Biology 1002 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

Diversity of Prokaryotes and Viruses 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

20.1 Which Organisms Are Members of the Domains Archaea and Bacteria?
- Earth's first organisms were prokaryotes, single- celled microbes that lack
membrane bound organelles
- For the first 1.5 billion years or more, all life was prokaryotic
- Prokaryotes are still abundant, forming two of life's three domains
1. bacteria 2. archaea

Bacteria and Archaea are fundamentally different - Similarities between

Bacteria and Archaea
-They are both prokaryotic
-They are both single-celled organisms
- Differences between Bacteria and Archaea
-Bacteria have peptidoglycan (a chemical molecule forming the cell wall
found in all bacteria) in their cell walls
-There are also differences in the plasma membrane composition,
ribosomes, and RNA polymerases between the two domains
-Differences in transcription and translation also exist between the two

Classification of prokaryotes within each domain is difficult

- Prokaryotes are very small and structurally simple
- Prokaryotes do not have many anatomical differences that can be used to
differentiate them
- Features used in prokaryotic classification are:
shape
means of locomotion
pigments
nutrient requirements
colony appearance
gram staining characteristics (measures gram positive or negative)
nucleotide sequence

Prokaryotes differ in shape and structure

- Both bacteria and archaea are very small, ranging from 0.2 to 10
micrometers in diameter
- Prokaryotes have three common shapes
spherical (cocci)
rod like (bacilli)
3. corkscrew-shaped (spirilli)

Spherical (cocci)
Spherical (cocci)
Corkscrew-shaped (spirilli)
Rod-shaped (bacilli)

20.2 How Do Prokaryotes Survive and Reproduce?

Some prokaryotes are motile (mobile)
- Flagella are the primary means of locomotion
-found singly, in pairs, as a tuft at one end of the cell, or scattered over the
entire cell surface
-In bacteria, a "wheel-and-axle" arrangement anchors the flagellum within
the cell wall and plasma membrane, enabling the flagellum to rotate rapidly

‚ñ™ Many bacteria form films on surfaces - Some bacteria secrete sticky
layers of
polysaccharide or protein slime
- Communities of slime-secreting bacteria are called
biofilms; dental plaque is a biofilm
- Bacteria embedded in biofilms are protected from
disinfectants and antibiotics - Can cause tooth decay

‚ñ™ Protective endospores allow some bacteria to withstand adverse

conditions
- Endospores form inside some bacteria under extreme environmental
conditions
- Endospores are thickly-wrapped particles of genetic materialand
fewenzymes
- Endospores are resistant to extremes
- Survival in boiling water
- Stable and long lived (> 250 million years) -Ideal bio-terror agent (anthrax
spores)
- When a hospitable environment is found, metabolism resumes and the
endospore develops into a fully functioning bacterium

Spores Protect Some Bacteria

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes are specialized for specific habitats

- Each species is specialized for certain environmental conditions and usually
cannot survive outside a narrow range around those conditions
- Prokaryotes occupy a wide range of habitats
-High-pressure underground environments
-Cold environments (the Antarctic sea ice)
-High-salt environments (the Dead Sea)
-Acidic or alkaline environments (vinegar, ammonia)
-Moderate environments (the human body) -Hot environments (deep-sea
vents, hot springs)

Some Prokaryotes Thrive in Extreme Conditions

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes exhibit diverse metabolisms - Anaerobic metabolism

-Ex: tetanus bacterium, are anaerobes and live without oxygen (are
poisoned by it)
- Some can switch between aerobic and anearobic - Ex: Escherichia coli in
our large intestines
- Some extract their energy from organic compounds -Ex: Sugars,
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
- Prokaryotes can also extract energy from compounds poisonous to humans
-Ex: Petroleum, methane, benzene, toluene - Some get energy from sunlight
-Ex: Cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis

Cyanobacteria

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, which is simpler than mitotic

division
- Asexual cell division produces identical copies - Binary fission can occur
every 20 mins
‚ñ™ A rapid reproductive rate allows for rapid evolution - Mutations in DNA
replication are are rapidly spread
‚ñ™ Prokaryotes may exchange genetic material without reproducing
- Conjugation allows for DNA transfer between donor and recipient
- Sex pili connect donor to recipient cell, drawing the recipient to the donor
and forming a cytoplasmic bridge

Reproduction in Prokaryotes

Conjugation: Prokaryotic 'Mating'

Conjugation between two bacteria

Sex pilus

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes may exchange genetic material without reproducing

(continued)
- Conjugation can occur between different species
- Small circular DNA molecules (plasmids) that are separate from the
bacterial chromosome, carry genes from donor to recipient
- The plasmids may contain alleles conferring resistance to antibiotics
- Conjugation produces new genetic combinations that may allow the
resulting bacteria to survive under a greater variety of conditions

Author Animation: Bacterial Conjugation

20.3 How Do Prokaryotes Affect Humans and Other Eukaryotes?

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes play important roles in animal nutrition
- Leaf-eating animals (e.g., rabbits, cattle) depend on digestive tract
bacteria to break down cellulose in the cell walls of plants and thus release
the nutrients in the cells
-These animals have the ability to digest cellulose
- Many human foods are produced by bacterial action (Ex: cheese and
yogurt)
- Bacteria in our intestines produce vitamins (Ex: K and B12)

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes capture the nitrogen needed

- Plants cannot metabolize the nitrogen available as
a gas in the air
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that may be present in the soil, or in specialized
nodules in some plant roots, convert atmospheric N2 (gas) to NH4+
(ammonium) that plants
- Plants require nitrogen to grow and are thus dependent on bacteria for
survival
-Since humans could not live without plants, they also cannot live without
bacteria
- Nitrogen fixation is found in alfalfa, soybeans, lupines, and clover
(legumes)

Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria in Root Nodules

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes are nature's recyclers

- Many prokaryotes obtain energy by breaking down complex organic
molecules into the the basic building blocks of biomolecules
- These prokaryotes obtain their energy from waste products and the dead
bodies of plants and animals
- Decomposition of dead organisms frees nutrients for reuse by new life
- The recycling of nutrients by prokaryotes and other decomposers provides
the basis for continued life on earth

‚ñ™ Prokaryotes can clean up pollution

- Nearly all human-made substances are
biodegradable by some bacterial species
- Oil-eating bacteria were used in clean up the Exxon
Valdez oil spill disaster
- The practice of manipulating conditions to stimulate breakdown of
pollutants by living organisms is known as bioremediation
‚ñ™ Some bacteria pose a threat to human health
- EX: Clostridium tetani causes tetanus, enters the
body through a puncture wound
- Disease-producing bacteria are termed pathogenic - No pathogenic archaea
have been discovered yet
‚ñ™ We've battled bacterial diseases throughout history
- Bubonic Plague (Black Death)
- Caused by Yersinia pestis, spread by rat fleas -Killed 75-200 million people
in the 1300s
- Lyme Disease (emerged in 1975)
- Carried by deer ticks which bite humans
- Flu-like symptoms can lead to arthritis and nervous system problems
- Other historical bacterial diseases disappear/ reoccur throughout history
- Tuberculosis (thought to be eliminated from the U.S.) - Gonorrhea and
syphilis (sexually transmitted) -Cholera (water-transmitted, contaminates
water)

Lyme Disease
Bubonic Plague

20.4 What Are Viruses, Viroids, and Prions?

‚ñ™ A virus consists of two components
a molecule of DNA or RNA
surrounded by protein coat
‚ñ™ Characteristics of a virus
- They have no cell membranes, no cytoplasm, no
ribosomes
- They can reproduce only inside a host cell (uses ^^^ from host) - They
are very small (0.05-0.2 micrometers)
- They come in a variety of shapes
‚ñ™ The simplicity of viruses seems to place them outside the realm of living
things

The Sizes of Microorganisms

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/scale/

Viruses Come in a Variety of Shapes

Viral Structure and Replication

glycoproteins
protein coat
envelope (lipid bilayer)

genetic material (viral RNA)

coated with protein
spikes
core proteins
reverse transcriptase

‚ñ™ Viruses are parasites

- They cannot grow or reproduce on their own and
thus parasitize living cells
- They have a specialized protein coat that enables entry a host cell
- Viral genetic material "hijacks" the host cell to produce new viral
components
- The viral components assemble rapidly into new viruses and burst from the
host cell
‚ñ™ Each viral type is specialized to attack specific host cells
- Bacteria are infected by bacteriophage viruses

Some Viruses Infect Bacteria

Bacteriophages

Bacterial cell

‚ñ™ Bacteriophages can treat bacterial diseases

- The rise in bacterial antibiotic resistance makes
standard drugs less effective
- Bacteriophages specifically target host bacteria
- Bacteriophages are harmless to human body cells
‚ñ™ In multicellular organisms, viruses specialize in attacking particular cell
types
- Cold viruses attack respiratory membranes
- Rabies viruses attack nerve cells
- Herpes viruses live in the body and periodically erupt as infectious sores
- HIV attacks human white blood cells, causing AIDS - Viruses have been
linked to some types of cancer

Herpes virus

Author Animation: Retrovirus Replication

Author Animation: Herpes Virus Replication

‚ñ™ Viral infections are difficult to treat

- Antibiotics are completely ineffective against viruses
- Antiviral drugs may also kill host cells
- Viruses "hide" within cells and are hard to detect
- Many antiviral drugs destroy or block the function of enzymes that targeted
viruses require for replication
- Viruses have high mutation rates because they lack the mechanisms to
correct errors that occur during replication of their genomes (copying of
genetic material)
-Mutations can confer resistance to an antiviral drug
-Resistant viruses spread and multiply, rendering a drug ineffective

‚ñ™ Viruses as Biological Weapons

- Difficulty in treating viral infections
makes viruses devastating weapons
- Limited smallpox stocks saved to develop future vaccine against unknown
stocks
- Ebola hemorrhagic fever kills 90% of victims (developed vaccine)

‚ñ™ Some infectious agents are more simple than viruses

- Viroids are infectious particles with only short RNA strands (no protein
coat)
-Enter a host nucleus, direct new viroid synthesis
- Cause crop diseases: cucumber pale fruit disease, avocado sunblotch, and
potato sindle tuber disease
- Prions are even more puzzling than viroids
-A fatal disease called kuru was discovered in a
New Guinea tribe (the Fore) in 1950
-causes a loss of coordination, dementia, body shuts down leading to death
-How transmitted? >>> cannibalism of the dead

‚ñ™ Kuru resembled certain other diseases

- Creutzfeldt-Jakob (disease CJD) in humans - Scrapie in sheep

- Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or "mad cow disease") in cattle

- These diseases create holes in brain tissue
- Prion-caused diseases may be heritable (passed on to future generations)

‚ñ™ Proposed model for replication of prions

1. Prion protein is a normal part of nerve cells
2. Misfolded versions of the normal protein are the infectious particles
3. The misfolded proteins induce normal copies to misfold, too
4. A high concentration of prions in nerve tissue causes cell damage and
degeneration
‚ñ™ No one is certain how these infectious particles originated
- One theory is that they are evolutionary remnants of life's early history
- This is suggested by the huge variety of mechanisms for self-replication
among these particles, as has been proposed for the pre-DNA world
- They could be degenerate descendants of parasitic cells
- Ancient parasites may have become dependent on hosts' biochemical
machinery
 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

Chapter 23: Animal Diversity I, Invertebrates

A. Key Features of Animals

• Animals possess all of the following characteristics
– Multicellularity
– Heterotrophic
– Cells lack a cell wall
– Are able to respond rapidly to external stimuli
– They obtain energy by consuming other organisms
– Most reproduce sexually
– They are motile at some point in the life cycle

