminal and average of three sets of readings
shall be the tested value. For star connected auto-transformers the resistance of the HV
side is measured between HV terminal and IV terminal, then between IV terminal and the
neutral. For delta connected windings, such as tertiary winding of auto-transformers,
measurement shall be done between pairs of line terminals and resistance per winding
shall be calculated as per the following fom1Ula:

Resistance per winding = 1.5 x Measured value

Winding temperature to be calculated at 75°C using the following formula:

R75 = Rt (235+75)/ (235+t)

R75 = Resistance at 75°C;

Rt = Resistance at measured temperature

t = Measured Winding temperature

Evaluation of Test results: Since it is difficult for precise winding temperature

measurement at field, the expected deviation for this test with respect to the factory test
result is about 5%. The values obtained also should not be more than 5% of other phases.
As winding resistance are temperature sensitive, it is to be measured when equipment is
stable in temperature and the values to be converted to 75°C.

Magnetic Balance Test: Magnetic Balance Test is conducted only in three phase
transformers to check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit and to evaluate its
healthiness. No winding terminal should be grounded; otherwise results would be erratic
and confusing.

Test Procedure: Transformer shall be in normal tap position, and neutral disconnected
from ground. Single phase 230 V is applied across one phase of Intermediate Voltage (IV)
winding terminal and neutral (call it V1) then voltage to be measured in other two IV
terminals across neutral (call them V2 and V3 respectively). Test to be repeated for each of
the three phases. Test to be repeated for the HV winding also.

Evaluation of Test Results: From the measurement carried out ensure that, VI = V2 + V3
respectively. Zero voltage or very negligible voltage induced in any winding should be
investigated.
Also the applied voltage may be expressed as 100% and the induced voltages as percentage
of applied voltage. This will help in comparison of two results when applied voltages are
different.

Magnetizing Current Measurement: Excitation/ magnetizing current test is performed to

locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of windings, failures in turn to turn
insulation or problems in tap changers.

Magnetizing current measurement should be taken before measuring DC Winding

resistance to have better results which are not influenced by the residual magnetism.

Test Procedure:
- Transformer tap position is to be kept at the lowest position and IV and LV terminals
open.
- 3-phase 415 V is applied on HV terminals.
- Measure the voltages applied on each phase (Phase-Phase) on HV terminals and
Current in each phase of HV terminal.
- Repeat the measurement for Normal and Highest tap position.
- It is advisable to do measurement at all taps during thorough investigation of the
transformer.
- Test to be repeated for IV winding keeping HV and LV open.

Evaluation of Test Results: The set of readings for current measurement in each of the tap
position are to be equal. Unequal currents shall indicate possible short circuits in winding.

- Results between similar single-phase units should not vary more than 10% .
- The test values on the outer limbs should be within 15% of each other, and values for
the centre leg should not be more than either on the outer limbs for a three-phase
transformer.
- Results compared to previous tests made under the same conditions should not vary
more than 5%.
- The comparison of the test values of healthy condition with the faulty condition help in
locating the trouble spots.
- If a reading beyond permissible tolerance is observed when turns ratio, winding
resistance, and impedance tests are normal, it may be due to residual magnetism.
- Residual magnetism may be eliminated or reduced by applying a dc voltage to the
windings through a voltage divider.
- The voltage should be raised from zero to a maximum value that will yield a current of
no more than 10A through the winding and then return to zero.
- Care must be taken not to break the circuit while dc current is flowing in the winding.
- The polarity should then be reversed and the procedure repeated.
- The process is repeated several times, each time reducing the magnitude of current
and each time reversing the polarity.
 - The excitation current test should then be repeated.

Voltage Ratio Test: Voltage Ratio test is performed to determine the turns ratio of
transformers to identify any abnormality in tap changers/ shorted or open turns etc. The
voltage should be applied only in the high voltage winding in order to avoid unsafe voltage.

Test Procedure:
- Transformer tap position is to be kept in the lowest position and IV and LV open.
- Apply 3-phase 415 V supply on HV terminals.
- Measure the voltages applied on each phase (Phase-Phase) on HV and IV terminals
simultaneously.
- Repeat test for each of the tap position separately.

The above tests can also be performed by portable Transformer turns ratio (TTR) meter.
They have an in built power supply, with the voltages commonly used being very low, such
as 8-10 V and 50 Hz. Two windings on one phase of a transformer are connected to the
instrument, and the internal bridge elements are varied to produce a null indication on the
detector. Exciting current is also being measured in most cases.

The turns ratio tolerance should be within 0.5% of the nominal ratio. For three phase
star connected winding this tolerance applies to phase to neutral voltage.

- If there are shorted winding turns, the measured ratio will be affected.
- Out-of-tolerance ratio measurements could be due to shorted turns, especially if there
is an associated high excitation current.
- Ratio measurements must be made on all taps to confirm the proper alignment and
operation of the tap changers.
- Open turns in the excited winding will indicate very low exciting current and no output
voltage.
- Open turns in the output winding will be indicated by normal levels of exciting current,
but very low levels of unstable output voltage.
- The turns ratio test also detects high resistance connections in the lead circuitry or
high contact resistance in tap changers by higher excitation current and a difficulty in
balancing the bridge.
Vector Group Test of Transformer
The vector group of transformer is an essential property for successful parallel operation
of transformers. Hence every electrical power transformer must undergo through vector
group test of transformer at factory site for ensuring the customer specified vector group
of transformer.

Procedure of Vector Group Test of Transformer

Let’s have a YNd11 transformer.

1. Connect neutral point of star connected winding with earth.
2. Join 1U of HV and 2W of LV together.
3. Apply 415 V, three phase supply to HV terminals.
4. Measure voltages between terminals 2U-1N, 2V-1N, 2W-1N, that means voltages
between each LV terminal and HV neutral.
5. Also measure voltages between terminals 2V-1V, 2W-1W and 2V-1W.
For YNd11 transformer, we will find, 2U-1N > 2V-1N > 2W-1N 2V-1W > 2V-1V or 2W-1W .

Testing of Buchholz Relay: The use of the gas detector relay (Buchholz relay) in oil
immersed transformers/ reactors is based on the fact that fault in the transformer, such as
arcing, partial discharges or local overheating, normally result in generation of gas. This
gas is collected in the relay housing and actuates an alarm contact.

