Introduction of Oceanography 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

What is Oceanography? The study of Earth itself.

-highly interdisciplinary

What are the 4 disciplines of Oceanography?

• Physical (studying the properties of water and the way currents flow)
• Geological (studying sediments, rock formations and understanding how
ocean basins have formed)
• Chemical (understanding how different dissolved constituents such as
carbon dioxide are exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere and
recycled within the ocean)
• Biological (study of life in the ocean)

What do Oceanographers Do?

• Collect data and samples at sea
• Conduct laboratory experiments to study specific processes that can’t be
observed in the same controlled way in the ocean environment
• Create computer models to simulate physical and biological processes that
are observed. **By creating models, we hope to understand what’s driving
the processes that we observe in the ocean.**

Working at Sea…
- deploying small instruments such as a CTD which measures the salinity
and temperature of the water
- collecting direct water samples with a hose and pump to look at chemistry,
but also to look at some of the small plankton that come up in the samples

Working in the Lab…

- at the microscopes, sorting samples
- on computers entering and/or analyzing data

We are Inventors… because

- Oceanography is still an emerging science
- realize there’s a process or something in the ocean that needs to be
studied but don’t have the right tool
** Cavel Davis invented an instrument (a towed microscope) to tow in the
ocean and look at small particles. He did this because he studies plankton
and realized that he needed a way to study plankton faster and at smaller
spacial scales. It is called the video plankton recorder (black, wing-shaped
instrument on the top of the frame)**
- go to sea in adverse conditions (such as during the oil spill) and have to
reinvent the way in which the science is normally done in order to get the
job done.

We are Public Servants… **became very clear n the wake of the oil spill**
- assist by collecting/providing information that helps managers understand
how to manage disasters etc. and to monitor the effects on marine
environment.

Why is Oceanography Important?

Earth is a Water Planet – a huge amount of the surface of Earth is covered
with water. **The water that covers the Earth is primarily all in the
oceans.**

Some Statistics…
• 97.5% of earth's water is salt water, contained in the oceans.
• Only 2.5% is fresh water **Most of this 2.5% (68.7%) is bound up in
glaciers. 30.1% is groundwater contained in aquifers and other areas. And a
small amount (0.8%) is contained in permafrost, which is the ground/soil in
arctic areas that’s permanently frozen. ONLY 0.4% IS SURFACE AND
ATMOSPHERIC WATER (water we can actually see) such as LAKES (67.4%),
soil moisture, atmosphere, wetlands, RIVERS (1.6%), and biota/living
organisms (0.8%)**
• 71% of the Earth’s surface is ocean
• The average depth of the ocean is 3800 m (12,465 feet)

Area (km) – Volume (km) – Mean Depth (m)

Atlantic 82.4 km 323.6 km 3926 m
Pacific 165.2 km 707.6 km 4282 m
Indian 73.4 km 291 km 3963 m
All Oceans 361 km 1370 km 3796 m

**The Pacific is by far the largest ocean (about twice the size of the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans, which are comparable in size) although not a great deal
deeper.**

**Some of the tallest mountains and deepest valleys on Earth exist in the
oceans.**

CHAPTER QUIZ

What is the percentage of water on Earth contained in the oceans?

97.5% {97% or 98% is also an acceptable answer}

What is the average depth of the ocean? Be sure to include units of

measure
3800 m

What are the four major disciplines of oceanography?

Physical, Chemical, Geological, and Biological
What percentage of the Earth's crust is covered by water?
71% { 70% is also an acceptable answer}

What is the biggest Ocean? What is the smallest?

Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean
Scientific Method 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

Scientific Method
- an approach to answering questions that ensures the answers that we
come up with can be proven by fact and can be tested for their truth by
others.
**The process is iterative—discoveries don’t happen suddenly and they are
harder to prove. The key is understanding how to construct a hypothesis
that is testable.**
**
• There is always a question
• Science begins with an informed guess called a working hypothesis
– A speculation about the natural world that can be tested or verified or
disproved by further observations and controlled experiments
• An experiment is a test that simplifies observation in nature or in the
laboratory by manipulating or controlling the conditions under which the
observations are made
• Hypotheses consistently supported by the experiment or observation are
advanced to the status of a theory
– A statement of a relationship that is accepted by most scientists
**Theories are continually tested and strengthened when new facts support
them and may be modified or rejected when facts contradict them.**
– The largest constructs are laws: principles explaining events in nature that
have been observed to occur with unvarying uniformity under the same
conditions
An untestable hypothesis is one in which we can NOT test or a question that
science cannot answer (not scientific).
- example: There are mermaids somewhere in the ocean……

CHAPTER QUIZ
If a hypothesis is consistently supported and accepted by most scientists it is
called a
theory

What is a law? Give an example

principles that explain events in nature that have been observed to occur
with unvarying uniformity. Gravity is an example

Why was the hypothesis that there are mermaids somewhere in the ocean
not acceptable within the scientific method?
It is untestable

What is an experiment?
a test that simplifies observations and is designed and carried out to see if a
hypothesis is true or false

What is a theory?
hypothesis that is consistently supported by experiments and/or
observations
Origin of the Earth and Oceans 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

Origin and Structure of the Earth

Pastafarians suggested the Earth was created by the Flying Spaghetti

Monster who was responsible for the rising/setting of the sun and that there
is a clear relationship in causation between the rise in global average
temperatures increasing as the number of prates in the world has decreased.
- just a coincidental relationship

When and How did the Earth form?

• Scientist have used the scientific method to state testable hypothesis
based on observations of the Earth and solar system.
• These hypotheses have been supported by further observations and
experiments, but much work remains to explain all the details of the
formation of the Earth.
• The ‘Big Bang’ catalyzed the formation of the universe 13.7 billion years
ago
- explosion that began the expansion of the universe and catalyzed its
formation.
• Our solar system formed approximately 5 billion years ago.
• The ocean formed ‘shortly’ after that.
- There is additional evidence that shows life most likely began in the ocean.
**The first record of a living organism is fossil evidence of bacteria from 3.5
billion years ago.**

Origins of the Solar System

• Our solar system began as a nebula – a large cloud full of gas and dust –
that was spinning and began to contract under the forces of gravity. As it
contracts, the nebula heats, flattens, and spins faster, becoming a spinning
disk of dust and gas.
• A star formed in the center, our sun. Planets will form in the disk.
• Over time, small “seeds” began to form. Because it was much warmer in
the center of the nebula (due to sun), only seeds that contained rock and
metal would form. Anything that contained water vapor would turn into gas.
On the outer edges of the nebula, where temps were colder, “seeds” that
contained ice were able to form. Over time, these seeds begin to collide and
stick together into larger chunks. Particles that are larger have a
gravitational force that is greater and so pulls smaller particles toward them.
Thus we have the formation of the terrestrial planets toward the center part
of the system. These are the planets like Earth and Mars. In the outer part
of the solar system, where more ice was colliding, we have the formation of
the gaseous planets like Jupiter and Saturn.