B. Animal Evolution
• Most animal phyla that currently populate Earth were present by the Cambrian
period (544 million years ago)

• The scarcity of pre-Cambrian fossils led systematists to search for clues about the
evolutionary history of animals by examining features of:
– Anatomy
– Embryological development
– DNA sequences

• Certain features represent evolutionary milestones

– The appearance of tissues
– The appearance of body symmetry
– Protostome and deuterostome development

• These features mark major branching points on the animal evolutionary tree
An Evolutionary Tree of Some Major Animal Phyla
C. The Appearance of Tissues
• Tissues are groups of similar cells that carry out a specific function (e.g. muscle)

• The earliest animals had no [true] tissues

• Sponges are the only modern-day animals that lack tissues

– Individual cells may be specialized, but they act independently
– Sponges and other phyla arose from an ancient common ancestor without
tissues
 3 types of layers…

D. Animal Tissues
• Ectoderm (top)
• Endoderm (bottom)
 • Mesoderm (middle)

E. The Appearance of Body Symmetry

• Symmetrical animals have an upper (dorsal) surface and a lower (ventral) surface

• Animals with tissues exhibit either radial or bilateral symmetry

• 3 types
– radial, bilateral, asymmetric (no symmetry)
F. Radial Symmetry
• Can be divided into roughly equal halves by any plant that passes through the
central axis

• Have two embryonic tissue (germ) layers:

– Ectoderm (outer layer, covers the body)
– Endoderm (inner layer, lines most hollow organs)

 Tend to be either sessile (fixed to one spot) or medusa (free floating, drift around on
currents) [ex—jellyfish]
– Cnidarians, hydra

G. Bilateral Symmetry
• Can be divided into mirror-image halves only along one plane that runs down the
midline

• Have an additional germ layer:

– Mesoderm (middle layer, forms muscle and circulatory/skeletal system)

 Exhibit cephalization (concentration of sensory organs and brain in a well-defined

head)

• Defined anterior (head) and posterior (tail) regions

H. Body Cavities
• Most bilateral animals have a body cavity

• Serve many functions

– Skeleton: provides support and a framework against which muscles can act)
– Protection: buffer between internal organs and the outside world

 3 types:
– Coelomate (eucoelomate), pseudocoelomate, acoelomates
I. Body Cavity Structure Varies Among Phyla
• Coelomate animals possess a coelom (a fluid-filled body cavity that is completely
lined with mesoderm)

J. Body Cavity Structure Varies Among Phyla

• Pseudocoelomate animals possess a pseudocoelom (a fluid-filled body cavity that is
not completely lined with mesoderm)

K. Body Cavity Structure Varies Among Phyla

• Acoelomate animals lack a body cavity

L. The Evolution of Body Cavities

• Acoelomate and psuedocoelomate lineages were once believe to have diverged prior
to the origin of the coelom

• Present-day systematists have discovered that:

– Acoelomate and pseudocoelomate phyla are not all closely related to one
another
– Acoelomate and pseudocoelomate body plans are modifications of the
coelom

M. Embryological Development
• Bilateral animals can be divided into two main groups based on development

• #1 = Protostomes
– Body cavity forms within a space between the body wall and the digestive
cavity
– Nematodes, arthropods, flatworms, annelids, mollusks

• # 2 = Deuterostomes
– Body cavity forms as an outgrowth of the digestive cavity
– Echinoderms, chordates

N. Major Animal Phyla

• Animals probably originated from ancestral colonial protists
 • Present day biologists recognize about 27 phyla of animals (table 23-1)

O. Invertebrate or Vertebrate?
• Most animals are invertebrates (lack a vertebral column)
• Less than 3% of all known animals are vertebrates (possess a vertebral column)
P. The Sponges (Phylum Porifera) **know both names**
• Asymmetrical body plan

• Lack true tissues and organs

• Body perforated by tiny pores

• Water flows through the body

– Oxygen is extracted, nutrients removed, wastes are released
– H2O exits through large openings called oscula

The Sponges
• Internal skeleton made of spicules

• Aquatic (mostly marine)

• Adults usually sessile; larvae are motile

• May reproduce:
– Asexually by budding (adult produces a bud that breaks off and becomes
independent)
– Sexually through fusion of sperm and egg

• Come in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and colors

Q. The Cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria)

• Jellyfish, sea anemones, corals, hydrozoans

• Radial symmetry

• Develop from two embryotic germ layers: ectoderm and endoderm

• Jellylike mesoglea forms between ectoderm and endoderm

• Two basic body plans:

– Polyp (tubular body; sessile)
– Medusa (bell-shaped body; free-floating)
Cnidarians
• Possess true tissues
– Contractile tissue (acts like muscle)
– Nerve Net (composed of nerve cells)

• Lack organs and organ systems

• Have tentacles equipped with cnidocytes (specialized cells that function in defense
and the capture of prey)

R. Cnidocytes
• Contain a finely coiled filament that is explosively expelled when the trigger is
touched
– Some filaments inject poison into the prey
– Others either stick to or entangle small prey

• Venom of some can cause extreme pain or death in humans

S. Corals Are Ecologically Important

• Form reefs in warm tropical waters
– Colonial polyps secrete a hard external skeleton of calcium carbonate
– Skeleton remains after polyp dies
– New polyps build on skeletal remnants of earlier generations

 Reefs provide undersea habitats that support a wealth of diversity

T. The Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes)

• Bilateral symmetry

• Acoelomate

• Distinct head with sensory organs

• Tissues organized into organs

• Lack circulatory and respiratory systems

• Elaborate digestive system

• Nervous system consists of:

– Clusters of nerve cells called ganglia

• Excretory system consists of branching tubes

Flatworms
• Reproduce both sexually and asexually

• Most are hermaphroditic (have both male and female sexual organs)

• Are either free-living or parasitic

– Free-living: do not live in close association with members of other species
– Parasitic: live in or on the body of another organism (the host) which is
harmed

U. Parasitic Flatworms
• Tend to have complex life cycles

• Some can infect humans

– Infect people who eat undercooked beef, pork, or fish containing cysts
(encapsulated larvae)

V. The Annelids [segmented worms] (Phylum Annelida)

• Bilateral symmetry
• Coelomate
– Fluid-filled coelom functions as a hydrostatic skeleton (pressurized fluid)

 Body divided into a series of repeating units (segmentation)

– Allows for more complex movements

• Closed circulatory system (blood confined to heart and blood vessels)

– Distributes gases and nutrients throughout body

The Annelids (Phylum Annelida)

• Nervous system consists of:
– Clusters of ganglia in the head (primitive brain)
– Paired segmented ganglia, paired ventral nerve cords

• Digestive system consists of a tubular gut with two openings (mouth and anus)

• Digestion occurs in a series of compartments

– Pharynx – draws in food (mouth)
– Esophagus – conducts food into crop
– Crop – stores food
– Gizzard – grinds food
– Intestine – absorbs digested nutrients
Annelid Subgroups
• Oligochaetes
– Live in moist terrestrial habitats

• Polychaetes
– Most are marine
– Some live in tubes from which they project feathery gills

 Leeches
– Live in freshwater or moist terrestrial habitats
– Are either carnivorous or parasitic (suck blood)

W. The Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca)

• Bilateral symmetry

• Coelomates

• Have a mantle (extension of the body wall)

• Most have an open circulatory system (blood is not confined to heart and blood
vessels)

• Nervous system is similar to that of annelids

• Reproduce sexually, most species have separate sexes

• Others are hermaphroditic

Mollusk Classes
• Gastropods
– Feed using radula (ribbon of tissues with many teeth)
– Include snails and slugs

• Bivalves
– Possess two sheels that can be clamped shut by a strong muscle
– Include scallops, oysters, mussels, and clams
• Cephalopods
– Tentacles with suction disks for locomotion and capture of prey
– Include octopi, nautili, and squid
X. The Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda)
• Most abundant and diverse organisms on Earth

• Include insects, arachnids, myriopods, and crustaceans

• Bilateral symmetry

• Coelomates

• Paired, jointed appendages

• Have an exoskeleton (external skeleton)

• Exoskeleton must be molted (shed) periodically

The Exoskeleton Allows Precise Movements

The Exoskeleton Must Be Molted
Arthropods Possess Compound Eyes

Y. Arthropods: Insects
• Most abundant and diverse group of arthropods

• Most have:
– One pair of antennae, 3 pairs of legs
– Two pairs of wings (are the only invertebrates capable of flight)

 Ability to fly has contributed to their success

• In many, the juvenile is a larva (has a worm-shaped body form)

• Undergo metamorphosis (radical change from juvenile body form to adult body
form

Z. Arthropods: Arachnids
• Include spiders, scorpions, and ticks
• Lack antennae

• Eight walking legs

• Most are carnivorous

• Some inject paralyzing venom into prey

• Have simple image-forming eyes, each with a single lens

AA. Arthropods: Myriapods
• One pair of antennae

• Simple light-detecting eyes

• Include the centipedes and millipedes

– Centipedes have one pair of legs/body segment
– Millipedes have two pairs of legs/body segment

• Inhabit terrestrial environment (soil, leaf litter)

• Centipedes are usually carnivorous and bite!

• Millipedes feed on decaying vegetation

BB. Arthropods: Crustaceans

• Include crabs, crawfish, lobsters, shrimp, and barnacles

• Most are aquatic

• Two pairs antennae

• Most have compound eyes

• Most respire by means of gills

CC. The Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda)

• Bilateral symmetry

• Pseudocoelomate

• Lack circulatory and respiratory systems

• Most reproduce sexually

• Some are parastic

– Hookworms: in soil, get by not wearing shoes
– Trichinella worms infect people who eat improperly cooked infected pork
– Heartworms can be transmitted to dogs by the bite of an infected mosquito
DD. The Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata)
• Larvae exhibit bilateral symmetry; adults show radial symmetry

• Deuterostome development

• Coelomate

• Exclusively marine

• Include sand dollars, sea urchins, sea stars (starfish), sea cucumbers, and sea lilies

Echinoderms
• Possess an endoskeleton (internal skeleton)

• A unique water-vascular system

• Primitive nervous system; no distinct brain

• Lack a circulatory system

• Most reproduce sexually

• Many are able to regenerate lost body parts

Animal Diversity II 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

Chapter 24: Animal Diversity II

Vertebrates

A. Key Features of Chordates

• All chordates possess four features at some stage of their lives…
1. Notochord (stiff flexible rod extending the length of the body)
2. Dorsal, hollow nerve cord (above digestive tract and expands anteriorly to
form brain)
3. Pharyngeal gill slits (in pharynx and may form respiratory organs or may
appear as grooves)
4. A Post-anal tail (extends past the anus)

• The chordates include 3 clades: lancelets, tunicates, and craniates

B. Are Humans Chordates?

• Only one chordate characteristic, the nerve cords, is present in adults humans;
however, human embryos exhibit all four
– Tail will disappear completely
– Notochord is replaced by the backbone
– Gill slits (grooves) contribute to the formation of the lower jaw
Humans are Phylum Chordata
- cordate features are best seen during embryonic development (observe a five-week-
old human embryo picture)

C. Invertebrate Chordates
• Lack a [true] backbone

• Include the lancelets and the tunicates

– Lancelets are fishlike filter-feeders
• Adults and larvae exhibit all 4 key chordate features
- half buried in sand: only anterior of body exposed
- food particles drawn in by pharyngeal cilia, transported to digestive
tract