The gas detector relay also includes a device, which responds to the abnormally high gas
flow from the main transformer tank to the conservator, which occurs when the
transformer develops a serious fault. This device actuates a trip contact, which is
connected to the trip circuit of the transformer.

If the transformer suffers a loss of oil causing oil level to drop below the level of the relay,
alarm as well as trip contacts close and the transformer is tripped.

An inspection window is fitted on either side of the relay and is graduated in cubic
centimeters to measure the volume of the gas accumulated.

Test Procedure: For testing of the contact functions, the Buchholz relay is provided with a
test knob. With the help of the test knob we can actuate both alarm and trip contact.
- First actuate the alarm contact and check whether the auxiliary relay operates and
gives annunciation in the control room.
- Then actuate the trip contact, which in turn should operate the trip relay as well as
gives annunciation in control room.
- The relay shall also be tested by injecting air into the relay from the pet valve provided
at the top of the relay using a foot pump or compressed air to simulate gas
accumulation.
- The annunciation of the relay to be checked in this way and after the test the air
should be released and the pet cock to be closed or connected to the gas-collecting
device.
- The annunciation and tripping of the relay be tested by draining of the oil from the
relay after closing the gate valves provided on both the sides of the relay in the
connecting pipeline.
- The pet valve as well as the drain valve is opened to drain the oil. When the oil level in
the relay falls, the annunciation will appear and further draining the oil will operate
the trip contact of the relay.

Testing of Pressure Relief Device (PRD) / Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR): Pressure Relief
Device / Sudden Pressure Relay is intended to protect power transformers/ reactors from
excessive pressure that may develop inside due to internal fault.

If a short circuit occurs inside a transformer, the arc vaporizes the transformer oil and a
heavy pressure is built up. If the pressure is not released immediately (within a few milli
seconds), the transformer tank will get bulged and ruptured with oil spreading everywhere
creating a fire hazard.

When pressure inside the transformer tank rises above pre-determined safe limit, a spring
mounted diaphragm lifts from its seat for releasing the oil, vapor or gases to reduce the
pressure. The diaphragm restores to its original position as soon as the pressure in the
tank drops below set limit.

The lifting of the diaphragm also operates a flag indicator and a micro switch which is
connected for annunciation /tripping. The flag and the micro switch remains operated until
they are manually reset.

The pressure limits are set at factory. The flag unit is very delicate and care must be taken
while handling the same. Gasket to be changed when cable terminal box is fitted back after
the test is over. Read the manufacturer's instruction before any operation.

Test Procedure:
 - Only operation of the micro switch and the associated cabling and correct operation of
the relays are tested during routine maintenance.
- Actuating the flag by lifting the operating rod manually tests the functioning of the
switch operation or as advised by the manufacturer and the annunciation in the
control panel as well as the extension of the trip command to be monitored.

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA): Transformer undergoes electrical, chemical and thermal
stresses during its service life which may result in slow evolving incipient faults inside the
transformer. DGA can identify deterioration of insulation oil and hot-spots, partial
discharge, and arcing. The gases generated under abnormal electrical or thermal stresses
are Hydrogen (H2), Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethylene (C2H4), Acetylene (C2H2),
Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2) which get
dissolved in oil. Collectively these gases are known as fault gases, which are routinely
detected and quantified at extremely low level, typically in parts per million (ppm) in
dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA). Most commonly used method to determine the content of
these gases in oil is using a vacuum Gas Extraction apparatus/ Head Space Sampler and
gas chromatograph.

For Dissolved Gas Analysis to be both useful and reliable, it is essential that sample taken
for DGA should be representative of lot, no dissolved gas be lost during transportation and
laboratory analysis be precise and accurate. Effective fault gas interpretation should
basically tell us first of all, whether there is any incipient fault present in the transformer,
and if so what kind of fault it is. It should also indicate the seriousness of the fault
warranting taking out the transformer from service for further investigation.

DGA analysis helps the user to identify the reason for gas formation and materials involved
and indicate urgency of corrective action to be taken.

Some of the recognized interpretation techniques are explained below.

Individual Fault Gases Acceptable Limits:

Transformer Fault Gases (µl/l)

Type H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 CO CO2
Non 5100-
communicating 60-150 40-110 50-90 60-280 3-50 540-900 13000
OLTC
5300-
Communicating 12000
75-150 35-130 50-70 110-250 80-270 400-850
OLTC

Total Dissolved Combustible Gas (TDCG) Limits: The presence of an incipient fault can
also be evaluated by the total dissolved combustible gas (TDCG) present. Limits for TDCG
are as given in table below based on IEEE standard C-57.1 04-1999. An increasing gas
generation rate indicates a problem in transformer.

TDCG limits, PPM Action

Satisfactory operation. Unless Individual gas acceptance
< or = 720 values are exceeded
721 - 1920 Normal ageing/slight decomposition. Trend to be
 established to see if any evolving incipient fault present
Significant decomposition. Immediate action to establish
1921 -4630 trend to see if fault is progressively becoming worse
Substantial decomposition. Gassing rate and cause of
<4630 gassing should be identified and appropriate corrective
action such as removal from service may be taken

TDCG includes all hydrocarbons, CO and H2 and does not include CO2 which is not a
combustible gas. Evaluation of Gases: Relationship with temperature of different fault
gasses is given below

Methane CH4 > 120° c Ethane (C2H6) > 1200 C

Ethylene (C2H4) > 150°C Acetylene (C2H2) > 7000 C

Faults Associated with Different Gases

Oil Overheating C2H4, C2H6, CH4

Overheated Cellulose Traces of acetylene with smaller quantity of
Hydrogen may be evolved. Large quantity of Carbon-Di-oxide (CO2) and
Carbon Monoxide (CO) are evolved from over heated cellulose. Hydro
carbon gases such as Methane and Ethylene will be formed if the fault
involves oil impregnated structure. CO
Partial discharge in Oil (Corona) Ionization of high stressed area where
gas / vapour are present or ‘wet spot’produces Hydrogen and methane
and small quantity of other hydrocarbons like ethane and ethylene.
Comparable amounts of carbon mono-oxide and di-oxide may result
due to discharges in cellulose. H2, CH4
Arcing in Oil Large amount of Hydrogen and acetylene are produced
with minor quantities of methane and ethylene in case of arcing
between the leads, lead to coil and high stressed area. Small amounts of
carbon mono-oxide and di-oxide may also be formed, if fault involves
cellulose.
C2H2, H2

However, it is again emphasized that DGA is likely to give misleading results unless
certain precautions are taken. These are proper sampling procedure, Type of
sampling bottle, cleanliness of bottle, Duration of storage, method of gas extraction,
good testing equipment and skilled manpower.