Solid Matter forms…

• Hydrogen and helium remain gaseous but other materials can condense
into solid “seeds” for building planets.
• Warm temperatures allow only metal/rock “seeds” to condense in the inner
solar system.
• Cold temperatures allow “seeds” to contain abundant ice in outer solar
system.

Protoplanets form….
• Solid “seeds” collide and stick together. Larger ones attract others with
their gravity, growing bigger still.
• Terrestrial planets are built from metal and rock.
• The seeds of gas giant planets grow large enough to attract hydrogen and
helium gas, making them into giant, mostly gaseous planets.
• Moons form in disks of dust and gas that surround the planets.

The Solar System

• Terrestrial planets remain in inner solar system.
• Gas giant planets remain in outer solar system.
• “Leftovers” from the formation process become asteroids (metalrock) and
comets (mostly ice).

Formation of the Earth

• The planet grew by the aggregation of particles. Meteors and asteroids
bombarded the surface, heating the new planet and adding to its growing
mass. At the time, Earth was a homogeneous mix of materials.
• Earth lost volume because of gravitational compression. High temperature
in the interior turned the inner Earth into a semisolid mass; dense iron (red
drops) fell toward the center to form the core due to the force of gravity,
while less dense silicates moved outward. Friction generated by this
movement heated Earth even more. These materials have been kept molten.
• The result of density stratification is evident in the formation of the inner
and outer core, the mantle, and the crust.

Formation of the Moon

• As the earth was forming, it was hit by a huge projectile (somewhat larger
than Mars) and an interesting thing happened – the less dense, rocky mantle
of the projectile was ejected away from the impact and formed a ring of
material around the Earth, while the metallic core of the projectile was
pulled to the core of the Earth due to the gravitational attraction.
• The material in the ring around the Earth eventually collided with each
other and condensed to form our moon.

The Oceans Formed after the Earth and Moon

• At first, the Earth was too warm for any water to exist in liquid form.
(There was only water vapor.)
• Water vapor from erupting volcanoes condensed, fell as rain, and gradually
filled the ocean basins.
• 100% of the surface of the Earth may have been covered by the oceans at
one time, no one knows for sure.

The Early Atmosphere

• No oxygen
• Composed primarily of Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor, ammonia,
and methane – in fairly high concentrations (would be toxic today).
• Lack of oxygen was a critical element in allowing the formation of life
because its only in the absence of oxygen that complex, organic molecules
(amino acids), the building blocks of DNA and proteins (life,) can form.
**Oxygen is fairly reactive substance – think about metals that can rust.**
- Rust (iron-oxide) is the reaction between oxygen and iron.

Oldest Evidence of Life

- There is evidence (some from examining physiology, ie. blood, fluids – and
almost all living organisms are saline) that life probably began in the oceans.
- First evidence of life is a fossil of bacteria found in Australia is 3.5 billion
years old; so life must have existed sometime before this.
- exactly when the first single cell (that was able to reproduce) came into
existence is certainly one of the great gaps in our knowledge about the
beginnings of life.
- we have a lot other evidence – through fossils (also with large gaps in
time) that show us the progression of life – the evolution – how animals
evolved in the oceans, those that moved onto land, and some that came
back to the oceans and are the marine mammals we know today.

Summary:
• How our planet was formed.
• Why the Earth has a layered structure.
• Important time-points:
- formation of the universe, our solar system and planet Earth
- first evidence of life on the planet – which began in the oceans

CHAPTER QUIZ

Why is the 'Big Bang' important, what did it do? When did it occur?
The 'Big Bang' catalyzed the formation of the universe. It occurred 13.7
billion years ago

When did our solar system and the oceans start to form?
Approximately 5 billion years ago

What is the life form we have the earliest fossil evidence for and how old is
it?
The fossil evidence is of bacteria. It is 3.5 billion years old

How did the oceans form?

Water vapor from erupting volcanoes condensed and fell as rain
What is the most important difference between the early atmosphere and
the atmosphere today?
The early atmosphere lacked oxygen
History of Oceanography 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

History of Oceanography

Early Interest in Oceanography

• People were first driven to learn more about the ocean and the size and
shape of the Earth due to $
• The establishment of trade routes and the discovery of new wealth
required better navigation and understanding of currents and winds

Library at Alexandria
• Founded in the 3rd century, BC, this was a central repository and meeting
place for scholars, explorers, and merchants to share and access information
about the ocean

Important Advances in Knowledge

• Eratosthenes calculated the size and shape of the Earth and invented
latitude

Important Advances in Knowledge

• Celestial Navigation
• Cartography

Latitude and Longitude

• Latitude was easy once the size of the earth was known, Eratosthenes
drew evenly spaced lines parallel to the equator, though his placement was
not always quite right
• Longitude was much more difficult as the distance between the lines varies
with latitude

Longitude
• Longitude can be determined using a clock and observing shadows
• The big problem was that mechanical clocks were not accurate at sea on a
rocking ship
• John Harrison invented the chronometer in 1728, it used a spring instead
of a pendulum

Who were the early explorers?

• Polynesians 20,000 years ago
• Vikings 1000 AD
• Chinese 1400 AD

Polynesians

Vikings

Chinese
• The Chinese undertook planned expeditions utilizing many new
technological advances like the central rudder and compass

European Explorers
• The Basque sailors of Spain were fishing for cod off Newfoundland in the
1300’s
• Columbus sails to North America in 1492, nearly 200 years later
• Prince Henry of Portugal
– promoted and taught navigation
• Christopher Columbus
– ‘first’ European to visit North America though he mistook his location for
India
• Ferdinand Magellan

– His crew circumnavigated the globe in 1522

• James Cook
– Over the course of three voyages, he mapped New Zealand, the great
Barrier Reef, Easter Island, South Georgia (nearly to Antarctica), the west
coast of North America, and ‘found’ Hawaii
– He made meticulous notes and insightful observations

Oceanography
Challenger Expedition
• First sailing expedition devoted to science
• Proved there was indeed life in the deep sea

20th Century Oceanography

• Fram expedition initiated Polar Oceanography and demonstrated there is
no landmass in the Arctic
• R/V Meteor (1925) first ship with modern equipment like echosounders

Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)

Satellites
• Measure surface temperature, fluorescence (chlorophyll), sea surface
height, etc.

Oceanographic Institutions
• Scripps 1903
• Woods Hole 1930
• University of Washington 1930, 1951
• Lamont-Dohtery 1950s
• COAS, Oregon State 1959

Importance of Connection
2013…..