– Tunicates (sea squirts and salps) live in a marine environment

• Larvae are mobile and exhibit all key chordate features
 • Adults are sessile filter-feeders that have lost their tail and notochord
- barrel shaped tunicates (AKA Salps) open ocean, movement by
contacting band of muscle that propels it forward

D. Vertebrate Chordates (craniates)

- All chordates have a SKULL enclosing a brain
• Have a backbone (vertebral column) composed of bone or cartilage (resembles
bone but is more flexible)
– Supports body
– Provides attachment sites for muscles
– Protects nerve cord and brain

 Ex. Hagfish
- Slimy resident on ocean floor
- exclusively marine
- lacks jaws
- feed on worms
- secrete massive quantities of slime as
defense against preditors
- respire using gills, 2CHAMBERED HEARTS, ectothermic (cold-
blooded)
- LACK TRUE BACKBONE, not true vertebrate but have rudimentary
braincase
E. Vertebrate Adaptations
• Several adaptations have allowed vertebrates to successfully invade most habitats
– Endoskeleton (internal skeleton) that can grow and repair itself, greater
size and mobility
– Jaws evolved, which allow them to exploit a much wider range of food
sources than jawless animals
– Development of paired appendages (fins, legs, wings) help stabilize
movement
– Increased size and complexity of the brain and sensory structures to perceive
environment and respond in different ways

F. Major Vertebrate Groups

• Earliest vertebrate fossils were found in 530-million-year-old rocks
– Resembled lancelets with a brain, skull, and eyes
– Present-day VERTEBRATES include: lampreys, cartilaginous fishes, ray-
finned fishes, coelacanths, lungfishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals
• Lampreys
• Cartilaginous fishes
• Ray finned fishes
• Coelacanths
• Lungfishes
• Amphibians
• Reptiles
• mammals

G. Jawless Fishes
• Jawless

• Have eel-shaped bodies and smooth scale-less skin

• Include the hagfish and the lampreys

H. Hagfishes
• Exclusively marine (live near ocean floor)

• Feed primarily on worms

• Secrete massive quantities of slime as a defense against predators

• Lack a true backbone (not a true vertebrate), but have a true rudimentary braincase

• Represent the chordate group that is most closely related to the vertebrates

• They are craniates, but NOT true vertebrate

I. Lampreys
• Spinal cord protected by cartilaginous segments

• Live in both fresh and salt waters

– Marine forms must return to fresh water to spawn

 Some species are parasites of larger fish

– Attach to host with sucker-life mouths
– Rasping teeth on tongue used to suck blood and body fluids

J. Jawed Fishes
• Appeared in the fossil record about 425 million years ago

• Jaws permit fish to exploit a wider range of food sources that could jawless fish

• Present-day jawed fishes include the cartilaginous fishes and the bony fishes

K. Cartilaginous Fishes
• Marine

• Cartilaginous skeleton

• Body protected by leathery skin embedded with tiny scales

• Respire using gills

• Two-chambered heart

• Tend to sink when they stop swimming because they lack a swim bladder

• Includes sharks, skates, and rays

L. Sharks
• Many have several rows of razor-sharp teeth
– Back rows move forward as front teeth are lost
M. Skates and Rays
• Some have a spine near the base of tail
– Capable of inflicting dangerous wounds

• Others produce an electrical shock that can stun prey

• Swim by undulating lateral extensions of the body

N. Bony Fishes
 Most diverse and abundant group of vertebrates

 Live in marine and freshwater habitats

 Bony skeleton

 Respire using gills

 Two-chambered heart

 Most have a swim bladder that allows them to float effortlessly at any level

O. Ancestral Bony Fishes

• Include coelocanths and lungfishes and have lobed fins (some species still alive)

• Probably had lungs in addition to gills

– Swim bladder is believed to have evolved from ancestral lungs

• Some had modified fleshy fins that could be used to drag themselves from a drying
puddle to a deeper pool

• Lungfish are found in freshwater habitats

– can survive even if the water dries up

• Gave rise to the first vertebrates to invade land: the amphibians

P. Amphibians Live A Double Life

• “Double life” refers to the transition of many species from an aquatic tadpole with
gills to a semi-terrestrial adult with lungs

Q. Amphibians
• Three-chambered heart

• Most respire through lungs and moist skin

 • Most have four limbs

• Reproduce sexually; external fertilization

• Most are confined to damp terrestrial habitats (skin must be kept moist; eggs and
larvae develop in water)

• Include frogs, toads, and salamanders

R. Amphibians on the Decline
• Of about 5,500 known species of amphibians, 200 have plummeting populations—
attributed to habitat deterioration

• Amphibians are losing standing water pools (where they deposit their eggs) to
development and farming

• Threats to Amphibians:
– Introduction of new species
– Long-term climate changes
– Increases in ultraviolet radiation
– Spread of fungal and parasitic disease
– Chemical contamination of aquatic habitats
 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

24.1 What Are the Key Features of Chordates?

 All chordates have four distinctive structures
o A notochord: a stiff flexible rod extending the length of the body
o A dorsal, hollow nerve cord: lies above the the digestive tract and
expands anteriorly to form the brain
o Pharyngeal gill slits: located in the pharynx that may form respiratory
organs or may appear as grooves
o A post-anal tail: the chordate tail extends past the anus
An Evolutionary Tree of the Chordates
 Humans are members of the phylum Chordata
o In humans, the chordate features are best seen during embryonic
development, but later, we lose our rodochord, gilk skits, and tails
o Only the dorsal nerve cord is retained in in lost embryonic human
development
Comparison of Vertebrate Embryos
24.2 Which Clades Make Up the Chordates?
 The chordates include 3 clades
o The Kancekets
o The Tunicates
o The Carniates
Author Animation: The Phylum Chordata
Invertebrate Chordates
1: LANCELETS are filter-feeders
 Lancelets are small, fishlike, invertebrate chordates that retain all the four chordate
features as adults
 Lancelets live half buried in the sand, with only the anterior end of their body
exposed
 Food particles are drawn into the mouth by pharyngeal cilia and are then
transported to the digestive tract
2: TUNICATES include sea squirts & salps
 Tunicates (sea squirts) live in a marine environment
 The larvae are motile & exhibit all key chordate features
 Adults are sessile filter-feeders that have lost their tail and notochord
 Barrel-shaped tunicates, known as salps, live in the open ocean and move by
contracting an encircling band of muscle that that propels the organism forward
Author Animation: Lancelets and Tunicates

3: CRANIATES have a skull

 The craniates include all chordates that have a skull that encloses a brain
 This group includes the hagfish and the vertebrates- animals in which the
embryonic notochord is replaced during development by a backbone, or
vertebral column, composed of bone or cartilage (which resembles bone, but is
more flexible)
 Hagfishes are slimy residents of the ocean floor
o They lack jews
o They are exclusively marine, and live near the ocean floor
o They feed primarily on worms
o They secrete massive quantities of slime as a defense against predators
o They respire using gills, have a two-chambered heart, and are ectothermic
(they rely on heat from the outside environment to regulate body
temperature)
o They lack a true backbone, and thus are not a true vertebrate but have a
rudimentary braincase
o They represent the chordate group that is most closely related to the
vertebrates
Hagfishes
 Several adaptations have allowed vertebrates to successfully invade most
habitats
o The presence of an internal skeleton that can grow and repair itself
allowed for greater size and mobility, enabling these animals to invade
most habitats
o Jaws evolved to allow these animals to exploit a much wider range of food
sources than jawless animals that preceded them
o The development of paired appendages (fins, legs, wings) helped to
stabilize movement
o The increased size and complexity of the brain and sensory structures
allowed these animals to perceive their environment in detail and to
respond in a variety of ways
24.3 What Are the Major Groups of Vertebrates?
 Today, vertebrates include the following groups:
o Lampreys
 o Cartilaginous fish
o Ray-finned fishes
o Coelacanths
o Lungfishes
o Amphibians
o Reptiles
o Mammals

1. LAMPREYS: Some lampreys parasitize fish

 Like hagfishes, lampreys are jawless
 They have a large rounded sucker that surrounds the mouth
 Their spinal cord is protected by cartilaginous segments
 They live in both fresh and salt waters
o Marine forms must return to fresh water to spawn
 Some lamprey species are parasitic
o A lamprey will attach to a host with its suckerlike mouth
o It has rasping teeth on its tongue, which are used to excavate a hole in the
hosts body wall through which the lamprey sucks blood and body fluids
Lampreys

2: CARTILAGINOUS FISHES are marine predators

 They are of the class Chondrichthyes, and include sharks, skates and rays
o Most are marine
o They possess jaws and a cartilaginous skeleton
o Their body is protected by a leathery skin embedded with tiny scales
o They respire using gills
o They possess a 2-chambered heart
o They have internal fertilization, in which the male deposits sperm directly
into a female’s reproductive tract
o They tend to sink when they stop swimming because they lack a swim
bladder
 Cartilaginous fishes are marine predators (continued)
o While some sharks feed by filtering plankton from the water, most are
predators of larger prey such as fishes, marine mammals, sea turtles,
crabs, or squid
o Many have several rows of razor-sharp teeth
  The back rows move forward as the front teeth are lost
 Cartilaginous fishes are marine predators (continued)
o Most sharks avoid humans, but some can be dangerous
 in 2008, there were 59 documented attackes in the word
 4 of them were fatal
o Typically, the U.S. sees about 30 to 40 attacks each year, of which either
0or 1 is deadly
o Skates and rays are mostly bottom dwellers with flattened bodies, wing-
shaped fins, and thin tails
o Some have a spine near the base of the tail that is capable of inflicting
dangerous wounds
o Others produce an electrical shock that can stun prey
Cartilaginous Fishes
3: RAY-FINNED FISHES are the most diverse vertebrates
 Bony fish are found in nearly every watery habitat, both freshwater and marine
o This group includes:
 Ray-finned fishes, such as the angler fish, the moray eel, and the
sea horse
 Lobe-finned fishes, which include the lungfish and the coelacanth
 The ray-finned fishes are the most diverse and abundant group of vertebrates
o They are distinguished by the structure of their fins, which are formed by
webs of skin supported by bony spines
o They have a bony skeleton
o Their skin is covered with interlocking scales
o They have a 2-chambered heart
o Their gills are for reparation
o Most have a swim bladder that allows them to float effortlessly at any level
in the water
o They are an important human food source
 Large predatory fish such as the tuna have been reduced to 10% of
their original population sizes due to overfishing
Body Plan of a Bony Fish
The Diversity of Ray-Finned Fishes

4 & 5: COELACANTHS AND LUNGFISHES have lobed fins

o Both coelacanths and lungfishes have fleshy fins that contain rod-shaped bones
 surrounded by a thick layer of muscle
o This shared trait is indicative of the groups shared ancestry, although the
lineages have been evolving separately for hundreds of millions of years
o Some of these modified fleshy fins could be used to drag the fish from a drying
puddle to a deeper pool
o This gave rise to the first vertebrates to invade land—the amphibians
o Some of the lineages of lobefins left descendents that survive today and are the
tetrapods (amphibians, retiles and mammals)
 Lungfish are found in freshwater habitats
o They tend to live in stagnant waters low in oxygen
o They have both gills and lungs
o Lungs allow them to supplement their supply of oxygen by breathing air
directly
o Some lungfish can survive even if the water dries up
 They burrow into the mud
 They seal themselves in a mucus-lined chamber and breathe
through lings as their metabolic rate slows
 They resume their aquatic life when the rains return and the pool
refills
Lungfishes are Lobe-Finned Fish
6: AMPHIBIANS live a double life
 This group includes frogs, toads, salamanders, and caecilians
 The double life of amphibians
o Amphibians begin life adapted to an aquatic environment (e.g., tadpoles
have gills)
o They later mature into semi-terrestrial adults with lungs
 Amphibians
o Amphibians have a 3-chambered heart
o Most adults respire through lungs and moist skin
o Most have four limbs
o They reproduce sexually using external fertilization
 Most amphibians are confined to moist habitats
o Their skin must be kept moist to avoid desiccaition when out of water
o Their breeding behavior and use of external fertilization requires water
 The male sperm swim to the female eggs
 The eggs, protected only by a jelly-like coating, are vulnerable to
 water loss
 The larvae, such as the tadpoles of some frogs and toads, develop
in water
 Amphibians are represented by the frogs, toads, salamanders, and caecilians
o Frogs and toads undergo a metamorphosis during their life cycle, starting
out as aquatic tadpoles and developing into terrestrial hopping adults
o Salamanders have lizard-like bodies with four legs and a long tail
 They begin life as aquatic larvae with gills that are retained in
adulthood by some species, while others metamorphose into
terrestrial adults
 Caecilians are limbless burrowing amphibians that resemble an
earthworm and can be up to 5 feet long; they have small eyes and
limited vision
Amphibian Means Double Life