Trend Analysis: Transformers from same manufacturers and of same type some time
exhibit initially specific pattern of gas evolution which subsequently slows down (or
plateau's) is called Fingerprints or Normal characteristics, which are characteristic to the
transformer and do not represent an incipient fault condition.

When a possible incipient fault condition is identified for first time, it is advised to
determine gassing trend with subsequent analysis giving information such as which gases
are constantly being generated and rate of generation of these gases. The level of gases
generated in subsequent analysis provides a baseline from which future judgment can be
made. In the examination of trends, Key gases, TDCG, CCVCO ratio, rate of gas generation
and fingerprints (of normal trends) of particular transformer should also be considered.

The ratio of gas generation is a function of load supplied by the transformers and this
information is vital in determining the severity of fault condition and decision of removal of
the equipment from service for further investigation. Two methods have been suggested in
literatures for assessing the gassing rate:

• Change of concentration of gas in ppm

• Determination of actual amount of gas generated

General guidelines for rate of gas generation in case of removal of transfomer from
service are 100 ppm/day and 0.1 cub feet (0.003 m3) gas per day.

Furfuraldehyde Analysis: Degradation of insulating paper can be ascertained by direct or

indirect methods. Direct method employs measuring Degree of Polymerization (DP), which
requires a physical paper sample from the winding. However this being destructive to
transformer cannot be employed as a routine condition monitoring method.
It is known that in addition to CO and CO2 the ageing process of the paper produces
several oil soluble by-products, most notably the furanoid compounds (FF A).
FFA may be used as a complimentary technique to DGA for condition monitoring.

Recovery Voltage Measurement:

Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM) is being carried out on transformers for estimating
the moisture content in solid insulation.

Test Principle:
- 2 kV DC voltage is applied on the solid insulation of the transformer for a pre
determined time (tc).
- After the application of the voltage the terminal is shorted for half of the tc time (td).
- Then shorting is removed and the recovery voltage is measured till building up of the
peak voltage using a recovery voltage meter.
- Then after a relaxation time, voltage is again applied for a time (tc1) which is more than
tc.
- Then again the process of shorting for half the time of tc1, that is td1 and measuring of
recovery voltage is continued.
- This process is continued for about 2000 to 5000 sec of tc.
- And at each interval of time the peak recovery voltage is plotted in a graph against tc.
- The peak in the graph represents the peak recovery voltage.
- If the insulation is wet, the time constant for the peak is more.
- Software is used for computing the recovery voltage based on the values obtained.

Test Procedure:
 Before carrying out RVM, all terminals of each winding are to be shorted together.
 One of the winding combinations is grounded along with transformer tank.
  To avoid interference effect, voltage is injected from the low voltage winding and high
voltage winding is earthed.
 If LV winding is more susceptible to interference, then LV could be connected to
ground and voltage is applied through HV winding.
 It is recommended that no forced cooling is applied during the application of the test
voltage.
 Bushings should be clean.
 It is recommended to start the test after about 8-10 hrs after taking shut down on
the transformer to have uniform heat distribution and winding resistance test is
recommended to be conducted after R VM test.
 As there should not be any interruption of power supply during the test, an
uninterrupted power supply to RVM kit is ensured.
 The test kit automatically applies voltage (2 kV) for time tc and Short for time td and
measure peak recovery voltage (Ur max). The time interval of tc is automatically
increased and plot of tc vs Ur max is plotted by the software.

Evaluation of Test Result: RVM estimates the polarization spectrum of oil-paper insulation.
The qualitative evaluation of the insulation is primarily focused on the state of ageing
represented by a single peak in the curve of tc vs. Ur max. The more the time constant the
better is the insulation. RVM software also indicates the percentage moisture of the paper
insulation based on the curve.
The appearance of more than one peak indicates an inhomogeneous state of ageing or
inhomogeneous distribution of moisture in paper.

Frequency Response Analysis:

- Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) is done to assess the mechanical integrity of the
transformer.
- Transformer while experiencing severity of short circuit current looses its' mechanical
property by way of deformation of the winding or core.
- These changes cannot be detected through conventional condition monitoring
techniques such as Dissolved Gas Analysis, Winding Resistance Measurement,
Capacitance and Tan Delta Measurement etc.
- Some times even transportation without proper precaution may cause some internal
mechanical damages.
- FRA measurement, which is signature analysis, provides vital information of the
internal condition of the equipment so that early corrective action could be initiated.

Test Principle and Measurement:

Short circuit forces can cause winding movement and changes in winding inductance or
capacitance in Power Transformers. Recording the frequency response with these changes
gives information regarding the internal condition of the equipment. Frequency Response
Analysis (FRA) has proved to be an effective tool to detect such changes.

- Sinusoidal signal output of approximately 2 V rms from the Frequency Response

Analyzer is applied and one measuring input (R1) is connected to the end of a winding
and the other measuring input (T1) is connected to the other end of the winding.
- The voltage is applied and measured with respect to the earthed transformer tank.
 - The voltage transfer function TI/R1 is measured for each winding for five standard
frequency scans from 5 Hz to 10 MHz and amplitude and phase shift results are
recorded.
- While the low frequency analysis reveals the winding movements, the high frequency
analysis reveals the condition of joints.

Pre-caution should be taken to see that winding which is not under test is kept in open
condition in order to avoid response difference among the three phases. The same
procedure is followed on subsequent tests on the same or similar transformer, to ensure
that measurements are entirely repeatable.

The voltage transfer function Tl/Rl is measured for each winding for four standard
frequency scans from 5 Hz to 2 MHZ and amplitude and phase shift results are recorded
for subsequent analysis.

