AE 313

SPACE MECHANICS

Lecture 3
Two-Body (Keplerian) Motion

Instructor: Morad Nazari

September 10, 2019
 Two-Body Motion

• INTEGRABLE problems in CELESTIAL MECHANICS are extremely rare

- Kepler (Central Force) Problem, Euler-Jacobi Problem of Two-Fixed Centers, Vinti
‘Oblate Spheroid’ Problem

• The solution of the TWO-BODY PROBLEM problem is the starting point of

celestial mechanics
- the three laws of Kepler follow from Newton’s law of gravitation

• In the Solar System, the motion of every planet is so decisively governed by the
attraction of the central body, the Sun, that PLANETARY ORBITS DEVIATE
ONLY SLIGHTLY FROM THEIR UNDISTURBED MOTION

- the existence of the other members of the system, i.e., of the other planets,
manifests itself by insignificant and slowly changing perturbations of the elements
of the Kepler orbits (perturbation theory)

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 Two-Body Motion
Problem Statement
• PROBLEM STATEMENT:
- Consider the motion of two point masses m1 and m2 with position vectors r 1⃗ and r 2⃗
referred to the origin of inertial (fixed) frame 𝒩 .
- Each mass is affected only by the gravitational force from the other one
- These forces are equal, opposite, and depend only on the scalar separation
r = ∥ r∥⃗ = r ⃗ . r ⃗ where r ⃗ = r 2⃗ − r 1⃗ fd1
m m
fd2
GGm11m2 2
r2 2
r
• VECTOR EQUATIONS OF MOTION m1 m2

·· m1m2 ·· m1m2 r⃗
m1 r 1⃗ = G 2 r ̂ m2 r 2⃗ = − G 2 r ̂ R2
r r R1
r 1⃗ r 2⃗
( r)
r⃗ N
r̂ =
N EOM
inertial (fixed) frame
- define center of mass of two bodies
m1 r 1⃗ + m2 r 2⃗ r̈ =
r c.m.
⃗ = µ = G(m1 + m2 )
m1 + m2
m1 r 1⃗ + m2 r 2⃗ = 0 ⃗ ⇒ ⃗ = 0⃗
·· ·· ··
r c.m. ⃗ = =fdat2 +
⇒ ardc.m. − bfd1
m2 m1
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 Inertial frame

FIGURE 2.2 2.2 Equations of motion in

Two-Body Motion The motion of two identical bodies acted on only by their mutual gravitational attraction,
inertial frame of reference.
Relative Coordinates
m2
Z
m2 Z
G
Path of m2 m1
• BARYCENTRIC COORDINATES
G

Nonrotating frame
attached to m1
Path of G

- the non-accelerating center of mass of a two-body m1

system may serve as the origin of an inertial frame X

G
2.2 Equations
m1 of motion inPath
an of
inertial
m1
(reduction to an equivalent one-body problem) X m2 Circled points are where the
paths cross the XY plane

Inertial frame
Z
(a) m2
G
Path of m2 m1
Z
FIGURE 2.2 Path of G
m1

The motion of two identical bodies acted on onlyG by their m mutual

Path ofgravitational
m

• Reduction to RELATIVE
1 1

COORDINATES
inertial frame of reference. X Nonrotating
m
frame
attached to G 2

Inertial frame

G Circled points are where the

- a still simpler formulation describes the motion of The

the FIGURE 2.2 X

motion of two identical bodies acted on only by their mutual gravitational attraction, as vie
paths cross the XY plane

one mass with respect to the second inertial frame of reference. m 2

(b) m2
Z
- the problem is then reduced to its most usually FIGURE 2.3 m2

observable form: the motion of one body aroundThe Motion in Figure 2.2: (a) As viewed relative to m (or m ); (b) As viewed from the 1 2
Z

G
another G

Nonrotating frame
Nonrotating frame
attached to m1
attached to m1
m1

X m1
Circled points are where the
paths cross the XY plane
X
(a) 4
 Two-Body Motion
Relative Coordinates