7: REPTILES belong to the class Reptilia and are adapted for life on land
 These animals evolved from an amphibian ancestor about 250 million years ago
o Reptiles include lizards, snakes, alligators, crocodiles, turtles, and birds
o They respire exclusively through lungs
 There are three notable adaptations that allowed the reptiles freedom from their
aquatic origins
o Tough scaly skin protects the body & resists water loss
o They have internal fertilization
o They have evolved a shelled amniotic egg, which encapsulates the
embryo in a liquid-filled membrane, the amnion, which prevents the
embryo from drying out on land
The Amniotic Egg
Amniote Egg
 Reptiles are adapted for life on land (continued)
o All reptiles have modified 3- or 4-chambered hearts, which separate
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood more effectively that do amphibian
hearts
o All reptiles have more efficient lungs than do amphibians and do not use
their skin as a respiratory organ
o The reptile skeleton provides better support and more efficient movement
on land than do those of amphobaians
 Reptiles are represented by lizards, snakes, alligators, crocodiles, turtles, and
birds
o Lizards and snakes form a common lineage whose ancestors had limbs
and whose representatives are mostly predators
 Snakes have a number of adaptations that help them acquire food
o Many snakes have special sense organs that help track prey by by
sensing body temperature
o Some snakes immobilize prey with venom that is delivered through
through hollow teeth
o Snakes have a distinctive jaw joint that allows the jaws to distend so it can
swallow prey much larger than itself
 Crocodilians include the alligators and crocodiles and are found in the warmer
waters of Earth
o Crocodilians have nostrils located high on their heads so that they are
able to remain submerged for long periods with only the uppermost portion
of the head above the water surface
o They have strong jaws and conical teeth to crush and kill the fish, birds,
mammals, turtles, and amphibians that they eat
o Parental care is extensive in crocodilians; they bury their eggs in mud
nests and, later, the parents guard the hatched young, moving them safely
to water in their mouths
 Turtles occupy a variety of habitats, including deserts, streams, ponds, and the
ocean
o All turtles are protected by a boxlike shell that is fused to the vertebrate,
ribs, and collarbone
o Turtles have no teeth, but have a horny beak instead, which is used to eat
a variety of foods, including both plant and animal matter
o The largest turtle is the leatherback, which lives in the ocean and can
grow to 6 feet in length and feed largely in jellyfish
o Turtles can migrate long distances to reach beaches where they bury their
eggs
 Birds are a distinctive group of reptiles
o They appear in the fossil record 150 million years ago
o They are distinguished from other reptiles by feathers, which are highly
specialized reptilian body scales
 Modern birds retain scales on their legs, which is evidence of the ancestry they
 share with the rest of the reptiles
o The earliest known bird is called Archaeopteryx
Archeopteryx, the Earliest-Known Bird
 Birds are a distinctive group of reptiles adapted for flight
o Feathers provide lift and control as well as insulation
o Hollow bones reduce the weight of the skeleton
o Bird reproductive organs shrink considerably during non-breeding periods
 Females have a single ovary, further minimizing their weight to aid
flight

o The nervous system provides extraordinary coordination and balance for

flight, combined with acute eyesight
 Birds maintain a constant body temperature
o They are warm-blooded (endothermic)
o Birds have a high metabolic rate, which increases the demand for energy
and requires efficient oxygenation of tissues
o Therefore, birds must eat frequently, and have adaptations in their
circulatory and respiratory systems to meet the need for efficiency
 Their heart has 4 chambers, which prevents the mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
 Their respiratory system has air sacs that provide a continuous
supply of oxygenated air to the lungs, even as the bird exhales
8: MAMMALS are in the class Mammalia, and provide milk to their offspring
 Mammals appeared in the fossil record about 250 million years ago
 They did not diversify and dominate terrestrial habitats until the dinosaurs
became extinct (65 million years ago)
 Mammals are named for milk-producing mammary glands that females use to
nourish their young
 Colostrum: form of milk produced by the mammary glands in late pregnancy.
Contains antibodies to protect the newborn against disease
 Mammals provide milk to their offspring
o Mammals are warm-blood with high metabolic rates
o They have a 4-chambered heart
o Most have hair that protects and insulates
o Most have legs designed for running vs. crawling
o They have sweat, scent, and sebaceous (oil-producing) glands, which are
 not found in other vertebrates
o The mammalian brain is highly developed
 Mammals have unparalleled curiosity and learning ability, allowing
them to alter their behavior based on experience
o Increases chances of survival in a chaning environment
 Mammals have extended parental care after birth
 This allows some mammals to learn extensively through parental
guidance
 Mammals are subdivided into three groups
o Monotremes
o Marsupials
o Placental mammals
 PANGEA: Supercontinent that existed about 300 million years ago, and
beginning to rift around 200 million years ago, before the continents were
separated into their current configurations
 Monotremes and marsupials evolved while Pangea was intact
 Placental mammals evolved after what would become Australia had split off
 No native placental mammals in Australia
 Elsewhere, placental mammals replaced most marsupials

1. Monotremes are egg-laying mammals

 This group includes only 3 species, the platypus and two species of spiny
anteater (echidnas), and are found only in Australia and New Guinea
o Platypuses forage for food in the water and eat small vertebrate and
invertebrate animals
o Echidnas are terrestrial and eat insects and worms they dig out of the
ground
 Monotremes lay leathery eggs rather than giving birth to live young
o The newly hatched young are nourished from milk secreted by the mother
Monotremes
2. Marsupial diversity reaches its peak in Australia
 Species include the opossums, koalas, kangaroos, wallabies, wombats, and the
Tasmania devil
 In marsupials, embryos begin development in th uterus of the female
o Young are born at a very immature stage and must crawl to and grasp a
nipple to complete development
 o Post-birth development, in most, is complete in a protective pouch
3. Placental mammals inhabit land, air, and sea
 This highly diverse class includes bats, moles, impalas, whales, seals, monkeys,
and cheetahs
 Rodents account form almost 40% of all mammal species
 Most mammal species are placental mammals
o The uterus contains a placenta that functions in gas, nutrient, and waste
exchange between circulatory systems of mother and embryo
o In placental mammals, young are retained in the uterus for their entire
embryonic development
 About 20% of mammalian species are bats, the only mammals to have evolved
wings and powered flight
o Most bats have adaptations for feeding on a particular kind of food, such
as species that eat fruit or the nectar from night-blooming flowers
o Most bats are predators and hunt frogs, fish, flying insects, or blood that
they obtain from the skin of sleeping mammals or birds
o Bats use echolocation to catch flying prey by emitting short pulses of high-
pitched sound
 These sounds bounce off objects in the environment to produce
echoes that can be detected by the bats
Evolution of the circulatory system, not everyone has a 4-chambered heart
Author Animation: Vertebrates
The Diversity of Placental Mammals
So, where did H. sapiens Arise?
 Two hypotheses:
1. Multi-regional model
2. African emergence model
 Both attempt to address biochemical and fossil evidence
 We will talk more about human evolution later in the semester, but here is a basic
preview.
Multi-regional Model
 Argues that H. erectus migrated to many locations by about 1 million years ago
 Geographically separated populations gave rise to phenotypically different races
of H. sapiens in different locations
 Gene flow (migrations) prevented races from becoming many individual species
African Emergence Model
 Argues that H. sapiens arose in sub-Saharan Africa
 H. sapiens migrated out of Africa and into regions where H.erectus had preceded
them
 Only after leaving Africa did phenotypic differences arise
Animal Behavior 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

Chapter 25: Animal Behavior

A. Behavior
• Describes any observable activity of a living animal
– Some examples of behavior include:
• Moths fly to a light; honeybees fly to a cup of sugar-water
• Bluebirds sing, wolves howl, and frogs croak
• Humans dance, play sports, and wage wars

• There are two forms of behavior:

– Innate behavior
– Learned behavior

B. Innate Behaviors
• Can be performed without prior experience

• Are performed in reasonably complete form 1st time

– Appear even if the animal is deprived of opportunity to learn it
– Example: Red squirrel nut-burying activity

• Can occur immediately after birth

– Example: Egg eviction behavior in cuckoo chicks

C. Learned Behaviors
• Learned behaviors require experience
– The capacity to make changes in behavior on the basis of experience is called
learning
• Examples: the process by which a human learns language; sparrow’s
use of stars for navigation

 One form of learning is called habituation

– A decline in response to a repeated stimulus
– Prevents wasting energy
– Example: Repeated physical stimulation of sea anemones

• Conditioning is a learned association between a stimulus and a response

• A more complex form of learning is called trial-and-error learning:
– New responses to stimuli are acquired through experience
– Response to naturally occurring stimuli based on rewards and punishments
– Often occurs during play or exploratory behavior
– EX: Toad capture of stinging insects
Learned Behavior (cont.)
• Operant conditioning allows animals to learn behaviors to receive a reward or
avoid punishment (used to train animals)
– Positive reinforcement (reinforcement): rat gets reward for pressing lever
– Negative reinforcement (escape): loud noise in cage is turned OFF when rat
presses lever
– Positive punishment (punishment): a particular behavior is followed by a
negative stimulus (i.e. electrical shock)
– Negative punishment (penalty): taking away a child’s toy following an
undesired behavior

• Insight learning is problem solving without trial and error

• It is superficially similar to how humans mentally manipulate concepts to arrive at a

solution
– Sudden problem solving without prior experience
– May involve mentally manipulating concepts to arrive at a solution

D. There Is No Sharp Distinctions Between Innate and Learned Behaviors

• Seemingly innate behavior can be modified by experience
– Example: Herring gull chicks come to recognize own parents as they mature

• Seemingly innate behavior can be modified by habituation

– Example: Young birds learn to discriminate silhouettes of predatory birds as
they age

 Learning may be innate constraints

• Examples:
– Robins learn only songs of adult robins
– Birds imprint only on their “parent” during the sensitive period in their
development

• All behavior arises out of interaction between genes and environment

– The nature of the link between genetics and environmental components is
not well understood, but some evidence exists
– Example: Bird migration
• Bird migration behavior has inherited component
– Newly hatched birds travel properly from one location to another without
any previous experience; therefore, it must be in their genes
There is no Sharp Distinction…(cont)
• Hybridization experiments in blackcap warblers
– Birds breed in Europe and migrate to Africa
• Birds from western Europe travel in a SW direction to reach Africa
• Birds from eastern Europe travel to the SE

• If the two populations are crossed, hybrid offspring migrate due south—the
intermediate between orientations of the two parents