Analysis of Measured Frequency Responses: As FRA is signature analysis, data of signature

of the equipment when in healthy condition is required for proper analysis. Signatures
could also be compared with unit of same internal design or with other phases of the same
unit. Normally measured responses are analyzed for any of the following:

• Changes in the response of the winding with earlier signature.

• Variation in the responses of the three phases of the same transformer.

• Variation in the responses of transformers of the same design.

In all the above cases the appearance of new features or major frequency shifts are causes
for concern. The phase responses are also being recorded but normally it is sufficient to
consider only amplitude responses.
meter across HV and IV bushing in case of auto transformers and relevant winding in case
of two winding transformers and change the tap positions from maximum to minimum.

Check for proper operation of out of step relay, tap changer surge relay and remote
operation and tap indication of tap changer.

Inspection and Maintenance of OLTCs: Normally the temperature of the OLTC

compartment may be few degrees Celsius less than the main tank. Any tep1perature
approaching or above that of the main tank indicates an internal problem. Prior to opening
the OLTC compartment, it should be inspected for external symptoms of potential
problems. Such things as integrity of paint, weld leaks, oil seal integrity, pressure re1ief
device and liquid level gauge are all items which should be inspected prior to entering the
OLTC.

Following de-energization, close all valves between oil conservator, transformer tank and
tap-changer head, then lower the oil level in the diverter switch oil compartment by
draining of oil for internal inspection. Upon opening the OLTC compartment, the door
gasket should be inspected for debris that might indicate abnormal wear and sliding
surfaces should be inspected for signs of excessive wear.
Finally, the tap selector compartment should be flushed with clean transformer oil and all
carbonization which may have been deposited, should be removed. Minimum BDV should
be 50kV and moisture content should be less than 20 PPM.

Insulation Dielectric Test of Transformer

The dielectric test of transformer is generally performed in two different steps, likewise,
separate source voltage withstand test and induced voltage withstand test of transformer,
which we have discussed one by one below.
Separate Source Voltage Withstand Test of Transformer
This dielectric test is intended to check the the ability of main insulation to earth and
between winding.

Procedure
1. All three line terminals of the winding to be tested are connected together.
2. Other winding terminals which are not under test and also tank of the transformer
should be connected to earth.
3. Then a single-phase power frequency voltage of shape approximately sinusoidal is
applied for 60 seconds to the terminals of the winding under test.
4. The test shall be performed on all the windings one by one.
5. The test is successful if no break down in the dielectric of the insulation occurs during
test.

In this transformer testing, the peak value of voltage is measured, that is why the capacitor
voltage divider with digital peak voltmeter is employed as shown in the diagram above. The
peal value multiplied by 0.707 (1/√2) is the test voltage.

The values of test voltage for different fully insulated winding are furnished below in the
table.
Nominal system Highest system Rated short duration
voltage rating voltage rating power frequency withstand
for equipment for equipment voltage

415V 1.1 KV 3 KV

11 KV 12 KV 28 KV

33 KV 36 KV 70 KV

132 KV 145 KV 230 / 275 KV

220 KV 245 KV 360 / 395 KV

400 KV 420 KV 570 / 630 KV

Winding with graded insulation, which has neutral intended for direct earthing,
is tested at 38KV

Induced Voltage Test of Transformer

The induced voltage test of transformer

is intended to check the inter turn and line end insulation as well as main insulation to
earth and between windings-

1. Keep the primary winding of transformer open circuited.

2. Apply three phase voltage to the secondary winding. The applied voltage should be twice
of rated voltage of secondary winding in magnitude and frequency.
3. The duration of the test shall be 60 second.
4. The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage, and it shall be
quickly increased up to desired value.
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during test.
Short Circuit Test
Test Purpose
The value of the short circuit impedance Z% and the load (copper) losses (I2R) are
obtained. This test should be performed before the impulse test-if the later will be
performed as a routine test- in order to avoid readings errors.
Test Instrument
Megger, Multi meter, CT, PT
Test Procedure
Suitable Low Voltage (3-phase 415V, 50Hz) will be applied to the terminals of one winding
(usually the H.V.) with the other winding short circuited with 50 sq. mm. Copper cable.
(Usually the L.V.) The applied voltage is adjusted to pass the needed current in the
primary/secondary. In order to simulate conditions nearest to full load, it is customary to
pass 100%, 50% or at least 25% of full load current. Voltage to be increased gradually till
the current in the energized winding reaches the required value (50% to 100% rated
current). Measure the 3 Phase line currents at all tap position. If the tap-switch is an Off
Circuit tap-switch, the supply has to be disconnected before changing the tap.

A consistent trend in the increase or decrease of current, as the case may be, confirms the
healthiness of the transformer. If transformer is equipped with a tap changer, tapping
regulations are applied.
Three phase LT supply is applied on HV side of power transformer at normal tap with rated
current on HV side and currents measured in all the phases on HV side and phases &
neutral on LV side values noted. Readings to be taken as quickly as possible as the
windings warm up and the winding resistance increases. Hence, the losses value will
increase accordingly. Using appropriate instruments (conventional three wattmeter method
or digital wattmeter with ammeters & voltmeters) measurements of voltage, currents and
power can be recorded.
2.1.1.3 OLTC

• Checking for manual and electrical operation (both local & remote and lower & raise)
of On Load Tap Changer and for continuity between the operations
• Check for operation of limit switches at the extreme tap positions and mechanical
interlock between manual and electrical operation
• Check for Master/Follower and out of step relay operation of transformers if parallel
operation is intended
 Protection schemes of Power Transformers
Data to be furnished to Power Systems Unit for computing Relay Settings:
(a) Power Transformers:
Voltage ratio, No. of windings, Rated capacity, Short circuit withstand capacity, %
Impedance, Tapping range, Method of neutral grounding
Current transformer on HV and IV/LV sides: No. of cores, Ratios of each core and its
accuracy class, Rated burden in VA, Short circuit withstand capacity, Knee point voltage of
protection class cores
Bus PT on HV and IV/LV sides: Ratio, No. of windings and their accuracy class, Capacitors
and intermediate transformer details and compensating reactor details in case of CVTs.
Circuit breakers on HV and IV/LV sides: Rated current, breaking capacity and peak
making capacity, Breaker open and close timings, Individual pole operated/ gang operated,
pole discrepancy features
Control &Relay Panels: Make and type of relays

Differential protection: Generally the CT ratios on HV&LV are selected such that
the relay currents on both sides are balanced. In the numerical relay, the ratio correction
feature is available and unmatched CT ratios can be used on HV & LV side. A differential
setting of 10 to 20% Id is adopted keeping in view tap changer range.