CHAPTER QUIZ

The Polynesians made stick maps of the locations of islands. What did these
maps show?
The relative distance between islands, how long it took to travel, not the
geographic distance

What was significant about Fernando Magellans voyage?

His crew circumnavigated the globe showing you could sail around the world
without obstruction

What was the invention that made it possible to accurately calculate

longitude at sea? What was significant about this invention in terms of how it
worked?
The chronometer. It relied on a spring, not a pendulum, and so could keep
accurate time on a moving ship

What was the important contribution to knowledge that the Greek scientist
Erathonese made?
He calculated the circumference of the Earth and established lines of latitude

Name two areas the Vikings colonized

Iceland, Greenland, North America

Name one important invention of early Chinese ocean explorers

The compass

What was the significant finding of the Fram expedition?

There was no landmass in the Arctic

What was significant about the origin of the Challenger expedition?

It was the first oceanographic expedition dedicated to scientific research

What is one important new technology, besides satellites, that

oceanographers use today?
ROVs

Name two of the major oceanographic research institutions in the USA

Scripps

What is one property of the oceans we can measure using satellites?

fluorescence or chlorophyll
Structure of the Earth and Continental Drift1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM
Structure of the Earth

Earthquakes

How was the Structure Discovered?

• Earthquake waves passing through a homogeneous planet

• Earthquake waves passing through a planet with a density gradient
• Density: mass per unit volume
• A change in density will change the speed of the waves and cause them to
be bent
• P waves passing through the Earth are bent

• S waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core

1964 Alaskan Earthquake

Detailed Structure

So, why don’t mountains sink?

• Buoyancy and Isostatic Equilibrium

Isostatic Equilibrium is in flux

• Erosion changes the thickness of the crust by redistributing material

What keeps things flowing?

• If the Earth had simply cooled from the time it was a molten mass, it
should be completely cooled and solid today
• Radioactive decay is the source of heat that keeps the asthenosphere
pliable

Continental Puzzle

Continental Drift
• Hypothesis proposed by Alfred Wegner
• His evidence: the shape of the continents and fossils
• Once the structure of the Earth was known and there was a plausible
mechanism for this drift, his hypothesis became a theory

Evidence for Continental Drift

Mechanisms for Drift

Convection
CHAPTER QUIZ

Define density
mass per unit volume

What are the three main layers of the interior of the Earth? What is the
surface layer called?
Inner core, outer core, mantle. The lithosphere

What is buoyancy?
The ability of an object to float in a fluid by displacing a volume of that fluid
that is equal to the object's weight

What is the theory of continental drift? What are two pieces of evidence that
support this theory?
The theory that the continents are moving slowly across the Earth. The
shape of the continents and similar rock and fossil deposits on different
continents show how the continents used to be joined together into a
supercontinent, Pangea

What happens to waves from an earthquake as they pass through a planet

with a density gradient?
They are bent

What is isostatic equilibrium?

The balanced support of lighter material in a heavier, displaced supporting
material.

What is the source of heat in the Earth that keeps the asthenosphere
pliable?
Radioactive decay

What is the mechanisms that drives the movement of the continents?

Convection currents in the asthenosphere produced by heating from
radioactive decay

List the three types of waves generated by an earthquake in order of their

speed of travel from fastest to slowest
P waves, S waves, surface waves
Plate Tectonics 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

Plate Tectonics

Review
• The Earth is composed of layers of varying density and composition
• The athenosphere (upper mantle) is pliable and allows for movement of
the lithosphere plates
• Radioactive decay produces heat that keeps the athenosphere pliable
• Lithospheric plates ‘float’ on the athenosphere due to buoyancy forces
• Erosion can redistribute material and so change the buoyancy at a given
location
• The amount of uplift on a plate at a given location will equal the amount of
subsidence in another location--isostatic equilibrium

Convection

Location of Plate Boundaries

Types of Plate Boundaries
• Divergent--where two plate boundaries are moving apart
• Convergent--where two plates are moving towards each other and interact
• Transverse (Transform)--where two plates slide laterally past each other

Plate Interactions
• The size of the Earth is not changing so when plates move, they either
interact (convergent) or new crust is formed (divergent)
Breakup of Pangea
• Plate tectonics led to the breakup of Pangea, the original supercontinent
• Ocean basins formed at divergent boundaries
• Mountain ranges and trenches formed at convergent boundaries

Divergent Boundaries
• At a crack in the lithosphere, magma rises to create new basaltic crust
• The rift continues to open and there are volcanoes and earthquakes
associated with this area
• The rift continues to widen and is submerged, creating a new ocean basin

Divergent Boundaries
• The rift valley in Africa is thought to be formed as the lithosphere is being
pushed upward by a superplume of magma and then cracks and pulls apart

Marie Tharp
• Her vision and common sense intuition revealed the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was
a divergent boundary and so changed the debate on plate tectonics

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Transform Faults
• The axis of spreading cannot occur in a straight line on a curved surface
and a fault forms where two plates move past each other
Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Convergent Boundaries
• Ocean-Continent Convergence—lighter continental lithosphere rides up
over the denser oceanic lithosphere and a trench is formed and crust is
recycled
• Ocean-Ocean Convergence--the older, cooler, denser oceanic crust will be
subducted under the other plate and deep ocean trenches and island arcs
are formed
• Continent-Continent Convergence--the two plates of equal density are
compressed and folded and mountains form

Ocean-Continent Convergence
Ocean-Ocean Convergence

Continent-Continent Convergence

Plate Boundaries Summary

Pangea Reconstruction – how did we know?
• Aside from fossil and geological evidence and the understanding of plate
tectonics, how do we know the process by which Pangea broke up?

Record in Magnetic Fields

• The Earth’s magnetic field is caused by movement of molten metal in the
outer core--this field reverses every few hundred thousand years
• Iron-bearing minerals (magnetite) will align themselves along the lines of
magnetic force
• As molten magma cools, the magnetites align themselves in the direction
of the magnetic field
• The alignment will not change and becomes a ‘fossil’ of the magnetic field
known as paleomagnetism

Magnetic Record at Spreading Centers

CHAPTER QUIZ

Why are divergent boundaries offset by transform faults?

Because the axis of spreading cannot occur in a straight line on a curved
surface

Where is the oldest oceanic crust? Why? (see if you can use what you
learned to answer part 2)
Near subduction zones, the oldest is in the western Pacific near Japan. It is
the farthest distance from a spreading center

What is paleomagnetism? How do we use that information?