• This suggests that parental genes—of which offspring inherit a mixture—influence

migratory direction

E. How Do Animals Communicate?

 Communication: The production of a signal by one organism that causes another
organism to change its behavior in a way beneficial to one or both

• There are many ways in which animals communicate

• Visual displays
• Sound
• Chemicals
• Touch

F. Visual Communication
 Best over short distances
 Almost instantaneous
 Two types:
o Active visual signals
o passive visual signals

• Active visual signals:

– When specific movements or postures convey a message
– Example: Aggression behavior in wolves

• Passive visual signals:

– Size, shape, or color of an animal conveys information
 – Ex: when female mandrills become sexually receptive, they develop brightly
colored swelling on their buttocks, a signal that she is fertile and ready to
make

• Active and passive visual signals can be combined

– Example: Anolis lizard behavior and coloration
G. Sound Communication
• Effective over longer distances than visual signals

• Almost instantaneous

• Better than visual communication in in the dark, in dense forests, or in murky water

• Different messages conveyed by variations in sound pattern, volume, and pitch

H. Chemical Communication
• Chemicals produced by individuals (pheromones) can influence the behavior of
other members of the same species

• Messages persist longer than either visual or sound signals

• Can be effective over long distances

• Less information can be conveyed

• Can cause immediate changes in the behavior of detecting animal

• Pheromones can also cause physiological changes in the detecting animal

– Example: Queen honeybee production of queen substance (prevents more
queens)

• Traps baited with sex attractant pheromones have been used to keep insect pests
under control

I. Touch Communication
• Physical contact is used to maintain social bonds among group members, as
illustrated in olive baboons

• Is important in human development

• Can also be a prelude to sexual activity, as illustrated by land snails

J. How Do Animals Compete For Resources?
• Animals must compete with each other for scarce resources

• This competition results in many behavioral interactions

K. Aggressive Behavior Helps Secure Resources
• Aggressive displays allow competitors to assess each other and have a winner
without injury or death
– Examples: Male baboons and male fringeheads

• Ritualized combat may test weapons, strength, or motivation in non-lethal ways

– Example: Fiddler crabs

L. Dominance Hierarchies Help Manage Aggressive Interactions

• Dominance hierarchy:
– Animals establish a rank that determines access to resources

 Initial aggression determines status

• Subsequent encounters are minimized

– Saves energy and time and reduces risks of injury

• Dominant animals obtain the most/best/first-access resources

– Examples: Male bighorn sheep and chimpanzees

M. Animals May Defend Territories That Contain Resources

• Territoriality: Defense of territories that contain limited resources such as mates,
food, and shelter

• Initial aggression defines territories; subsequent aggression is lessened

– Example: Stickleback fish

N. Competition for Mates May Be Based on Territories

• Males may advertise their territories to females

• Females may choose males whose territories contain resources, increasing survival
chances of her offspring

• In larger territories, animals vocalize or release pheromones to defend their

territories
O. How Do Animals Find Mates?
• Before animals can successfully mate, they must identify that they are:
– Same species, opposite sex, sexually receptive

• Some males must also demonstrate their quality to the female

• Mating signals communicate these traits

– Visually (fireflies flashing)
– Auditory (cicadas humming)

• Complex series of signals exchanged between partners may result in

P. Chemical Signals Can Bring Mates Together

• Some female insects produce sex pheromones that can attract males from miles
away

• Fish commonly use a combination of pheromones and courtship movements

• Many female mammals release pheromones that to males their receptiveness to

mate
– Ex: Dog interactions

Q. Humans May Respond To Pheromones

• Human receptiveness to pheromones was 1st suggested by Martha McClintock in
early 1970s

• Can cause female menstrual cycles to synchronize

R. What Kinds of Societies Do Animals Form?

• Most animals exhibit sociality:
– Interaction with other members of the same species
– Social interaction can be cooperative, competitive, or (typically) both

S. Group Living Has Several Advantages

• Increased ability to detect, repel, and confuse predators
• Increased hunting and food-finding efficiency

• Potential division of labor

• Increased likelihood of finding a mate

T. Group Living Has Several Disadvantages
• Increased competition with other group members

• Increased risk of infection

• Increased risk of offspring being killed by other members of group (lions)

• Increased risk of being spotted by predators

U. The Extent of Sociality Varies Among Species

• Some animals are solitary, while others are either occasionally or permanently part
of simple social group
– Example: Musk oxen

V. Social Insect Societies

• Are rigidly organized with a caste system influenced by the queen
– Honeybees, ants, and termites are examples
– Queen: Only one queen per hive; produces eggs and pheromones that
influence caste behavior
– Drones: all males; serves as mates
– Workers: sterile females; perform a variety of functions depending on age

• Honeybee Societies
– Forager worker bees communicate sources of nectar to other foragers using
a waggle dance

W. Vertebrate Societies
• Vertebrate societal complexity does not increase with nervous system complexity

• Each individual is unique and shows more flexibility in behavior than social insects

X. Can Biology Explain Human Behavior?

• Ethical constraints with human experimentation limit our ability to study human
behavior

• However, some aspects of animal behavior are apparent in humans

Y. Some Human Behaviors Have a Large Innate Component
• Suckling by newborn infants
– Can be observed in a human fetus in the womb
– Suckling behaviors are intensified when exposed to their mother’s voice

• Rapid acquisition of language during childhood

– Typically acquire a 28,00 word vocabulary by age of 8

• Cross-cultural visual communication of facial gestures

Z. Studies of Twins Reveal Genetic Components of Behavior

• Comparison of identical twin behaviors reveals the heritability of behaviors
– Identical twins behaviors are about twice as similar as those of fraternal
twins
• Identical twins: Arise from the same egg and have identical genes
• Fraternal twins: Arise from individual eggs fertilized by different
sperm, have different genes
– Studies involving identical twins separated at birth are particularly revealing
indicating similar habits and “twin telepathy”
 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

25.1 How Do Innate and Learned Behaviors Differ?

 Behavior is any observable activity of a living animal
o Some examples of behavior include:
 Moths fly to a light; honeybees fly to ca cup of sugar-water
 Bluebirds sing, wolves howl, and frogs croak
 Humans dance, play sport, and wage wars
 There are two forms of behavior
o innate behavior
o learned behavior
 Innate behavior can be performed without prior experience
o Innate behaviors are performed in reasonably complete form the first time
an animal encounters a particular stimulus
o The behavior appears even if the animal is deprived of the opportunity to
learn it
 EX: Red squirrels will attempt to bury a nut when presented with it
for the first time
o The behavior can occur immediately after birth before any opportunity for
learning presents itself
 EX: female cuckoo birds lay their eggs in the nests of other bird
species, to be rasied by the adoptive parents
 After cuckoo egg hatches, the chick will shove the nest owner’s
eggs out to eliminate competition for food
Innate Behavior

 Learned behaviors require experience

o The capacity to make changes in behavior on the basis of experience is
called learning
 An example of learning is the process by which a human learns
language
 Another example is a sparrow’s use of stars for navigation
 Habituation is a decline in response to a repeated stimulus
o This ability prevents an animal from wasting its energy and attention on
irrelevant stimuli
 EX: a sea anemone retracts its tentacles when touched, but will
stop retracting if the touch is repeated frequently
 Conditioning is a learned association between a stimulus and a response
 o A more complex form of learning is called trial-and-error learning
 New and appropriate responses to stimuli are acquired through
experience
 Responses to naturally occurring stimuli are based upon rewards
and punishments
 They often occur during play or exploratory behavior
 An example is a hungry toad that captures a stinging bee—
upon being stung on the tongue, it will learn to aviod future
encounters with bees
Trial-and-Error Learning in a Toad

 Operant conditioning allows animals to learn behaviors to receive a reward or

to avoid punishment
o This learning technique is used to train animals
 Insight learning is problem solving without trial & error
o In certain situations, animals seem to solve problems suddenly without
prior experience
o It is superficially similar to how humans mentally manipulate concepts to
arrive at a solution
 EX: a hungry chimpanzee, without any previous training, could
stack boxes to reach a banana suspended from the ceiling
 There is no sharp distinction between innate and learned behaviors
o Seemingly innate behavior can be modified by experience
 For example, herring gull chicks come to recognize their own
parents as they mature
 Newly hatched gull chicks peck for food at a red spot on its
parents beak as an innate behavior

Within a few days, the chick has learned enough about the
appearance of its parents that they only beg for food from
their own parents and not others
o Seemingly innate behavior can be modified by habituation
 This was demonstrated by an experiment by Tinbergen & Lorenz,
two founding fathers of ethology, the study of animal behavior
Innate Behaviors Can Be Modified by Experience
  Tinbergen and Lorenz showed that young birds learn to discriminate silhouettes
of predatory birds as they age
o Newly born bird chicks instinctively crouch when any object moves over
their heads
o However, over time, they learn to discriminate between harmless objects
(like geese) and do not crouch, and potential predators (like hawks), which
cause crouching)
o Learning modifies the innate response, making it more advantageous
 Learning may be governed by innate constrints
o Learning always occurs within boundaries that help increase the chances
that only the appropriate behavior is acquired
o Examples of this concept include:
 A robin, whose ability to learn songs is limited to those of its own
species; the songs of other species are excluded
 Imprinting, where an animal’s nervous system is rigidly
programmed to learn a certain thing only in a certain period, called
a sensitive period, in their development
o Imprinting is best known in birds such as ducks that learn to follow the
animal or object that they most frequently encounter during an early
sensitive period
 In nature, a mother bird will be followed by its young during the
sensitive period, so her offspring imprint on her
 In the lab, these birds may imprint on an inanimate toy
Konrad Lorenz and Imprinting

 All behavior arises out of interaction between genes and environment

o The relative contributions of heredity and learning vary among animal
species and among behaviors whtin an individual
o The nature of the link between genetics and environmental components is
not well understood, but some evidence exists
 Bird migration behavior has an inherited component
o Naive migrating birds, hatched only months earlier, travel properly from
one location to another without any pervioud experience
 The birds, thus, appear to be born with the ability to migrate; it must
be in their genes
o An example that supports the genetically controlled ability to migrate is
 supported by hybridization experiments with blackcap warblers
 This species breeds in Europe and migrates to Africa
 Birds from western Europe travel in a southwesterly direction
to reach Africa
 Birds from eastern Europe travel to the southeast
o If birds from the two populations are crossbred in captivity, however, the
hybrid offspring migrate due south—the intermediate between the
orientations of the two parents
o This suggests that parental genes—of which offspring inherit a mixture—
influence migratory direction
Genes Influence Migratory Behavior
25.2 How Do Animals Communicate?
 Communication is the production of a signal by one organism that causes
another organism to change its behavior in a way beneficial to both
o There are many ways in which animals communicate
 Visual displays
 Sound
 Chemical
 Touch
 Visual communication is most effective over short distances
o This type of communication is almost instantaneous and can be of two
types
 active visual signals
 passive visual signals
 Active visual signals
o Specific movements or posture conveys a message
 EX: aggression behavior in wolves
 Passive visual signals
o The size, shape, or color of an animal conveys information, usually about
its sex and reproductive state
 EX: female mandrills become sexually receptive, they develop
large, brightly covred swelling on their buttocks
Active Visual Signals
A Passive Visual Signal

 Active and passive visual signals can be combined

 o For example, an anole lizard may raise its head (an active visual signal),
revealing a colored throat pouch (a passive visual signal) that warms
others to keep away
 Visual signals have both advantages and disadvantages
o PROS: visual signals are instantaneous and can convey a variety of
messages in a short period, and they are quiet and unlikely to alert distinct
predators
o CONS: visual signals are generally ineffective in dense vegetation or in
darkness, and they are limited to close-range communication