The transformer differential protection is a unit protection. It serves as the main protection of
transformers in case of winding failure. Internal electrical faults are very serious and will cause
immediate damage. Short circuits and earth faults in windings and terminals will
normally be detected by the differential protection. Interturn faults, which are flashovers between
conductors within the same physical winding, is also possible to detect if a large enough number of
turns are short-circuited.
The differential current should theoretically be zero during normal load or external faults if the
turn-ratio and the phase shift are correctly compensated. However, there are several different
phenomena other than internal faults that will cause unwanted and false differential currents. The
main reasons for unwanted differential currents are:
• mismatch due to varying tap changer positions
• different characteristics, loads and operating conditions of the current transformers
• zero sequence currents that only flow on one side of the power transformer
• normal magnetizing currents
• magnetizing inrush currents
• overexcitation magnetizing currents

Inrush restraint methods

With a combination of the second harmonic restraint and the waveform restraint methods it is
possibly to get a protection with high security and stability against inrush effects. If the ratio of the
second harmonic to fundamental harmonic in the differential current is above the settable limit, the
operation of the differential protection is restrained.
It is recommended to set parameter I2/I1Ratio = 15%

Overexcitation restraint method

Overexcitation current contains odd harmonics, because the waveform is symmetrical about the
time axis. As the third harmonic currents cannot flow into a delta winding, the fifth harmonic is the
lowest harmonic which can serve as a criterion for overexcitation. Differential protection function is
provided with a fifth harmonic restraint to prevent the protection from operation during an
overexcitation condition of a power transformer. If the ratio of the fifth harmonic to fundamental
harmonic in the differential current is above a settable limit the operation is restrained.

It is recommended to use I5/I1Ratio = 25% as default value

Restrained and unrestrained differential protection

The protection should be provided with a proportional bias, which makes the protection operate for
a certain percentage differential current related to the current through the transformer. This
stabilizes the protection under through fault conditions while still permitting the system to have
good basic sensitivity. The bias current can be defined in many different ways. One classical way of
defining the bias current has been Ibias = (I1 + I2) / 2

The restrained (stabilized) part of the differential protection compares the calculated fundamental
differential (operating) currents and the bias (restrain) current, by applying them to the operate -
restrain characteristic. It is represented by a double-slope, double-breakpoint characteristic, as
shown in figure 43. The restrained characteristic is determined by the following 5 settings:

Section 1: This is the most sensitive part on the characteristic. In section 1, normal currents flow
through the protected circuit and its current transformers, and risk for higher false differential
currents is relatively low. An un-compensated on-load tap-changer is a typical reason for existence
of the false differential currents in this section.

The slope in section 1 is always zero percent.

Section 2: In section 2, a certain minor slope is introduced which is supposed to cope with false
differential currents proportional to higher than normal currents through the current transformers.

Section 3: The more pronounced slope in section 3 is designed to result in a higher tolerance to
substantial current transformer saturation at high through-fault currents, which may be expected
in this section.

EndSection1 1.25 multiple of Winding 1 rated current

EndSection2 3.00 multiple of Winding 1 rated current
SlopeSection2 40.0 operate-restrain characteristic, in %
SlopeSection3 80.0 of operate-restrain characteristic, in %

Unrestrained operation level has default value of IdUnre = 10pu, which is typically acceptable for
most of the standard power transformer applications. The unrestrained (that is, non-stabilized,
"instantaneous") part of the differential protection is used for very high differential currents, where
it should be beyond any doubt, that the fault is internal. This settable limit is constant and not
proportional to the bias current. Neither harmonic, nor any other restrain is applied to this limit,
which is therefore allowed to trip the power transformer instantaneously.
Cross-blocking between phases M
The basic definition of the cross-blocking is that one of the three phases can block
operation (that is, tripping) of the other two phases due to the harmonic pollution of the
differential current in that phase (that is, waveform, 2nd or 5th harmonic content).
When parameter CrossBlockEn=Enabled cross blocking between phases is introduced.
There is no time settings involved, but the phase with the operating point above the set
bias characteristic (in the operate region) will be able to cross-block the other two
phases if it is itself blocked by any of the previously explained restrained criteria.

As soon as the operating point for this phase is below the set bias characteristic (that is, in
the restrain region) cross blocking from that phase will be inhibited. In this way cross
blocking of the temporary nature is achieved. It should be noted that this is the default
setting value for this parameter.

Fundamental frequency negative sequence differential currents M

Existence of relatively high negative sequence currents is in itself a proof of a disturbance on the
power system, possibly a fault in the protected power transformer. The negative-sequence currents
are a measurable indication of an abnormal condition, similar to the zero sequence current. One of
the several advantages of the negative sequence currents compared to the zero sequence currents is
that they provide coverage for phase-to-phase and power transformer turn-to-turn faults.

Switch onto fault feature M13039-499

The transformer differential function has a built-in, advanced switch onto fault feature.
This feature can be enabled or disabled by a setting parameter SOTFMode. When enabled
this feature ensures quick differential protection tripping in cases where a transformer is
energized with an internal fault (for example, forgotten grounding on transformer LV side).
It shall be noted that this feature is only active during initial power transformer energizing,
under the first 50 ms.
Harmonic restrain
The harmonic restrain is the classical restrain method traditionally used with power
M13039-337 v8

transformer differential protections. The goal is to prevent an unwanted trip command due to
magnetizing inrush currents at switching operations, or due to magnetizing currents at over-
voltages. The magnetizing currents of a power transformer flow only on one side of the power
transformer and are therefore always the cause of false differential currents. The harmonic analysis
(the 2nd and the 5th harmonic) is applied to the instantaneous differential currents.
For example, if the content of the 2nd harmonic in the instantaneous differential current of phase A
is above the setting I2/I1Ratio, then a block signal is set for that phase.