The 'fossil' magnetic field frozen in cooled magma that shows the polarity of
the Earth at the time the rock was formed by examining the direction the
magnetite is aligned. We use it to calculate the rate of spreading at
divergent boundaries

What are the characteristics of a transform boundary? Give an example

Crust is neither created nor destroyed as the plates move past each other.
San Andreas fault, mid-ocean ridges

What is the difference between a constructive and destructive plate

boundary?
At constructive boundaries, new crust if formed. At destructive boundaries,
plate is destroyed

What are the characteristics of a continent-ocean convergent

boundary? What is an example?
The denser oceanic plate dives under the continental plate causing a trench,
deep earthquakes, and the formation of volcanoes on the continent. Western
south america, Pacific Northwest USA

At what type of plate boundary would we record the deepest earthquakes?

convergent boundary, specifically ocean-ocean or ocean-continent
What are the characteristics of a divergent boundary? Give an example
New crust is formed as the plates move apart, a ridge forms and there are
many small volcanoes. The mid-atlantic ridge

Why do plate interactions occur?

The size of the Earth remains constant so as plates move they either interact
or new crust if formed

What determines the density of a lithospheric plate?

It's temperature. Older plates are cooler and denser than younger, warmer
plates

WILSON CYCLE
MANTLE PLUMES AND HOT SPOTS
• Mantle Plumes--continent-sized columns of superheated mantle originating
at the core-mantle interface
• These plume may be responsible for some of the epic eruptions of lava
that occurred in the past over India and in the Pacific Northwest and led to
one of the greatest mass extinctions in history
• Hot spot--the surface expression of a stationary source of heat in the
mantle (like a plume)

Mantle Plumes
• Using earthquake wave velocities, the mantle plume below the Hawaiian
hot spot has been mapped

Hotspots
Yellowstone Hot Spot

Plate Tectonics Shapes the Geologic Record

• The oldest ocean sediments are 180 million years old
• Sediments are subducted at convergent boundaries
• At divergent boundaries, the seafloor is new and there is little
accumulation of sediment

Terranes
• At an Ocean-Continent convergence, the oceanic plate is subducted
• Areas of shallower bathymetry (plateaus, ocean ridges, island arcs) can be
squeezed and sheared onto the continental plate to form terranes
• Areas of shallower bathymetry (lower density rock) are sheared off on the
continent and not subducted
• Over time, material is accreted at the edge of the continent
• Over time, the location of the subduction zone and trench will change as
more material is added to the continental plate
• Sometimes portions of denser ocean crust are deposited (ophiolites)

What do we still not know?

• Why should some areas of the asthenosphere be warmer than adjacent
areas?
• Why do mantle plumes form?
• How deep do plates descend at subduction zones? To the core?

Chapter Quiz

What is a terrane?
An accumulation of sediment that is sheared off an oceanic plate and
deposited on the edge of a continental plate at a convergence zone

Where would you expect to find the smallest amount of sediment

accumulation in the ocean? Why?
At spreading centers. This is the youngest crust that has just formed and
there has been relatively little time for sediments to accumulate

How old are the oldest ocean sediments? Why?

180 million years. Sediments are sub ducted at convergent boundaries

What is a mantle plume? What is a hotspot?

A mantle plume is a huge column of super-heated magma. A hotspot is the
surface expression of a heat source (like a plume)

How did the Hawaiian islands form?

As an oceanic plate moved across a stationary hotspot, a series of volcanoes
were formed that formed the islands
Ocean Basins 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

Ocean Basins

How do we know what the bottom of the oceans looks like?

• We measure bathymetry, the contours of the ocean floor
• Historically, soundings were taken
• The Titanic disaster spurred research to develop sonic iceberg detectors
• This led to the first echosounders
Echosounders

V=1500 m/s
T= 2 seconds
Depth = 1500 (2/2)=1500 meters

Surface

Multibeam Sonars

USS Guardian meets pristine coral reef

Satellite Altimetry
• Measure variations in the elevation of the surface of the ocean

The Ocean Floor is not smooth….

Where is most of the Earth’s Surface?

• More than half of the Earth’s surface is 3000 m below sea level

Transition from Continent to Ocean

• Continental Margin- submerged outer edge of a continent
• Ocean Basin-sea floor beyond the continental margin where the transition
from thick to thin denser granite occurs

Crustal Zonation
CHAPTER QUIZ

What are three technologies used to measure bathymetry?

echosounders, multibeam sonars, and satellite altimetry

What is Bathymetry?
The contours of the ocean floor

What is the continental margin?

The submerged outer edge of a continent

What is an ocean basin?

The seafloor beyond the continental margin

Roughly, what percent of the Earth’s crust is in the oceans?

70.8%
Continental Margins
• Passive-continental margins facing divergent boundaries
• Active-continental margins facing convergent boundaries

Passive Margins

• Little earthquake activity

• Atlantic

Active Margins

• Earthquake and volcanic activity

• Pacific

Continental Margins
Continental Shelf
• The shallow, submerged extension of the a continent
• Width of a shelf is determined by its proximity to a plate boundary
• Most of the material composing a shelf comes from erosion of the adjacent
continent
• Weight of the sediments depresses the shelf

Continental Shelf
• Gulf of Mexico
• Broad shelf at passive margin

Continental Shelf
• California coast
• Narrow, complex shelf at active margin

Sea Level
• Continental shelves are affected by sea level

Gulf of Mexico
• Mississippi river has transported sediment and built up the shelf
• This sediment overlays salt deposits from 180 million years ago
• The weight of the sediment causes salt domes to rise, spread out, dissolve,
and collapse
• These formations cause oil and gas to rise up closer to the surface

Continental Slopes
• Transition between continental shelf and deep-ocean floor
• Steeper grade that continental shelf
• Slopes at active margins are generally steeper than at passive margins
• Formed of sediments that reach the edge of the shelf

Shelf Break
• Abrupt transition from shelf to slope

Submarine Canyons
• Canyons cut through continental shelf and slope
• Generally align at right angles to the shelf edge
• Formed by turbidity currents
• Turbulence mixes sediment from the bottom into the water above a sloping
bottom and this now denser mixture is pulled downhill by gravity, cutting the
canyon

Turbidity Currents

Submarine Canyons
Continental Rise
• Found at passive margins
• Formed by accumulated sediments at the base of the continental slope
• Most sediment is transported by turbidity currents and then shaped by
deep ocean currents

Continental Rise

400 m

Deep-Ocean Basins
• Areas away from the continental margins
• Ridge systems
• Sediment covered plains
CHAPTER QUIZ

What is the continental shelf?

The submerged extension of a continent

What is the continental slope?

The transition between the continental shelf and the deep ocean

How are submarine canyons aligned with the continental shelf and how are
they formed?
Submarine canyons are aligned at right angles with the continental shelf and
are formed by turbidity currents.