 Sound communication is effective over longer distances

o Sound signals are almost instantaneous
o However, sound can be transmitted through darkness, dense forests, and
murky water
o Different messages can be conveyed by variations in sound pattern,
volume and pitch
EX: Vervet monkeys in Kenya produce different calls in response
to threats from snakes, leopards, or eagles
o The use of sound is not limited to birds and mammals
 Male crickets produce species-specific songs that attract female
crickets of the same species
 Male water striders vibrate their legs, sending vibrations through
the water, attracting mates and repelling males
Communication by Vibration

 Chemical messages persist longer but are hard to vary

o Pheromones: chemicals produced by animals that influence the behavior
of other members of the same species
o Pheromones can carry messages over long distances and take little
energy to produce
 They are typically not detectable by other species, and so do not
attract predators
 They can act as a signpost, persisting over time and marking an
animal’s boundaries
 While chemicals convey critical information, fewer and simpler
messages can be conveyed than with sight- or sound-based
 systems
 Pheromones can cause immediate changes in the behavior of the detecting
animal
o EX: foraging termites that discover food lay a trails of pheromones from
food→nest, and other termites follow
o Mature males of some mouse spcies produce urine containing a
phernomone that influecnes female reproductive physiology by stmulating
newly mature females to become fertile and sexually receptive
 This pheromone may also cause a female mouse that is newly
pregnant by another male to abort her litter and become sexually
receptive to the new male

Communication by Chemical Messages

 Pheromones can also cause physiological changes in the detecting animal

o EX: the queen honeybee produces a pheromone, queen substance, which
prevents other females in the hive from becoming sexually mature
 Humans have harnessed the power of pheromones to combat insect pests
o Traps baited with sex attractant pheromones have been used to keep
insect pests under control
 Major environmental advantages over conventional pesticides,
which kill beneficial as well as harmful insects and foster the
evolution of pesticide-resistant insects
 Each pheromone is specific to a single species and does not
promote the spread of resistance, because insects resistant to the
attraction of their own pheromones do not reproduce successfully

 Touch communication helps establish social bonds

o Physical contact is used to maintain social bonds among group members,
as seen in humans and toer primates
 Gestures include kissing, nuzzling, patting, petting, and grooming
o Touch is important to human development and well-being, and in many
mammal species, cements the bond between parent and offspring
o Touch can also be a prelude to sexual activity, as seen in land snails
25.3 How Do Animals Compete For Resources?
  Aggressive behavior helps secure resources
o Competition for food, resources, or mates is aggression, or antagonistic
behavior, between members of the same species
 Aggressive behaviors includes physical combat between rivals,
which can injure or kill the participants
 As a result, natural selection has favored the evolution of symbolic
displays or rituals or resolving conflicts
 These displays allow competitors to assess each other on the basis
of size, strength, and motivation, thus determining a winner without
injury or death
o During aggressive displays, animals may exhibit weapons, such as claws
and fangs, and often make themselves
Aggressive Displays

 Many animals engage in ritualized combat, which may test weapons, strength, or
motivation in non-lethal ways
o The loser of such a contest slinks away in a submissive posture that
minimizes the size of its body
o EX: fiddler crabs, kangaroos, rattle snakes
 Dominance hierarchies help manage aggressive interactions
o In a dominance hierarchy, each animal in a group establishes a rank that
determines access to resources
 While aggressive encounters occur frequently while the dominance
hierarchy is being established, once each animal learns its place,
disputes, are infrequent
 Dominant individuals obtain most access to the resources needed
for reproduction, including food, mates, and space
 EX: male bighorn sheep, dominance is reflected in horn size
o Dominant animals obtain the most resources
 EX: male bighorn sheep and chimpanzees
A Dominance Hierarchy

 Perhaps the most thoroughly studied dominance hierarchy is that of

chimpanzees
o Ethologist Jane Goodall spent 30 years observing chimpanzee behavior in
Tanzania, describing and documenting the animal’s complex social
 organization
 Chimps live in groups, and dominance hierarchies among males
are the key aspect of their social life
 Many males devote a significant amount of time to maintaining their
position in the hierarchy by way of charging displays
 a male rushes forward, throws rocks, leaps up to shake
vegetation, and otherwise seeks to intimidate rival males
Jane Goodall Observing Chimps
 Animals may defend territories that contain resourse
 In many animal species, competition for resources takes the form of
territoriality, the defense of an area where important resources (mates, food,
shelter) are located
 Territorial behavior is most commonly seen in adult males, and territories are
usually defended against members of the same species, who compete most
directly for the resources being protected
o Territories are as diverse as the animals defending them, and examples
include:
 A tree where a woodpecker defends acorn storage sites
 A small depression in the sand used as a nesting site by a cichlid
fish
 A hole in the sand that is home to a crab
 An area of forest providing food for a squirrel
A Feeding Territory
 Territoriality reduces aggression
o Once a territory is established through initial aggressive interactions,
boundaries are recognized and respected
 An animal is highly motivated to defend its territory, even against
larger, stronger animals
 Conversely, an animal outside its territory is much less secure and
more easily defeated
o In an experiment using stickleback fish, Tinbergen showed that once
territory is established through aggressive interactions, peace prevails as
boundaries are recognized and respected
 2 fish were placed in an aquarium, each established its territory
 If fish were placed in the region outside their own territory, the
respective defender of its territory attempted to attack the other fish,
 while other fish became submissive
Territory Ownership and Aggression
 Competition for mates may be based on territories
o For males of many species, successful territorial defense has a direct
impact on reproductive success
 Males who successfully defend the best territories have the
greatest chance of passing on their genes
 Females may choose males whose territories are large in size, and
have abundant food and secure nesting areas, thus increasing
survival chances of her offspring
 Animals advertise their occupancy
o Territories are advertised through sight, sound, and smell
o Examples of animals advertising their territories include:
 Male rabbits and hamsters using pheromones to mark their
territories
 Male sea lions and crickets using vocal displays
 Vocal displays are a common form of territorial advertisement
o The husky trill of the male seaside sparrow is part of an aggressive
display, warning other males to steer clear of his territory
25.4 How Do Animals Find Mates?
 Signals encode sex, species, and individual quality
o Before animals can successfully mate, they must identify that they are:
 Of the same species
 Of the opposite sex
 sexually receptive
 Many mating signals are acoustic (sound based)
o Animals often use sounds to advertise their sex and species
 Male grasshoppers, crickets, frogs, and birds all produce mating
calls
 Females may compare the songs of rival suitors to assess the
relative quality of the males
 EX: the male bellbird uses its deafening song to defend large
territories and to attract females from great distances
 A female flies from one male to another to listen to its
earsplitting song, and compare the songs between different
males, perhaps choosing the loudest as a mate
  Visual mating signals are also common
o Displays are used by males to attract the attention of female
 For example, the elaborate construction projects of the male
gardener bowerbirds and the scarlet throat of the male frigate bird
advertise sex, species, and male quality
o These signals may be risky, making it easier for predators to find the
males, but are necessary because female won’t mate with males that lack
the signal
 Visual mating signals are also common (continued)
o Females, in contrast, typically do not need to attract males or assume the
risk of a conspicuous signal, and so in many species are drab in
comparison to the males
o Complex series of signals exchanged between partners may results in
elaborate mating rituals
 The firefly flashes a message that identifies its sex
 Male fence lizards bob their heads in a species-specific rhythm,
and females distinguish and prefer the rhythm of their own species
 The courtship of the three spine stickleback fish requires a complex
series of signal
Courtship of the Three-Spined Stickleback
Sex Differences in Guppies
 Chemical signals can bring mates together
o Some female insects produce sex pheromones that can attract males from
miles away, such as with silk moths
o Fish commonly use a combination of pheromones and courtship
movements to ensure the synchronous release of gametes
o Many female mammals release pheromones that signal to males their
receptiveness to mate, such as with dogs
25.5 Why Do Animals Play?
 Animals play alone or with other animals
o Play can be solitary within a group
o Often, young of the same species play together, but parents may join in
o Social play typically includes chasing, fleeing, wrestling, kicking, and
gentle biting
o Play seems to lack any clear function and is abandoned in favor of
 feeding, courtship, and escaping from danger
o Play can be dangerous and may result in death if the participants are
distracted from potential danger
 Play aids behavioral development
o Play likely has survival value, and natural selection has favored those
individuals who engage in playful activities
o One of the best explanations for play is the practice hypothesis
 suggests that play allows young animals to gain experience in
behaviors that they will use as adults
 By practicing these acts in play, the animal gets skills that will later
be important in hunting, fleeing, or in social interaction
o The zoologists suggest that species with larger brains are more playful
than those with small brains
o Because larger brains are linked to greater learning ability, this
relationship supports the idea that adult skills are learned during juvenile
play
Young Animals at Play
25.6 What Kinds of Societies Do Animals Form?
 Sociality is a widespread feature of animal life
o Most animals interact at least a little with other members of their species
o Many spend the bulk of their lives in the company of others, and a few
have developed complex, highly structured societies
o Living in a group has both costs and benefits
 Sociality varies among species
o The degree to which animals of the same species cooperate varies from
one species to the next
 Some types of animals are solitary, where interactions between
adults consist of brief aggressive encounters and mating; an
example is the mountain lion
 Sociality varies among species (continued)
o Other types of animals are either occasionally or permanently part of
simple social groups
o For example, coyotes are solitary when food is abundant, but hunt in
packs when food become scarce
 Musk oxen form herds that function as a unit when threatened by
predators such as wolves
  In this case, male oxen form a circle with horns pointed
outward around the females and the young
 Advantages of group living
o Increased ability to detect, repel, and confuse predators
o Increased hunting and food-finding efficiency
o Potential for division of labor
o Increased likelihood of finding a mate
 Disadvantages of group living
o Increased competition within the group for limited resources
o Increased risk of infection from contagious diseases
o Increased risk of offspring being killed by other member of the group
o Increased risk of being spotted by predators
 A few species form complex socities
o Individuals may sacrifice their own interests for the good of the colony,
know as altruism
 Altruism is more likely if all members of the society are closely related (kin
selection)
 Because close relatives share alleles, the altruistic individual may promote the
survival of its own alleles through behaviors that maximize the survival of its
close relatives
 Honeybees live together in rigidly structured societies
o Scientists have long struggled to explain this social structure where most
individuals never breed, but instead labor to feed and protect the offspring
of another individual
 EX: Honeybees, ants, and termites
 Honeybees have a rigidly organized caste system based on functional position in
the colony
 They emerge from their larval stage into one of three preordained roles
o Queen: Always 1 queen/hive, and her role is to produce eggs and regulate
the lives of the workers
o Drones: All are males, and serve as mates to the queen
o Workers: All workers are sterile females; they perform a variety of function
depending on age
 Honeybees live together in rigidly structured societies (continued)
o A worker’s tasks are determined by her age and by conditions in the
colony
  A newly emerged worker starts life as a worker, carrying food such
as honey and pollen to the queen, to other workers, and to the
developing larvae
 As she matures, special glands begin to produce wax, and she
becomes a builder, constructing perfectly hexagonal cells of wax in
which the queen deposits her eggs and where the larvae develop
 Her final role in life is that of a forager, gathering pollen and nectar
as food for the hive
 Forager worker bees communicate sources of nectar to other
foragers by using a waggle dance
Author Animation: Communication in Honeybees
Bee Language: The Waggle Dance
 Honeybees live together in rigidly structured societies (continued)
o Pheromones play a major role in regulating the lives of social insects
 Honeybee drones are drawn irresistibly to the queen’s sex
pheromone (queen substance), which she releases during her
mating flights
 This substance is also licked off her body by the workers, rendering
them sterile and leaving only one reproductive queen in each hive
 Naked mole rats form a complex vertebrate society
o One of the most unusual societies among non-human mammals is that of
the naked mole rat
o This society is similar to honeybee societies where only the queen
reproduces
 The queen is the largest individual in the colony, and prevents
ovulation in rival females by physically stressing rival female
o There is a division of labor among the workers based on size
 Small, young rats clean the tunnels, gather food, tunnel
 Larger rats expel the tunnel dirt from the hive and defend the
colony against predators & members of other colonies
26 Unlike honeybees, the queen maintains her dominance by aggression
towards workers
A Naked Mole Rat Queen Rests Atop a Group of Workers
25.7 Can Biology Explain Human Behavior?
 Ethical constraints with human experimentation limit our ability to study human
behavior
  However, some aspects of animal behavior are apparent in humans
 The behavior of newborn infants has a large innate component because they
have not had time to learn
o Suckling is an innate behavior of newborn infants; it can be observed even
in human fetus
 The rate of suckling by newborn infants increases in response to a
mother’s voice
A Human Instinct
 Smiling is an example of an innate response that gets modified by experience
o Infants up to 2 months old will smile in response to a stimulus consisting of
two dark, eye-sized spots on a light background
o As the child’s development continues, learning and further development of
the nervous system interact to limit the response to more accurate
pictures of a face
 Newborns in their first 3 days of life can be conditioned to produce certain
rhythms of sucking when their mothers’ voice is used as reinforcement
o Infants preferred their own mother’s voices to other female voices, as
indicated by their responses
o strong parallels to imprinting, and may help initiate bonding with the
mother
Newborns Prefer Their Mother’s Voice
 Young humans acquire language easily
o Humans have an inborn propensity for the acquisition of language
 Humans may respond to pheromones, as first suggested by Martha McClintock
in the early 1970s
o She found that the menstrual cycles of roommates and close friends
tended to become synchronized
o It was suggested that this synchronization was due to some chemical
signal passed between the women
o The actual molecules that cause effects on menstrual synchronization
remain unknown, as does their function
 Twins studies reveal genetic components of behaviors
o If a particular behavior is heavily influenced by genetic factors, identical
twins are more likely to share the behavior than fraternal twins
 Identical: Arise from the same egg, have identical genes
  Fraternal: arise from individual eggs fertilized by different sperm,
have different genes
o Studies involving identical twins separated at birth are particularly
revealing, showing that twins reared apart have similar personalities as
those reared together
 The field of human behavioral genetics is controversial because it challenges the
belief that environment is the most important determinant of human behavior
 We now recognize that complex behavior in non-human animals combines
elements of innate & learned behaviors
o Therefore, it seems certain that our own behavior is influenced by our
evolutionary history & cultural heritage
o The debate over the relative importance of heredity and environment in
determining human behavior continues and is unlikely ever to be fully
resolved
o Human ethology is not yet recognized as a rigorous science, and it will
always be hampered because we can neither view ourselves with
detached objectivity, nor experiment with people as if they were laboratory
rats
o Still, there is much to be learned about the interactions of learning and
innate tendencies in humans
Respiration 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