Open CT detection feature

Transformer differential protection has a built-in, advanced open CT detection feature. A
M13039-440 v8

sudden inadvertently opened CT circuit may cause an unexpected and unwanted operation of the
Transformer differential protection under normal load conditions. It is always an advantage, from
the point of view of security and reliability, to have the open CT detection function to block the
transformer differential protection function in case of an open CT condition, and produce an alarm
signal to the operational personnel to quickly correct the open CT condition.

UAT 87 Settings in RTPP

High impedance differential protection, single phase (87)
High impedance differential protection, single phase (HZPDIF) (87) functions can be used
when the involved CTs have relatively high knee point voltage, same turns ratio and similar
magnetizing characteristics. It utilizes an external CT secondary current summation by wiring.
Actually all CT secondary circuits which are involved in the differential scheme are connected in
parallel. External series resistor, and a voltage dependent resistor which are both mounted
externally to the IED, are also required.
In order to make a scheme all CT secondary circuits belonging to one phase are connected in
parallel. From the CT junction points a measuring branch is connected. The measuring branch is a
series connection of one variable setting resistor(or series resistor) RS with high ohmic value and an
over-current element. Thus, the high impedance differential protection responds to the current
flowing through the measuring branch. However, this current is result of a differential voltage
caused by this parallel CT connection across the measuring branch. Non-linear resistor (that is,
metrosil) is used in order to protect entire scheme from high peak voltages which may appear
during internal faults.

Due to the parallel CT connections the high impedance differential relay can only measure one
current and that is the relay operating quantity. That means that there is no any stabilizing
quantity (that is, bias) in high-impedance differential protection schemes. Therefore in order to
guaranty the stability of the differential relay during external faults the operating quantity must not
exceed the set pickup value. Thus, for external faults, even with severe saturation of some of the
current transformers, the voltage across the measuring branch shall not rise above the relay set
pickup value. To achieve that a suitable value for setting resistor RS is selected in such a way that
the saturated CT secondary winding provides a much lower impedance path for the false differential
current than the measuring branch.
In case of an external fault causing current transformer saturation, the non-saturated current
transformers drive most of the spill differential current through the secondary winding of the
saturated current transformer and not through the measuring branch of the relay. The voltage drop
across the saturated current transformer secondary winding appears also across the measuring
branch, however it will typically be relatively small. Therefore, the pick-up value of the relay has to
be set above this false operating voltage.

Low impedance restricted earth fault protection

Restricted fault protection, low-impedance function (REFPDIF) (87N) can be used on all solidly or
low-impedance grounded windings. The REFPDIF (87N) function provides high sensitivity and high
speed tripping as it protects each winding separately and thus does not need inrush stabilization.
The REFPDIF function is a percentage biased function with an additional zero sequence current
directional comparison criterion. This gives excellent sensitivity and stability during through faults.
REFPDIF can also protect autotransformers.

Under balanced condition i.e. under normal operation the sum of currents through the
secondary of CTs will be zero and current in neutral CT will also be zero. But as soon as a
fault takes place in the secondary winding of Transformer, the current in R, Y and B phase
will no longer be balanced. Also under earth fault a current will flow through the neutral
CT. Because of this unbalance, the summation of current will not be zero but it will have
some finite value and hence the relay will pick up. It shall be noted that for a fault outside
the Transformer i.e. for through fault Restricted Earth Fault Protection will not operate as
in this case of through fault, the vector sum of currents in CT secondary will be zero. This
is the reason; such kind of protection scheme is for restricted zone and hence called
Restricted Earth Fault Protection.

Now, it is normal to ask that Differential Protection is also a zone protection and it
shall operate for any internal fault in Transformer, then why do we need extra
Restricted Earth Fault Protection?

This is really a very smart question. See, what happens is, the setting of differential
protection is normally kept at 20%. So, differential relay shall pick if the differential current
exceeds 0.2 A. Now let us consider a case where earth fault occurs just near the neutral
point as shown in figure below.

Since the location of fault is very near to the neutral point, the voltage driving the fault
current will be very less and hence the reflection of such a low current in primary side of
transformer will also will be low. Thus in such case, Transformer differential protection may
not operate as its setting is quite high at 20%. Therefore for protection of Transformer from
such a fault we need more sensitive protection scheme which is implemented by using
Restricted Earth Fault Protection. The sensitivity of REF protection is superior as compared
to Differential Protection. Normally the setting of REF protection is kept as low as 5%.
Basically the sensitivity of REF protection increases as we are using CT in neutral of
transformer and whenever an earth fault takes place it is damn sure that current will
complete its path through the neutral and hence increasing the sensitivity of REF
protection.

The differential current (operate current), as a fundamental frequency phasor, is calculated

as
Idiff = IN + 3Io

IN is current in the power transformer neutral as a fundamental frequency phasor.

3Io is residual current of the power transformer terminal currents as a phasor.

The bias current is the highest current of all separate input currents to REFPDIF (87N),
that is, of current in phase A, phase B, phase C, and the current in the neutral point

Restricted Earth Fault Protection (REF):

An earth fault in the winding is the most common type of transformer fault and is best
detected by using a ‘restricted’ form of earth fault protection. In this way time and current
setting can be made independent of other protection systems, thus low settings and fast
operating times can be achieved.

The restricted scheme is a balanced system of protection and can be applied to either Star
or Delta windings. The scheme connections of either types of winding are shown in figure.
For the star winding, three line current transformers are balanced against a current
transformer in the neutral connection; while on the delta side, the three line current
transformers are connected in parallel.

An external fault on the star side will result in current flowing in the line current
transformer of the affected phase and a balancing current in the neutral current
transformer, the resultant current in the relay is therefore zero and hence the relay is
stable. During an internal fault, the line current on the line CT gets reversed and hence
relay operates.

The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta side of a transformer is only
sensitive to earth faults on the delta side because zero sequence currents are blocked by
the delta winding. For example, an earth fault on the star side transferred through
transformer appears on the delta as phase fault. Therefore the arrangement is an
inherently restricted earth fault scheme in this application.

For external faults no current flows through REF unless a CT gets saturated. Hence
minimum pickup current setting is adopted (10% or 20% In) on REF relay. Based on the
through fault current, the stabilizing resistor is set such that the relay will not operate for
external fault when a CT gets saturated. This relay operates only for internal earth faults,
instantaneously.