• Reduction to RELATIVE COORDINATES

- each body moves as if a mass equal to the sum of the two masses attracted it
according to Newton’s law fd1 fd2
m11mm 2
G r2 22
Gm

m1 r m2

r ⃗ = r 2⃗ − r 1⃗ ⇒ r⃗
R1 r c.m.
⃗ R2

·· ·· ·· r 1⃗ r 2⃗
r ⃗ = r 2⃗ − r 1⃗ N
m1 r 1⃗ + m2 r 2⃗
G(m1 + m2) r c.m.
⃗ =
=− r ̂ N m1 +EOM m2 of
r2
μ μ
( rµ)= G(m
r⃗
= − 2 r̂ = − 3 r⃗ r̂ = µ = G(m 1 + m 2 ) ⇡ Gmr̈
1 = −
r r 1 + m2 ) parameter)
(gravitational
• KEPLER’S ASSUMPTION fd2 fd1
ad =
If m1 /m2 ≫ 1, then r 1⃗ ≈ r c.m.
⃗
−
- m2 m1
- Kepler took the Sun as the fixed center of the solar system
- similar situation holds for the motion of artificial satellites or space probes
Aerospace Engineering Sc
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 Two-Body Motion
Energy Conservation
• TWO-BODY EQUATION OF (Relative) MOTION
·· μ
r⃗ = − 3 r⃗
r
- equivalent to three simultaneous second-order, nonlinear, differential equations
requiring six constants of integration for their complete solution.
- these constants, called integrals of the motion, are of remarkable significance in
conveying the geometrical and dynamical properties of the solution.

• CONSERVATION OF (specific, per unit mass, mechanical) ENERGY

- Define the specific energy ε as ε : specific energy
1 2 μ
ε= v − 1 2
2 r v : specific kinetic energy
2
- Specific energy ε can be shown to be constant. μ
− : specific potential energy
r

- Specific energy is the first integral (constant) of the motion.

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 Two-Body Motion
Angular Momentum Conservation

• CONSERVATION OF (specific) ANGULAR MOMENTUM

- Define the specific angular momentum as h ⃗ = r⃗ × v ⃗
- Specific angular momentum is conserved:

- conservation of angular momentum implies that all motion is planar.

h⃗ h⃗ r⃗ × v ⃗
ĥ = = =
⃗
the orbit plane is determined through
h⃗
- h ∥r ⃗ × v ∥
- Angular momentum vector gives us three other integrals (constants) of motion:
(2nd, 3rd, and 4th)

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 Two-Body Motion
Angular Momentum Conservation
· ·
v ⃗≡
· ̂
• POLAR COORDINATES v = rvrr̂ +
≡ ṙr ⃗ = ı̂r r+θθv
ngular Momentum per unit θ̂ rrrfθ·✓˙˙
ass: h ≡ r × ṙ ı̂θ
king the time derivative, we =rrrrr̂ı̂̂ r
r r⃗ r== Note: vθ = r
btain: m1
ı̂r rṙrṙ··
ḣ = ṙ × ṙ + r × r̈
m1
r̂ vr = r
! µ "
= r × − 3 r + ad
r
= r × ad Because all motion is planar, the momentum
described using polar coordinates
ad ≈ 0 then ḣ = 0 h = r × ṙ
h = constant ˙ θ)
= (rı̂r ) × (ṙı̂r + rfı̂
˙ h = hı̂h
= r2 fı̂
s obvious that all motion is thus
We find h = r2 f˙ = 2(rate area swept)
anar. The orbit plane is
etermined through the normal Thus, Kepler’s 2nd law is a geometric proper
ctor: r × ṙ the conservation of angular momentum.
ı̂ = 8
 Two-Body Motion
Kepler’s 2nd Law

• KEPLER’S 2ND LAW - The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal
156 Chapter 7 Orbits in a central field

areas in equal times P

A

FIGURE 7.1 Each planet P moves on an

S
elliptical path with the Sun S at one focus.
The area A is that referred to in Kepler’s
second law.

• ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION is equivalent to Kepler’s 2nd law

1 1 2 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
t+ t
A = r(r + r) sin ✓ ⇡ r ✓ First law Each of the planets moves on an elliptical path with the Sun at one focus
2 2 of the ellipse.

dA A 1 2 ✓ 1 2˙ 1 r+ r
Second law For each of the planets, the straight line connecting the planet to the

= lim = r lim = r ✓ = hH Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

dt t!0 t 2 t!0 t 2 2 Third law The squares of the periods of the planets are proportional to the cubes of
(r + r) sin ✓
2·
the major axes of their orbits.
A
(h = r θ) ✓ The problem of determining the law of force that causes the motions described by
Kepler (and proving that it does so) was the most important scientific problem of the sev-
enteenth century. In what must be the finest achievement in the whole history of science,
r
Newton’s publication of Principia in 1687 not only proved that the inverse square law of
m1 t
gravitation implies Kepler’s laws, but also laid down the entire framework of the science
of mechanics. Orbit theory is just as important today, the principal fields of application
being astronomy, particle scattering and space travel.

- since h is a constant, this implies that equal areas are swept out in equal times
In this chapter, we treat the problem of a particle moving in a central force field with a
fixed centre; this is called the one-body problem. The assumption that the centre of force
is fixed is an accurate approximation in the context of planetary orbits. The combined
mass of all the planets, moons and asteroids is less than 0.2% of the mass of the Sun. We
therefore expect the motion of the Sun to be comparatively small, as are inter-planetary
influences.∗ However, we do not confine our interest to motion under the attractive inverse
square field. At first, we consider motion in any central force field with a fixed centre. This
part of the theory will then apply not only to gravitating bodies, but also (for example) to
the scattering of neutrons. The important cases of inverse square attraction and repulsion
are then examined in greater detail.

∗ The more general two-body problem is treated in Chapter 10. The two-body theory must be used to
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analyse problems in which the masses of the two interacting bodies are comparable, as they are in binary
 Two-Body Motion
Effective Potential Energy

• We take as our starting point the PRINCIPLES of CONSERVATION of

ANGULAR MOMENTUM and ENERGY
- energy equation implies
1 2 μ
v − U( r ⃗) = ε, U( r ⃗) =
2 r

• Radial motion equation

- we can rewrite the energy equation by expressing the velocity in polar coords.


1 ·2
[ r + (r θ) ] − U( r ⃗) = ε
· 2
2
1 ·2 1 h2
r + − U( r ⃗) = ε ⇒ r· = ± 2(ε − Ueff)
2 2r 2

Ueff( r)⃗

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 The effective potential for an inverse square force is shown in Fig. 2.5 for several
values of angular momentum. The orbits are bound (elliptical) for E < 0 and are
Two-Body Motion
unbounded (hyperbolic) for E > 0. The turning points in the 1D motion are r min
and r max . Effective Potential Energy
The one-dimensional Lagrangian of orbital mechanics for an inverse-square
• The EFFECTIVE
force admitsPaOTENTIAL eff flow. The flow equations are
two-dimensional (2D) U
- ṙ = ρ for different values of r
depends on h and will be different ! 2 "
1 (2.93)U
ℓ of r that satisfy the inequality ( r ⃗) ≤ ε
- the motion is restricted to those
ρ̇ = values – GM . eff
for a constant energy, Ueff is maximum when r· = 0 (periapsis and apoapsis)
µr 2 µr
-

1 h 2 μ k l12 · 2
Ueff( r ⃗ ) = − =
V (r) = –ε+
r −2mrr2
2 r 2 r 2
Increasing
1 ·2
− =ε− r

angular
2

momentum
Effective potential

Unbound
unbounded orbits
E>0 (ε > 0)
orbits
0
1 h2 μ
r

Bound
bounded orbits
E<0 (ε < 0)
εE orbits
2 r 2
Ueff( r ⃗ ) =

1D potential for
r several angular
rmin Radius rmax
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 Two-Body Motion
Effective Potential Energy