Chapter 33: Respiration

A. Impacts & Issues
 In the US, about 3,000 teenagers take up smoking every day
 Just one cigarette immobilizes cilia that line airways of the lungs for hours
 This prevents them from sweeping away airborne pathogens and pollutants
 Nicotine has many side effects, including constriction of blood vessels and
raising BP
 Smoking ↑ the risk of deadly lung cancer
 2nd hand smoke causes ~3,000 deaths/year

B. Why Exchange Gases?

• Gas exchange supports cellular respiration
• In vertebrates
– O2-rich air inhaled and O2 deposited in blood
– O2 transported to body cells by blood
– Blood transports CO2 from tissues to lungs
– CO2 released from lungs (and body) during exhalation

C. Common Features of Animal Respiratory Systems

• All animal respiratory systems share 3 features
– Respiratory surface must be moist so gases can diffuse across cell
membranes
– Cells lining respiratory surface are thin to optimize gas diffusion
– The respiratory surface area must be large to allow for adequate gas
exchange
D. Some Animals in Moist Environments Lack Specialized Respiratory Structures
• Gases diffuse short distances in smaller animals to reach cells
– Gas exchange optimized by long, flat bodies with greater surface area
– Examples: roundworms and flatworms
• Low energy demands translate into larger animals rely on their moist body
surface for gas exchange
– Larger size possible because less O2 needed by cells
– Example: jellyfish
• Some animals bring the environment close to all their cells
– Allows greater exposure of cell to O2
– Example: sponge
 Other animals combine large skin surface area with well-developed
circulation for delivery to cells
– Skin has many capillaries that carry O2 to internal body tissues
– This arrangement sustains a favorable O2 concentration gradient
between skin and blood
– Example: earthworm
E. Respiratory Systems Facilitate Gas Exchange
• Respiratory systems more effectively exchange gases between the
environment and an animal’s body
• Respiratory systems alternate bulk flow of air/water and diffusion of gases
• Bulk Flow: describes when fluids or gases move through spaces from high
pressure to low pressure
• In mammals
– Air moves past respiratory surface by bulk flow (down pressure
gradient)
– O2 and CO2 are exchanged by diffusion
– Gases transported to/from tissues by bulk flow
– Gases exchanged with tissues (cells) by diffusion

F. Gills Facilitate Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments

• Gills are external projections of the body that exchange gases
– Most commonly used in aquatic animals
– Can be elaborately folded to maximize their surface area
– Have many capillaries to bring blood to body surface for gas exchange
• Fish gills are complex structures
– Protected by a bony flap (operculum)
– Fish control water flow over gills by swimming with mouth open
– Water flows over gills and out of body through opercular openings
– Gills are elaborately folded, and cannot support themselves out of
water

G. Terrestrial Animals Have Internal Respiratory Structures

• Internal respiratory structures are used by most animals to help keep
respiratory surfaces moist
– Gas exchange is optimized across moist surfaces
 Two common terrestrial respiratory structures
– Trachea
– Lungs

H. Tracheae
 Tracheae are elaborately branched internal tubes that deliver air to body
cells
 Used by insects
 Branch into smaller tubes (tracheoles)
 Air enters tracheae though abdominal openings (spiracles)
 Some insects use abdominal contractions to enhance air movements [into
and out of trachea]
I. Lungs
 Lungs are internal chambers containing moist respiratory surface
 Used by terrestrial vertebrates
 Developed to allow ancestral fish to survive in stagnant O2-poor water
• Lungs have differing levels of complexity
• In amphibians
– Many use gills as larvae and simple, sac-like lungs as more terrestrial
adults
– Many use the skin as supplemental respiratory surface
– Example: a bullfrog

• In reptiles
– Scales reduce body water loss and allow for survival in dry
environments
– Scales reduce gas exchange through skin
– Lungs have more respiratory surface area than amphibians
– Example: a mangrove snake

• In birds
– Exclusively lung breathers
– Extremely efficient lungs accommodate O2 demands during flight
– Air flows through lungs during inhalation and exhalation due to
coordination of air sac activity
– Bird lungs filled with thin walled tubes (parabronchi)

J. How Does the Human Respiratory System Work?

• The human respiratory system can be divided into two parts
– The conducting portion
– The gas-exchange portion

K. The Conducting Portion of the Respiratory System

• The conducting portion is a series of passageways that carry air into the
gas-exchange portion of the lungs
– Warms and moistens air on way to lungs
– Debris in air sticks to mucus that lines respiratory passages
– Mucus carried to pharynx by cilia lining respiratory passages
L. Path of Air Through the Conducting Portion
• Nose or mouth
• Nasal cavity or oral cavity
• Pharynx: chamber where nasal and oral cavities converge
• Larynx: opening called the “voice box”
– Contain vocal cords: bands of elastic tissue controlled by muscles;
vibrate as exhaled air passes over them
 Larynx covered by epiglottis: flap of tissue that prevents food from entering
larynx when swallowing
• If food lodges in larynx, choking can occur
– Heimlich maneuver can dislodge food
• Trachea: flexible tube reinforced with cartilage
• Bronchi: splitting of trachea into two branches; each leading to a lung
• Bronchioles: repeated branching of bronchi
– Lined with smooth muscle that can constrict or dilate passageway
 Alveoli: tiny air sacs, gas exchange occurs
– 300 million total alveoli in the lungs, look like grapelike clusters
– Surrounded by dense capillary networks

M. Gas Exchange Occurs in the Alveoli

• Alveoli in lungs are well-adapted for gas exchange
– Extensive collective surface area for gas exchange
– Made of a single thin layer of endothelial cells that facilitate diffusion
– Closely associated with capillaries
• O2 diffuses from lung air into blood
– O2 in freshly inhaled air has higher O2 concentration than O2-poor
blood
– O2 diffuses down concentration gradient into capillary blood [high to
low]
– Oxygenated blood transported to heart, then the rest of the body
• CO2 diffuses from lung blood into alveoli
– Metabolically active tissues release CO2 into blood and is transported
to alveolar capillaries
– Alveolar capillaries have a higher CO2 concentration than that of
alveolar air
– CO2 diffuses down concentration gradient into alveolar air, which is
then exhaled

N. Surfactant Prevents the Collapse of Alveoli

• Surfactant
– Oily secretion lining alveolar walls
– Reduces surface tension of alveolar walls, preventing collapse during
exhalation
O. Mechanism of Oxygen Transport
• O2 binds reversibly to hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells
• Hemoglobin: iron-containing protein that can bind to four O2 molecules
– When bound to O2: cherry-red color
– When not bound to O2: maroon-red color
• CO2 is transported in the blood in 3 ways
1. CO2 transport as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
• 70% of CO2 reacts with water to form HCO3-, which is then
transported in the plasma
2. CO2 transported bound to hemoglobin
• 20% of CO2 binds to and is carried by hemoglobin
3. CO2 transported dissolved in plasma
• 10% of CO2 is transported this way

P. Air Is Inhaled Actively and Exhaled Passively

• Breathing occurs due to volume changes in the airtight chest cavity
– Located within ribcage
– Bottom of chest cavity defined by dome-shaped diaphragm muscle
 Breathing occurs in 2 stages
– Inhalation (active)
– Exhalation (passive)
• Inhalation: when air is actively drawn into lungs
– Chest cavity enlarges when diaphragm and rib muscles contract
– Lungs expand with chest cavity, creating a partial vacuum that draws
air into lungs

–
Air is Inhaled
• Exhalation: when air is passively expelled out of lungs
– Chest cavity size decreases when diaphragm and rib muscles relax
– Decreasing chest cavity size forces air out of lungs
– Additional air can be expelled by actively contracting the abdominal
muscles

Respiratory Volumes
Q. Breathing Rate Is Controlled by the Respiratory Center of the Brain
• The respiratory center is a cluster of nerve cells located in the medulla of
the brain
– Generate cyclic bursts of impulses that cause contraction of
respiratory muscles
– Sets baseline breathing rate
• Breathing rate can be modified by:
1. Blood CO2 levels
2. Blood O2 levels
3. Activity Level

1. Breathing rate can be modified by blood CO2 levels

– Chemoreceptors in medullas detect elevated CO2 levels and stimulate
the respiratory center
– Respiratory center causes an increase in breathing rate and depth