Modern practice is to employ a voltage operated (high-impedance principle) relay for the
application. The relay is set to operate with a certain minimum voltage across its terminals.
The value of this operating voltage is chosen to be slightly higher than the maximum
voltage which can possibly appear across the relay terminals during external fault
conditions.

TESTING OF REF Relay: Same as that of Differential Relay.

The following points should be observed while testing.

1. Pick up current at the fixed and selected setting

2. Operation of high set element at fixed and selected setting

3. Through current stability check on the existing load

4. Operation of trip and alarm contacts.

Directional residual overcurrent protection (51N/67N)

Non-directional/Directional function: In some applications the non-directional functionality

is used. This is mostly the case when no fault current can be fed from the protected object
itself.
In order to achieve both selectivity and fast fault clearance, the directional function can be
necessary. This can be the case for earth fault protection in meshed and effectively earthed
transmission systems.
Choice of time characteristics: There are several types of time characteristics available such
as definite time delay and different types of inverse time characteristics. The selectivity
between different overcurrent protections is normally enabled by co-ordination between the
operating time of the different protections. To enable optimal co-ordination all overcurrent
protections, to be coordinated against each other, should have the same time
characteristic.
Power transformers can have a large inrush current, when being energized. This inrush
current can have residual current components. The phenomenon is due to saturation of the
transformer magnetic core during parts of the cycle. There is a risk that inrush current will
give a residual current that reaches level above the operating current of the residual
overcurrent protection. The inrush current has a large second harmonic content. This can
be used to avoid unwanted operation of the protection.
The protected winding will feed earth-fault (residual) current to earth faults in the
connected power system. The residual current fed from the transformer at external phase-
to-earth faults, is highly dependent of the total positive and zero-sequence source
impedances as well as the residual current distribution between the network zero-sequence
impedance and the transformer zero-sequence impedance.

Directional residual current can be used to detect and give selective trip of phase-to earth
faults in high impedance earthed networks. The protection uses the residual current
component 3I0 · cos φ, where φ is the angle between the residual current and the residual
voltage (-3U0), compensated with a characteristic angle. Alternatively, the function can be
set to strict 3I0 level with an check of angle 3I0 and cos φ.

The sensitive earth-fault protection is intended to be used in high impedance earthed

systems, or in systems with resistive earthing where the neutral point resistor gives an
earth-fault current larger than what normal high impedance gives
but smaller than the phase-to-phase short circuit current.
In a high impedance system the fault current is assumed to be limited by the system zero
sequence shunt impedance to earth and the fault resistance only. All the series impedances
in the system are assumed to be zero. In the setting of earth-fault protection, in a high
impedance earthed system, the neutral point voltage (zero sequence voltage) and the earth-
fault current will be calculated at the desired sensitivity (fault resistance).

The function always uses residual current (3I0) for its operating quantity. The residual
current can be obtained from current transformer located in the neutral grounding of a
WYE connected transformer winding.
A polarizing quantity is used within the protection in order to determine the direction to the
ground fault (forward/reverse) voltage polarizing is selected, the protection will use the
residual voltage -3V0 as the polarizing quantity V3P calculated from three-phase voltage
input.
VPol=3V0=(VA +VB +VC)
This phasor is used together with the phasor of the operating directional current, in order
to determine the direction to the ground fault (Forward/Reverse). In order to enable voltage
polarizing the magnitude of polarizing voltage shall be bigger than a minimum level defined
by setting parameter VPolMin.

Directional detection for ground fault function GUID-FC382DD3-E2C8-455E-8CD5-

1DE1793DD178 v6
Zero sequence components will be used for detecting directionality for the ground fault
function.
φ is defined as the angle between the residual current 3I0 and the reference voltage
(|φ=ang(3I0)-ang(Vref)|).
The reference voltage (Vref) is the polarizing quantity which isused for directionality and is
defined as Vref = -3V0 e—jRCADir, that is -3V0 inversely rotated by the set characteristic
angle RCADir. RCADir is normally set equal to 0 in a high impedance grounded network
with a neutral point resistor as the active current component is appearing out on the
faulted feeder only.
RCADir is set equal to -90° in an isolated network as all currents are mainly capacitive.
The function operates when 3I0·cos φ gets larger than the set value.

For trip, the operating quantity 3I0 cos φ, the residual current 3I0, and the residual voltage
3V0 must be larger than the set levels
ROADir is Relay Operating Angle. ROADir is identifying a window around the reference
direction in order to detect directionality
The function will operate if the residual current is larger than the set value and the angle
|φ = ang(3I0)-ang(Vref)| is within the sector RCADir ± ROADir

Directional phase overcurrent protection OC4PTOC(51_67)

The function can be directional.The direction of a fault is given as the current angle in
relation to the voltage angle. The fault current and fault voltage for the directional
function are dependent on the fault type.
To enable directional measurement at close-in faults, causing a low measured voltage,
the polarization voltage is a combination of the apparent voltage (85%) and a memory
voltage (15%). The following combinations are used.
Phase-phase short circuit:
Vref _ AB = VA -VB Idir _ AB = IA - IB
GUID-4F361BC7-6D91-47B5-8119-A27009C0AD6A V1 EN-US (Equation 134)
Vref _ BC =VB -VC Idir _ BC = IB - IC
ANSIEQUATION1450 V1 EN-US (Equation 135)
Vref _CA =VC -VA Idir _CA = IC - IA
(Equation 136)
ANSIEQUATION1451 V1 EN-US

Phase-ground short circuit:

Vref _ A =VA Idir _ A = IA
ANSIEQUATION1452 V1 EN-US (Equation 137)
Vref _ B =VB Idir _ B = IB
ANSIEQUATION1453 V1 EN-US (Equation 138)
Vref _C = VC Idir _C = IC
ANSIEQUATION1454 V1 EN-US (Equation 139)
The polarizing voltage is available as long as the positive-sequence voltage exceeds
5% of the set base voltage VBase. So the directional element can be used for all
unsymmetrical faults including close-in faults.