Why does the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico have numerous pits or
pockmarks?
The Mississippi river and other rivers have deposited large amounts of
sediment on the shelf. The weight of the sediments cause salt domes to rise
and spread out, then dissolve and collapse, causing pits.

What are the characteristics of a passive margin? Give an example

There is little earthquake activity. Faces a divergent plate boundary. Has a
broad continental shelf. The Atlantic Ocean

What are the characteristics of an active Margin? Give an example

There is earthquake and volcanic activity. Faces a convergent boundary.
Narrow continental shelf. Pacific

What are turbidity currents?

currents that are responsible for transporting large amounts of sediment.
found in large rivers going to oceans,canyons, or can be cause by
earthquakes.

What is important about the pockmarks and pits of the Gulf of Mexicos
continental shelf?
They cause oil and gas deposits to rise towards the surface and be more
accessible.

What is the shelf break?

The abrupt transition from the continental shelf to continental slope

What is the continental rise? Where is it found?

It is formed by the accumulation of sediments at the base of the continental
slope and only occurs as passive margins

Ridge Systems and Vents

Ocean Ridges

• Mountainous formations at spreading centers

Ocean Ridges
• Rates of spreading determine bathymetric features

Ocean Ridges
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
• Sediment accumulation changes the surface expression of the ridge
system

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Hydrothermal Vents
• Jack Corliss, a marine geologist noticed that rocks he was analyzing from
the Mid-Atlantic ridge had chemical traces of hot water circulation
• In 1977 as a scientist at Oregon State University he led the cruises that
discovered the first hydrothermal vents in the East Pacific Rise

Hydrothermal Vents
• Black Smokers
• Hot water containing minerals and gases

Ridge Systems on Land

• Iceland
• The Mid-Atlantic ridge ‘comes ashore’
• Large amounts of thermal and volcanic activity

Ocean Ridges
• Occur at divergent plate boundaries
• Rates of spreading determines the specific bathymetry
• Sediment accumulation can smooth out ridge features over time
• Hydrothermal vents are important features of ridge systems

CHAPTER QUIZ

Who is the lead person who discovered hydrothermal vents? What made him
think they existed?
Jack Corliss. He examined rocks from the Mid-Atlantic ridge and realized
they had a chemical signature that showed they had been exposed to hot
water.

What is different about the bathymetry of the Mid Atlantic Ridge versus the
East Pacific Rise (excluding sediment accumulation)? Why?
The Mid Atlantic ridge has more pronounced mountains and valleys in its
bathymetry. It also has a slower spreading rate, therefore its features are
more compact around the spreading center.

How does sediment accumulation affect the bathymetry of a spreading

center? Where are the affects more pronounced?
Sediment accumulation will smooth out the bathymetric features and it is
more pronounced with greater distance from the spreading center because
there has been a longer amount of time for sediments to accumulate.

Where does the Mid-Atlantic ridge cross land? What are the characteristics of
this area?
Iceland. The area is characterized by hydrothermal activity and volcanic
activity

What is occurring at hydrothermal events in terms of water exchange?

Cold ocean water is seeping through fissures in the crust. When the water
comes close to the magma chamber, it is warmed, then rises and boils out of
the fissures near the center of the rift zone

Abyssal Plains

• 1/4 of the Earth’s surface consists of abyssal plains and hills

• Flat, featureless areas
• More common in the Atlantic Ocean
• Located between ridge systems and continental margins
• Smooth, even surface due to accumulation of terrestrial sediments

Abyssal Plains
• Abyssal hills--small, sediment covered mountains (extinct volcanoes)

Seamounts and Guyots

• Volcanic projections that do not reach the ocean surface
• Guyots--former seamounts that have flat tops and may have reached the
surface and been eroded

Formation of Seamounts

Trenches and Island Arcs

Mariana Trench
Trieste Dive
• In 1959, Jaques Piccard and US Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh became the
only humans to descend to the bottom of the Mariana trench
• It has been visited twice since that time by ROVs

March 25, 2012

Our World

CHAPTER QUIZ

At what type of plate boundary are trenches and island arcs found?
Trenches and island arcs are found at Ocean-ocean convergences.

What is the deepest trench we know of and how deep is it?

The Mariana trench. It is 11,000m deep (11 km)

What are the characteristics of their bathymetry (surface) and why?

They are generally smooth and featureless due to the accumulation of
sediments
Who reached the bottom of the Mariana trench (the Challenger Deep) in
2012?
James Cameron

What is significant about the Trieste?

It is the first submersible to reach the bottom of the Mariana trench in 1959

How much of the Earth surface do the abyssal plains cover?

1/4

Where are abyssal plains located?

between ridge systems and continental margins

What is a seamount?
A volcanic projection that is below the surface

What is a guyot?
A seamount that reached the surface and had it's top eroded to become flat
Sediments 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

Sediments

Definition of Sediments
• Particles of organic and inorganic matter that are accumulated in a loose,
unconsolidated form
• Particles are derived from erosion of rocks, living organisms, volcanic
eruptions, and chemical processes
• Rates of accumulation vary greatly
Different levels of accumulation

Current Patterns Shape Sediment Surface

Sediment Accumulation

Sediment Classification
• By particle size
• By source

Sediment Classification-Particle Size

• Well-sorted sediments
– sediments composed primarily of particles of one size
– Found where energy fluctuations occur in a narrow range (narrow range of
current speeds)
• Poorly-sorted sediments
– sediments composed of particles of a range of sizes
– Found where energy fluctuations occur over a wide range (large range of
current speeds)

Sediment Classification-Source
Terrigenous Sediments-the Sediment Cycle

Terrigenous Sediments Transport Rivers

Terrigenous Sediments Transport Wind

Biogenous Sediments
• Biological origin-mostly plankton
• Composed of silica and calcium containing compounds
• Form natural gas deposits over time
• More abundant in areas where there is high planktonic production in the
water column
– Continental margins
– Upwelling areas

Hydrogenous Sediments
• Formed from minerals precipitated from
seawater
– Hydrothermal vents
– Leaching of minerals from rocks and fresh crust
– Substances transported to the ocean by rivers
• Authigenic Sediments
– Formed in the place they now occupy

Cosmogenous Sediments
• Extraterrestrial origin
– Interplanetary dust
– Impacts by comets and meteors
– microtektites

Sediment Distribution
• Neritic Sediments
– Overlay continental margins
– Mostly terriginous
– There are also biogenous sediments as these are areas of high pelagic
production
• Pelagic Sediments
– Overlay the continental slope, rise, and deepocean basin
– Higher proportion of biogenous sediments than neritic sediments, but still
the majority of the volume are terriginous sediments