• A point of an orbit at which the distance achieves 7.2

its General
maximum nature ofor minimum
orbital motion
value is called an APSE of the orbit
- these maximum and minimum distances are called the apsidal
V* distances
- at an apse, r· = 0 and so r must satisfy
h2 μ
εεE≥>≥000
unbounded
− −ε=0
2rapse rapse
2
ε=0 r
which has two solution: εεE<<<000 bounded

μ 2εh 2 FIGURE 7.6 Left: The effective potential V ∗ for the attractiv
solution (I): rp = − 1− 1+ 2 path of the asteroid around the Sun. C is the point of closest
2ε μ
In the special case of orbits around the Sun, the p
rp : periapsis (minimum radius)
perihelion and the point of maximum distance the ap
orbits around the Earth are perigee and apogee.
μ 2εh 2 The apsidal distances, the maximum and minimu
solution (II) : ra = − 1+ 1+ 2 , (if ε < 0)
2ε μ found from the radial motion equation (7.8). At an ap

L2
ra = ∞, (if ε ≥ 0) V (r ) + 2 = E.
2r
ra : apoapsis (maximum radius)
The positive roots of this equation are the apsidal dist
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 Two-Body Motion
Trajectory equation

• The analytical solution to the ‘DIRECT’ KEPLER PROBLEM (given the central
force inverse square law, determine the orbit) was first produced by Jakob
HERMANN and Johann BERNOULLI in 1710
• POLAR EQUATION of a CONIC SECTION
- from the Conservation of Energy, we have
1 ·2 1 h2 μ
ε= r + −
2 2 r2 r
dε d 2r h 2 μ
=0⇒ 2 − 3 + 2 =0
dt dt r r
dr dr dθ · dr defines how the magnitude of r
= =θ
dt dθ dt dθ behaves as a function of time

dθ ( dt )
2 2 2
d r d r dθ dr d 2θ 2
· 2 r ·· dr
d
= 2 + =θ +θ
dt 2 dθ dt 2 dθ 2 dθ

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 Two-Body Motion
Trajectory equation

• POLAR EQUATION of a CONIC SECTION (CONT’D)

- from the conservation of angular momentum, we can write
2· · h
h=r θ⇒θ= 2
r
2
·· 2h · 2h dr
θ=− 3r=− 5
r r dθ

r ( dθ )
2 2 2 2 2 2
d r · 2 d r ·· dr h d r 2h dr
=θ +θ = 4 2− 5
dt 2 dθ 2 dθ r dθ

r 2 dθ 2 r 3 ( dθ )
2 2
1 d r 2 dr 1 μ
− − + = 0
r h2

use transformation u = 1/r

d 2u μ 2
+ u = ⇒ u = A cos(θ − θ0) + μ/h
dθ 2 h 2
(A and θ0 are arbitrary constants) θ0 is the 5th integral (constant) of the motion.
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 Two-Body Motion
Trajectory equation

• POLAR EQUATION of a CONIC SECTION

2
p semi-latus rectum : p = h /μ
r=
1 + e cos(✓ ✓0 ) eccentricity : e = pA
e is the 6th integral (constant) of motion.
- the focal parameter e is a constant determined by μ and h
- the eccentricity e depends only on h and ε

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 Next Class…

• TWO-BODY MOTION (CONT.)

- while strong constraints can be placed on the planar motion for the two-body
motion, the solution is not completely described as of yet
- what does the eccentricity vector provide?
- Kepler’s first law of planetary motion
- reading assignment: Curtis 2.6-2.10 (relevant to the next class),
Kluever 2.3-2.5

• ANNOUNCEMENTS
- Finish reading the materials … (HW 1 due September 17)
- HW1: Final answers will be posted by tomorrow noon.
- Both textbooks (Curtis and Kluever) are posted on Canvas.
- brush up on programming (MATLAB will be an essential part of this course)

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