For close-in three-phase faults, the V1AM memory voltage, based on the same positive
sequence voltage, ensures correct directional discrimination.
The memory voltage is used for 100 ms or until the positive sequence voltage is
restored.
After 100 ms, the following occurs:
• If the current is still above the set value of the minimum operating current (7% of
the set terminal rated current IBase), the condition seals in.
• If the fault has caused tripping, the trip endures.
• If the fault was detected in the reverse direction, the measuring element in
the reverse direction remains in operation.
• If the current decreases below the minimum operating value, the memory resets
until the positive sequence voltage exceeds 10% of its rated value.
The directional setting is given as a characteristic angle AngleRCA for the function and
an angle window ROADir.

A harmonic restrain of the directional phase overcurrent protection function OC4PTOC

51_67 can be chosen. If the ratio of the 2nd harmonic component in relation to the
fundamental frequency component in a phase current exceeds the preset level defined
by the parameter 2ndHarmStab setting, any of the four overcurrent stages can be
selectively blocked by the parameter HarmBlockx setting. When the 2nd harmonic restraint feature
is active
Over Fluxing in Transformer
REF ProtectionBuchholz RelayEarthing TransformerDifferential ProtectionOver Fluxing

Causes of Over Fluxing in Transformer

As per present day transformer design practice, the peak rated value of the flux density
is kept about 1.7 to 1.8 Tesla, while the saturation flux density of CRGD steel sheet of
core of transformer is of the order of 1.9 to 2 Tesla which corresponds to about 1.1
times the rated value. Depending upon the design and saturation flux densities and the
thermal time constants of the heated component parts, a transformer has some over
excitation capacity. I.S. specification for electrical power transformer does not stipulate
the short time permissible over excitation, though in a round about way it does indicate
that the maximum over fluxing in transformer shall not exceed 110%.

The flux density in a transformer can be expressed by

The magnetic flux density is, therefore, proportional to the quotient of voltage and
frequency (V/f). Over fluxing can, therefore, occur either due to increase in voltage or
decrease in-frequency of both. The probability of over fluxing is relatively high in step-
up transformers in Power stations compared to step - down transformers in Sub-
Stations, where voltage and frequency usually remain constant. However, under very
abnormal system condition, over-fluxing trouble can arise in step-down substation
transformers as well. the over fluxing relays are so adjusted, that for every transient
over flux condition the transformer does not trip for maintaining the power system
stability. But till it should trip as soon as the duration and severity of the condition
crosses the specified safe limit.
There are several causes of transformer over fluxing, but some common causes are
given below for information

 Over voltage causes due to sudden load rejection

 Low frequency generation of power
 Transmission line is lightly loaded
 Proper shunt compensation in transmission system is not provided. etc.

Over fluxing Protection:

Induced EMF in a transformer is given by the equation E = 4.44 x

Φ x f x t (where Φ = flux generated, f = frequency and t = no. of
turns)

Flux Φ = K (E/f)
The Over fluxing condition in a transformer can occur during system over voltage and/or
under frequency conditions (V/F). This will cause disproportionately great increase in
magnetizing current and iron loss. In addition flux is diverted from the laminated core
structure into the steel structural parts. In particular, under condition of over-excitation of
core, the core bolts which normally carry little flux may be subjected to large component of
flux diverted from highly saturated and constricted region of core along side. Under such
condition the bolts may be rapidly heated to a temperature which destroys their own
insulation and will damage the coil insulation if the condition continues.

The Over fluxing condition does not call for high speed tripping. The tripping can be
delayed for a minute or two by which time, the conditions may tend to normal.

Over fluxing relay : In a typical over fluxing relay, over fluxing withstand time of
Transformer is generally found to be varying inversely with the working flux density in the
core.

The relay with inverse time characterizing measuring element is designed to detect the over
fluxing conditions taking into account the over fluxing withstand capability of the
Transformer. The highset element provides protection against severe over fluxing condition
(which can be blocked when not required)

Setting ranges:

V/F (inverse) K1 : 1 – 1.25 times rated V/F (highest) K2

: 1.0 to 1.5 times K1

Operating times:

Alarm : 0.5 Sec (Fixed)

Time delayed Unit: It follows inverse time characteristic curve. Typical operating timers are a
follows:

1.1
V/F 1.01 1.05 1.1 5 1.2 1.25 1.3
Time in 605 149 55 24.7 9.3 5.8 4.3
Sec.

Testing of over fluxing relay: A variable voltage source (Variac) is required to test the over
fluxing relay. A variable voltage is applied on the relay with the available frequency V/f
ratio characteristics and tested for alarm as well as tripping for the set timings.

O/L & E/L RELAYS

Directional O/L & E/L relays:

Except at locations where fault power can flow in only one direction, O/C relays must be
supplemented by directional elements. They have to be used to discriminate between faults
for which a relay should trip and those for which is should not trip according to direction of
fault. The tripping direction of the relay is away from the bus, looking into the equipment to
be protected.
The directional O/L, E/L relays have to be supplied with both current and voltage.
Directional O/L & E/L relays are used for all 132 KV lines as a backup protection.

Directional E/L relays are used on HV side of 132/33/11 KV Transformers and on both HV
& LV side of 220/132 KV 100 MVA transformers. On 400/220 KV, 315MVA Transformers
directional O/L & E/L relays are used on both HV & LV sides.

For all 33 & 11 KV feeders and lower capacity transformers non-directional O/L & E/L
relays are used.

The connection diagrams for directional O/L & E/L relays are shown in figure.

Highset (Instantaneous) O/C relay

A highset instantaneous relay is provided in addition to the IDMT relays for the Transformer
Protection.

Highset elements in conjunction with IDMT relays may be used on the 33kV and 11 KV
feeders for faster clearance of heavy faults.

Operating principle

In order to give directionality to an overcurrent relay, it is necessary to provide it with a

suitable reference, or polarising signal. The reference generally used is the system voltage,
as its angle remains relatively constant under fault conditions. The phase fault elements of
the directional relay are internally polarised by the quadrature phase-phase voltages, as
listed in the table below:
Protected Phase Operating Current Polarising Voltage
Under system fault conditions, the fault current vector will generally lag its nominal phase
voltage by an angle dependent on the system X/R ratio.
It is important that the relay operates with maximum sensitivity for currents lying in this
region.