Neritic Sediments
• Larger particle size deposited nearshore (sand)
• Smaller particle size deposited offshore (silts and clays)
• Ice shelves and icebergs and turbidity currents can disrupt this sorting
pattern
• Historical changes in sea level are evident in the sediment record
Rates of Deposition
• Higher rates of deposition on the continental shelf than the deep ocean
• Higher rates near river mouths (1 m every 1000 years)
– Estuaries trap sediments and can reduce this rate

Lithification
• Sediments are converted into sedimentary rock by pressure-induced
compaction or cementation
• These formations can be lifted above sea level through the action of plate
tectonics
– Mt. Everest
– Colorado plateau

Pelagic Sediments
• Sediments of the slope, rise, and deep-ocean floor
• Thickness is highly variable
– Thickest on the abyssal plains and thinnest on the ridges
• Average thickness in the Atlantic is greater than the Pacific
– More rivers feed the Atlantic
– The Atlantic is geographically smaller
– Pacific has more subduction zones

Turbidites
• Deposits formed by the action of turbidity currents
• Graded layers of terrigenous sand embedded with smaller particle
sediments

Sediment Classification-Source
Clays
• 38% of the deep seabed is covered by clays
• Average rate of accumulation is 2 mm every 1000 years (slow)

Oozes
• Biogenous sediments
• Composed of the rigid remains of organisms (primarily plankton)
• If a sediment contains at least 30% biogenous material, it is termed an
ooze
• Accumulation rates of 1-6 cm every 1000 years
– Depends on the balance between abundance of the organisms that
contribute to oozes and the rate of accumulation of terrigenous material

Calcareous Oozes

• Form primarily from foraminifera and coccoliths

• 48% of the surface of the deep seabed is covered by calcareous oozes
• Shells containing calcium dissolve at greater depths due to
– increased ocean acidity caused by a greater amount of carbon dioxide
being dissolved at depth
– Increased solubility of calcium carbonate under pressure and in cold water
• Calcium Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD)
– Depth at which the rate of calcareous sediments supplied to the seabed
equals the rate at which they dissolve
• CCD determines pattern of accumulation of calcareous oozes

Silicious Oozes
• Formed from radiolarians and diatoms
• 14% of the surface of the deep seabed is covered by silicious oozes
• Predominate at greater depths and polar regions
• Silica does not dissolve as quickly as calcium carbonate
• Diatom oozes are found in areas where there is high diatom production
(Southern Ocean near Antarctica)
• Radiolarian oozes more common in equatorial upwelling regions

Sediment Distribution
Transport to the Seafloor
• Compaction into fecal pellets speeds the sinking rate of these particle to
the seabed

Hydrogenous Sediments
• Form due to chemical reactions occurring on particles of the dominant
sediment
• Manganese nodules

Other Hydrogenous Sediments

• Evaporites
– Different salt compounds that form at different points during the
evaporative process (as salinity increases)
• Oolite sands
– Formed by precipitation of calcium carbonate
– In shallow, warm waters with high productivity
– Autotrophs (plants) use up carbon dioxide and make seawater less acidic
Sediment Distribution

How do we sample sediments?

• Grab or clamshell sampler

• Piston Corer
– Stratified sample
• Joint Ocean Drilling Project

Cores are a Historical Record

• Statigraphy-analysis of layered sedimentary deposits
• Paleoceanography-study of the oceans past

Seismic Surveys
Age of Ocean Crust
• Oldest Sediments 180 million years

CHAPTER QUIZ

What are sediments?

particles of organic and inorganic matter

What are cosmogenic sediments?

Sediments of extraterrestrial origin (microtektites)

What are terrigenous sediments and how are they transported to the ocean?
Terrigenous sediments come from erosion of rocks and soil on land. They are
transported to the ocean primarily by rivers, but also by wind.

What are the four major sources of sediments?

Terrigenous, biogenous, hydrogenous, cosmogenous

What are biogenies sediments? Where are they most abundant?

Biogenous sediments are biological in origin, mostly from plankton. They are
more abundant in areas of high production like continental margins and
upwelling areas.

What are the characteristics of poorly-sorted sediments? Under what flow

conditions are they found?
Poorly-sorted sediments are composed of particles of a range of sizes. They
are found where energy fluctuation occur over a wide range of current
speeds.

How does particle size affect the settling velocity?

The smaller the particle size, the slower the settling velocity.

What are hydrogenous sediments? Where might they be found?

Hydrogenous sediments are formed from minerals precipitating from
seawater. They are found at hydrothermal vents and areas where new crust
is forming as well as areas where these substances may have been
transported to the ocean by rivers.

What are the characteristics of well-sorted sediments and under what flow
conditions are they found?
Well-sorted sediments are composed of particles of primarily all the same
size. They occur where energy fluctuations happen in a narrow range of
current speeds.

What does authigenic mean?

Formed in the same place as the sediment now occurs

What are the two major ways sediments are classified?

By particle size and source

What is the type of sediment with the smallest particle size?

clay

Why are pelagic sediments thicker in the Atlantic than Pacific?

The Atlantic has more rivers inputting sediment. It is also smaller and has
fewer subduction zones.

What is lithification? What important geological feature has been formed in

this way?
The process by which sediments are converted into rock by pressure-induced
compaction. Mt. Everest and the Colorado plateau have been formed in this
way.

What are two major areas where rates of sediment deposition are higher?
Rates of deposition are higher over the continental shelf and near the
mouths of rivers.

Where will you find smaller grain sediments such as silt and clay deposited?
farther from shore

What are pelagic sediments? What are their characteristics?

Pelagic sediments overlay the continental slope, rise, and deep-ocean
basins. The majority of the sediment volume is terrigenous, but there is a
higher percentage of biogenous sediments than neritic sediments.

What are turbidites?

Turbidites are graded layers of terrigenous sand embedded with smaller
particle sediments that are formed by turbidity currents.

What are Neritic sediments? What are their characteristics?

Neritic sediments overlay the continental margins. They are composed of
mostly terrigenous and biogenies sediments in areas of high productivity.

Which portion of the continental margins has the thickest sediments?

Continental slope

Where are some of the thickest sediments in the world oceans? Why?
Some of the thickest sediments in the world oceans are found in the Gulf of
Mexico and the Indian Ocean near the mouth of Ganges river. Rivers are the
most important mechanism of transport of terrigenous sediments and so the
thickest sediments are found near the largest river systems.

Where are pelagic sediments thickest? Thinnest?

They are thickest over the abyssal plain and thinnest over the ridge systems.

What two things control the rate of deposition of oozes?

The abundance of the organisms that contribute to the ooze and the rate of
deposition of terrigenous sediments.

Where do we find silicious oozes dominated by diatom shells? by radiolarian

shells?
Diatom dominated oozes are found in the Southern Ocean where diatom
production is high and radiolarian dominated oozes are found in upwelling
regions where radiolarian production is high.