2. Breathing rate can be modified by blood O2 levels

– Chemoreceptors in aorta and carotid arteries detect drastically low O2
levels and stimulate the respiratory center
– Respiratory center causes an increase in breathing rate and depth
– Little influence on normal breathing

3. Breathing rate can be modified by physical activity

– During exercise, higher brain centers activate muscles and stimulate
the respiratory center
– Causes an increase in breathing rate and depth
– Occurs in advance of significant changes in blood CO and O
concentrations
Nutrition and Digestion 7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM

Chapter 34: Nutrition and Digestion

A. Impacts, Issues: Hominids, Hips, and Hunger
 Adipose cells are fat-storing cells

 An adaptation that helped our ancestors survive times of food scarcity

 Adipose cells produce leptin, a hormone which acts on the brain to control hunger

 Americans are among the fattest people in the world

o Estimated that 60% of adults are overweight
o Obesity is over-abundance of fat in adipose tissue

 Obese people do not have less leptin than normal, but leptin receptors may not work
properly

 Gastric bypass – surgery to close off part of stomach and most of small intestine

 Cholecystokinin may promote appetite suppression

 Elderly tend to have low appetites that sometimes endanger health

 New drugs that block cholecystokinin may help elderly stay nourished

 Figure E34-2a Gastric bypass surgery

B. Nutrition
 All foods contain nutrients needed for survival

 Nutrition describes the process of acquiring and processing nutrients in useable

form

 Nutrients fall into 6 major categories:

o Lipids (fats)
o Carbohydrate
o Proteins
o Minerals
o Vitamins
o Water
C. Cells Obtain Energy from Nutrients
 Most energy used by cells is derived from carbohydrates and fats
o These molecules are broken down and their subunits are broken down
during cellular respiration
o Energy is released and is captured in ATP

 The energy in nutrients is measured in calories

 A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius

 Food calorie content is measured in units of 1000 calories (kilocalories), also known
as Calories (capital C)

 The average human burns 70 Calories per hour at rest, and up to 20 Calories per
minute during exercise, avg. ~1550 Cal/day

 Amount of exercise needed to “work off” different types of food is shown here…

D. Lipids
 Lipids are essential nutrients

 Lipids are diverse and contain long chains of carbon atoms and are insoluble in
water

 Specialized lipids can be synthesized by some animals

 Others require essential fatty acids (lipid building blocks) from their food)
Lipids (cont.)
 3 principal types of lipids
o Triglycerides
 Fats used as an energy source
o Phospholipids
 Components of cell membranes
o Cholesterol
 Component of cell membranes, sex hormones, and bile

E. Animals Store Energy as Fat

 When an animal’s diet provides excess energy, the excess is stored as fat
o 3600 Calories are stored in each pound of fat

 Fats are excellent energy storage molecules

o A concentrated energy source compared to proteins and carbohydrates
o Hydrophobic lipids avoid excess water accumulation in body

 Animals that maintain elevated body temperatures use ?

 Fats and oils are the most concentrated energy source

 The body mass index (BMI) is a common tool for estimating a healthy weight
o A BMI between 18.5 and 24.9 is considered healthy
o Approximately 30% of all U.S. adults are overweight (BMI between 25 and
29.9)
o Approximately 30% are obese (BMI of 30 or more)
o Formula = [weight lbs/(height inches)2] x 703

F. Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are used as an energy source, but can have structural uses as well
 Carbohydrates are broken down into sugars (usually glucose) which are used to
make energy
 Carbohydrates consist of:
o Monosaccharide sugar (ex. Glucose)
o Disaccharide sugars (ex. Sucrose)
o Polysaccharides (ex. Starches, glycogen, and cellulose)
G. Proteins
 Proteins are digested into amino acid subunits, which can be used to make new
proteins

 Proteins have many functions

o Enzymes
o Cell membrane receptors
o Oxygen transport molecules
o Antibodies
o Muscle proteins
o An energy source

 Humans can synthesize 11 of the 20 amino acids needed to make proteins

 Those amino acids that cannot be synthesized must be obtained in the diet
(essential amino acids)

 Protein deficiency can result in debilitating conditions, including kwashiorkor

H. Minerals
 Minerals are elements that are important to animal nutrients

 Minerals can only be obtained in the diet

 Examples of minerals, dietary sources, functions, and deficiency symptoms are

illustrated in Table 34-2

I. Vitamins
 Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts by animals

 Vitamins must usually be obtained in the diet

 Some vitamins function as antioxidants that bind to free radicals (damaging

moluecules) and help prevent them from damaging DNA
o Examples: Vitamins C and E
 Lack of certain vitamins can cause disease

 Human vitamins are grouped into two categories

o Water-soluble vitamins
o Fat-soluble vitamins
J. Water-Soluble Vitamins
 Include Vitamin C and the B-vitamin complex

 Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in the blood plasma and are not appreciably stored
in the body
o Must be replenished by diet

 Most help promote chemical reactions that supply energy or synthesize biological
molecules

 Table 34-3
 A deficiency in niacin can cause pellagra [swelling of tongue, lesions on face and
mouth]

K. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
 Include vitamins A, D, E, K

 Fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in fat and may accumulate over time

 A deficiency in vitamin D can cause rickets [can lead to bowing of legs]

L. Nutritional Guidelines Help People Obtain a Balanced Diet

 To help people make informed nutritional choices, the U.S. government has made a
series of recommendations

 Additional help is provided by the Food Guide Pyramid, which was designed by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture

 The Food Guide Pyramid illustrates the relative abundance of different foods in an
optimal diet

 Food labels can provide specific information on calorie, fiber, fat, sugar, and vitamin
content

M. An Overview of Digestion
 Digestion is the process that physically and chemically breaks down food
 This is accomplished by digestive systems
o Take in food and break complex molecules into simpler forms that can be
absorbed
o Material that cannot be absorbed is expelled
N. The 5 Tasks of Digestive Systems
o Ingestion: food brought into digestive track through an opening (mouth)
o Mechanical breakdown: physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces
o Chemical breakdown: digestive chemicals and enzymes break large food
molecules into small subunits
o Absorption: small subunits transported in to the digestive system
o Elimination: indigestible materials expelled from body

Intra- vs. Extra- Cellular Digestion

O. Digestion Within Single Cells Occurs in the Sponges

 Sponges are sedentary filter-feeders with no specialized digestive system

 Digestion takes place in collar cells lining water-filled sponge chambers

(intracellular digestion)

 Sponge collar cells engulfs microscopic food particles in water, forming food
vacuoles
  Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes, whose digestive enzymes break down food
molecules
Digestion Within Single Cells Occurs in the Sponges
 Small food molecules are absorbed by cytoplasm, indigestible material is expelled
from the cell (and sponge)

 The process of sponge intracellular digestion is described by Figure 34-6

P. A Sac with One Opening Forms the Simplest Digestive System

 Larger organisms evolved an internal chamber in which large chunks of food are
broken down by enzymes outside of cells (extra-cellular digestion)

 Hydra have a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening at one end

o Opening acts as both a mouth and anus
o Food captured by stinging tentacles that escort it into the gastrovascular
cavity
o Cells lining gastrovascular cavity release enzymes and break down food
o Cavity cells absorb nutrients and food particles, then intracellular digestion
occurs
o Indigestible material expelled out mouth

 A Sac with One Opening Forms the Simplest Digestive System

 Because of the single opening, simple sac digestive systems can process one meal at
a time
o Unsuitable for active animals that require frequent meals

Q. Digestion in a Tube Allows Animals to Feed More Frequently

 Tubular digestive tracts allow
 Incoming food does not
 Most animals have a
 Specialized regions along the tube
 A Tubular Digestive System
 Digestive Specializations
 Different animals have specialized tubular digestive tracts to
 Carnivores:
 Herbivores:
 Omnivores:
 Digestive Specializations
 Ruminant animals
 Herbivores that are able to break down
 Practice rumination:
 Ruminant animals
 Have elaborate digestive systems that
 Digestive Specializations
 Intestinal length is
 Because cell walls are difficult to digest, herbivore intestines are
 Carnivore intestines are
 Omnivores, carnivores and herbivores emphasize
 Digestive Specializations
 Teeth evolved to
 Incisors:
 Canines:
 Premolars:
 Molars:
 Teeth Have Evolved to Suit Different Diets
 Digestive Specializations
 Birds
 Birds
 Food enters
 Food enters
 Food enters
 Further digestion and absorption
 Bird Digestive Adaptations
 The Human Digestive System
 The human digestive system is
 As food travels through the digestive system it is
 The Human Digestive Tract
 Author Animation: Overview of the Digestive System
 The Mechanical and Chemical Breakdown of Food Begins in the Mouth
 Salivary glands produce
 Functions of saliva
 Contain
 Contains
 Lubricates
 Carries
 The Mechanical and Chemical Breakdown of Food Begins in the Mouth
 The tongue pushes food
 The epiglottis folds
 Muscular contractions
 The Challenge of Swallowing
 The Esophagus Conducts Food to the Stomach
 Swallowing forces
 The esophagus forms waves of
 Food enters the
 The stomach connects to the
 The Stomach
 The Esophagus Conducts Food to the Stomach
 The stomach has 3 major functions
o
o
o
 The Esophagus Conducts Food to the Stomach
 Stomach glands produce several secretions
 Gastrin:
 HCl:
 Pepsinogen:
 Mucus:
 The Esophagus Conducts Food to the Stomach
 Food in stomach is gradually converted to
 Peristaltic waves
 Pyloric sphincter opens and
 Most Digestion Occurs in the Small Intestine
 The small intestine is a
 Food is digested and absorbed with the aid of
o
o
o
 The Liver and Gallbladder Provide Bile, Important in Fat Breakdown
 The liver has many functions

 Digestive Secretions into the Small Intestine

 The Liver and Gallbladder Provide Bile, Important in Fat Breakdown
 Bile
 Is a mixture made of
 Bile salts
 The Pancreas Supplies Several Digestive Secretions to the Small Intestine
 The pancreas is a leaf-shaped organ
 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice,
 The Pancreas Supplies Several Digestive Secretions to the Small Intestine
 Pancreatic juice components

 Amylase:
 Lipases:
 Proteases:
 The Digestive Process Is Completed by Cells of the Intestinal Wall
 Some small intestinal cells have
 Peptidases:
 Disaccharidases:
 Lipases:
 Most Absorption Occurs in the Small Intestine
 The small intestine is well adapted for
 Has numerous folds with
 Each villus cell has many
 Illustrated in Figure 34-16
 The Structure of the Small Intestine
 Most Absorption Occurs in the Small Intestine
 Nutrients are absorbed into intestinal cells by
 Water is absorbed by
 Each villus contains
 Fats are absorbed into the lacteals, which then enter
 Water Is Absorbed and Feces Are Formed in the Large Intestine
 The large intestine is about
 A mix of water, undigested nutrients, and
 The large intestine has two parts
 Colon:
 Rectum:
 Water Is Absorbed and Feces Are Formed in the Large Intestine
 The large intestine contains
 The large intestine absorbs
 Feces =
 Transported by peristaltic contractions to the
 Author Animation: The Digestion of Food
 Digestion Is Controlled by the Nervous System and Hormones
 Nervous control of digestion
 Nervous system responds to
 Nervous control of digestion results in:

 Negative Feedback Controls Stomach Acidity

 Digestion Is Controlled by the Nervous System and Hormones
 Hormonal control of digestion
 3 hormones are released by the small intestine as
 Secretin:
 Cholecystokinin:
 Gastric inhibitory peptide:
 Digestion Is Controlled by the Nervous System and Hormones
7/14/2019 4:13:00 PM