What is an ooze?
biogenous sediments

What is the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD)?

CCD is the depth where the rate of calcareous sediment deposition equals
the rates of dissolution.

What is one of the most important components of terrigenous sediments,

especially in the deep sea?
clay

What are hydrogenous sediments? What are three examples of these

sediments?
Hydrogenous sediments form due to chemical reactions in the dominant
sediment. Examples are manganese nodules, evaporites, and oolite sands.

Where are silicious oozes more predominate?

Silicious oozes are more predominate at deep ocean depths and polar
regions.
What are silicious oozes composed of?
Silicious oozes are composed of the silicon based skeletons and shells of
radiolarians and diatoms (plankton).

What are calcareous oozes composed of?

Calcareous oozes are composed of shells of organisms that contain calcium
carbonate, such as foraminifera and coccolithophores.

Why are there no calcareous sediment deposits in many areas of the deep
ocean?
The calcareous material is dissolved due to higher ocean acidity because
more carbon dioxide is dissolved in the deep, cold water. Also, the solubility
of calcium carbonate is greater with increasing pressure and decreasing
temperature.

What can seismic surveys tell us about ocean sediments?

Seismic surveys can map the different layers of sediment.

What is paleoceanography?
The study of the oceans past

How old are the oldest sediments in the ocean? Why are there none that are
older?
180 million years. They are subducted at convergent plate boundaries.

What is stratigraphy?
Stratigraphy is an analysis of layered sediment deposits.

What are two instruments used to collect sediments?

Grab sampler and piston corer
Quizzes 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

What Do You Know About The Oceans Quiz

What is the deepest known depth of the oceans?

11,000 m

What area of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans?

75%

What is the Gulf Stream?

A major ocean current in the Atlantic Ocean that flows from Florida to New
England and then across the Atlantic to Europe

What is the major force that controls tides?

The gravitational pull between the Earth and Moon

Salinity is measured in something called practical salinity units. 10 psu

equals about 1% salt concentration. Thinking about how much salt you
think is dissolved in seawater, what is the average salinity of the oceans?
35 psu

What is an important function of estuaries?

As nursery areas for fish and crustaceans

What is the worlds largest fishery (measured by tons landed)?

Anchovies

What are plankton?

Small plants and animals that drift with the currents

What is one environmental problem facing the world Oceans?

Global warming

Approximately how old is the first fossil evidence of life on Earth?

4 billion years ago
QUIZ 1 (Introduction to Oceanography, Scientific Method, Origin
of the Earth and Oceans, History of Oceanography)

The ancient Polynesian people traveled across and colonized islands in which
ocean? How does this Ocean compare in size to the other world oceans?
Pacific. It is the largest.

What had to be measured accurately to calculate latitude? What ancient

culture achieved this?
The circumference of the Earth, The Greeks

What had to be accurately measured at sea to calculate longitude? What

was special about the invention that made this possible?
Time. The invention, the chronometer, used a spring instead of a pendulum.

Which of these statements [There are mermaids somewhere in the ocean,

All marine organisms have gills] is a testable hypothesis. Why?
All marine organisms have gills. You can observe individual marine
organisms and determine if each one has gills or not. If you observe large
numbers of marine organisms and they all have gills, you have support for
your hypothesis. But, if you find one marine organisms with lungs (like a
whale), then the hypothesis is proven false. This is a testable hypothesis
because you can validate or invalidate it through observations. You can
never sample the entire ocean for mermaids and so that is a hypothesis that
cannot be tested through observation or experiment.

The Greek gods are arguing about who will pick up the check for dinner.
Zeus finally says they will split the check according to what portion of the
surface of the Earth they rule. Poseidon, God of the sea, is not happy.
Why? If the bill is 100.00, what will he pay?
He is not happy because he will pay the most. He will pay 71.00 because the
oceans cover 71% of the Earth's surface

What was significant about the Challenger expedition?

It was the first oceanographic expedition dedicated to scientific exploration
Someone tells you that if all the world's glaciers melt, the amount of water
in the oceans will double. Is this true? Why or why not?
False. The oceans already contain 97.5 % of all water on Earth. While
glaciers contain 68.7% of the freshwater on Earth, that is still only about 1%
of the water on the planet (Freshwater accounts for 2.5% of the water on
Earth). While sea level will rise, the amount of water in the oceans will only
increase by about 1%.

The Earth and Oceans formed shortly after the 'Big Bang', true or false? Use
approximate time points of the events to support your answer
False. The 'Big bang' occurred 13.7 billion years ago and the Earth and
Oceans formed approximately 5 billion years ago.

You are a biological oceanographer who studies phytoplankton (plants) and

wants to look at global distribution patterns of phytoplankton. Your
colleague is a physical oceanographer who wants to look at large scale
patterns of sea surface height. What single modern tool of oceanography
can you both use at the same time to measure what you want?
A satellite

What did the Magellan expeditions accomplish and what important discovery
about the Earth did it demonstrate?
The voyage circumnavigated the Globe. It showed that the oceans were
connected; there was no single landmass that separated one ocean basin
from another.

QUIZ 2 (Structure of the Earth, Plate Tectonics)

What is the paleomagnetic record and what can it tell us about plate
tectonics?
The paleomagnetic record is the frozen particles of magnetite oriented in the
direction of the magnetic pole at the time the rock was cooled. This can help
us determine the rate of spreading at divergent plate boundaries.
Dr. Who has invited you to travel through time with him in his TARDIS for a
beach vacation thousands of years in the future. He wants to go to the
Mediterranean, but you argue that if you want a guaranteed beach vacation
that far in the future, the Red Sea is your best bet. Why?
The Mediterranean Sea is in the terminal stage of the Wilson cycle, it may be
completely closed and not exist thousands of years in the future while the
Red Sea is in the juvenile stage and will be widening in the future. It is the
safe bet for a future beach vacation.

Geologists have found deposits of sediment and rock far inland in the
Western United States. This area was never flooded as an inland sea, how
did the deposits get there? Be specific about the plate boundary that is
involved.
As the oceanic plate is sub ducted under the continental plate, lower density
rock and sediments are deposited on the continental crust. Over time, the
plate boundary and convergence zone has shifted to the west as more
material is deposited.

When two plates come together, which plate will be subducted? Why?
the older, cooler, denser oceanic crust. Because of buoyancy forces and
density differences
Comment:
yes, if this were an ocean-continent convergence that would be the case. FYI
even if this were an ocean-ocean convergence, the key is still that the
denser plate will be subducted, density is key!

What were two reasons Alfred Wegner thought the continents were originally
all part of one supercontinent?
There were similar rock and fossil deposits on separate continents and the
shape of the continents were complimentary (looked like they could be fit
together like puzzle pieces).

There is a chain of seamounts that extends from the end of the Hawaiian
island chain to the north towards the Aleutian islands. These seamounts
were originally islands created by the same hotspot that has created the
Hawaiian islands. Why are they not in the same alignment as the Hawaiian
islands?
The plate that is moving across the hotspot changes the direction of
movement between the formation of the seamounts and the Hawaiian
islands.

Why is the Earth not completely solid? What is the source of energy that is
involved?
Radioactive decay keeps the asthenosphere (mantle) pliable

An earthquake has it's epicenter in Barrow, Alaska, near the north pole. At a
seismograph station in Seattle, WA; two sets of waves are detected shortly
after the quake begins. At a seismograph station in Antarctica, only one set
of waves is detected. a) what are the two types of waves detected in
Seattle (listed in the order in which they would be received at the
seismograph), b) what is the one type of wave detected in Antarctica and c)
why is there only one type of wave detected there?
a) P waves and S waves b) P waves c) The S waves cannot travel through
the liquid outer core of the Earth.

You are departing on a research cruise from a country that borders the
ocean. Near the coast, there is a range of mountains with active
volcanoes. As the ship leaves the port and steams directly away from the
coast, the ship's echo sounder shows that the ocean becomes very deep
very quickly. What type of plate boundary exists here? Where in the world
might you be?
You might be on the west coast of South America. The boundary is an
ocean-continent convergence.

Describe what happens to the continental crust in terms of isostatic

equilibrium as a mountain is eroded and the material is redistributed. (use
the terms uplift and subsidence)
Erosion redistributes the continental crust material on either side of the
mountain. As a result of the deposition, there is subsidence of the crust on
the sides of the mountain and uplift of the crust under the mountain. The
subsidence and uplift are equal to each other and so the isostatic equilibrium
is maintained across the continent.

QUIZ 3 (Ocean Basins)

What is different about the bathymetry of the Mid Atlantic Ridge versus the
East Pacific Rise (excluding sediment accumulation)? Why?
The Mid Atlantic ridge has more pronounced mountains and valleys in it's
bathymetry. It has a slower spreading rate and so it's features are more
compact around the spreading center.

If you wanted take a sediment sample from a portion of the continental

margin that has the highest percentage of ocean sediments concentrated
into the smallest surface area of the Earth, where would you go? (0.5
pt) Would you chose to take the sample off the east coast of the United
States or off California?(0.5 pt) Why? (1 pt)
I would go to the continental slope or continental rise. I would then take the
sample off the east coast of the US because this is a passive margin and will
have a continental rise where as the active margin off the coast of California
will lack one.

Hydrothermal vents are areas where hot water rises from the
bottom. Explain what is happening in terms of water circulation to create
these vent features.
Cold seawater seeps into fissures in the crust. As the water moves deeper, it
comes closer to the magma chamber that is near the surface and it is
heated. The hot water then rises and escapes from fissures near the central
part of the ridge system.

You are in the DSV Alvin and you are on a dive to study hydrothermal
vents. You have reached the bottom, but don't know exactly where you
are. The pilot starts moving forward to find the vent site. You notice that
the contours of the bathymetry are getting smoother and smoother as you
continue moving in this direction. Why is that? Are you going in the right
direction?
The contours of the bathymetry are getting smoother due to sediment
accumulation. You are not going in the right direction. Sediment
accumulation is greater with greater distance from the ridge system.

Why does the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico have numerous pits or
pockmarks?
The Mississippi river and other rivers have deposited large amounts of
sediment on the continental shelf. The weight of the sediments cause salt
domes to rise and spread out, then dissolve and collapse, causing pits.

The abyssal plains have many mountains and other large bathymetric
features. Why do they then have a fairly smooth surface?
Sediments have accumulated over the mountains and buried the jagged
bathymetry

At what type of plate boundary are trenches and island arcs found?
Trenches and island arcs are found at Ocean-ocean convergences.

How are submarine canyons aligned with the continental shelf and how are
they formed?
Submarine canyons are aligned at right angles with the continental shelf and
are formed by turbidity currents.

How is a seamount formed? What happens to give a seamount the special

designation of guyot?
A seamount is formed when an active volcano that formed near a spreading
center is carried away from the spreading center due to the movement of
the plate and sinks as the plate sinks deeper. When a seamount has broken
the surface and had it's top eroded to form a flat top, it is called a guyot.

QUIZ 4 (Sediments)

You are a paleoceanographer who specializes in looking at foraminiferans.

What is the general goal of your research and what type of sediment would
you look for to conduct your work?
The general goal of my research is to study the past conditions of the oceans
and I would look for calcareous oozes.

You are in the DSV Alvin and you are on a dive to study hydrothermal
vents. You have reached the bottom, but don't know exactly where you
are. The pilot starts moving forward to find the vent site. You notice that
the contours of the bathymetry are getting smoother and smoother as you
continue moving in this direction. Why is that? Are you going in the right
direction?
The contours of the bathymetry are getting smoother due to sediment
accumulation. You are not going in the right direction. Sediment
accumulation is greater with greater distance from the ridge system.

Hydrothermal vents are areas where hot water rises from the
bottom. Explain what is happening in terms of water circulation to create
these vent features.
Cold seawater seeps into fissures in the crust. As the water moves deeper, it
comes closer to the magma chamber that is near the surface and it is
heated. The hot water then rises and escapes from fissures near the central
part of the ridge system.

You want to find some of the thickest deposits of terrigenous sediments you
can. Where would you go? Why?
I would go to the Gulf of Mexico and the mouth of the Ganges River because
rivers are the main transporters of terrigenous sediments and the larger the
river system, the higher amount of sediment will be deposited.

You want to sample the basalt of the oceanic crust and you want to have as
little sediment as possible to drill through to get your sample. What feature
of an ocean basin would you want to go to for this sampling? (0.5 pt) Of all
of this type of feature in the world's oceans, is there a particular one that
would be best to go to? (0.5 pt) Why? (1 pt)
I would want to sample near a ridge system or spreading center. The East
Pacific rise would be a good one to sample at because it has a fast spreading
rate and there would be less sediment than near a ridge system with a
slower spreading rate.
How is a seamount formed? What happens to give a seamount the special
designation of guyot?
A seamount is formed when an active volcano that formed near a spreading
center is carried away from the spreading center due to the movement of
the plate and sinks as the plate sinks deeper. When a seamount has broken
the surface and had it's top eroded to form a flat top, it is called a guyot.

If you wanted take a sediment sample from a portion of the continental

margin that has the highest percentage of ocean sediments concentrated
into the smallest surface area of the Earth, where would you go? (0.5
pt) Would you chose to take the sample off the east coast of the United
States or off California?(0.5 pt) Why? (1 pt)
I would go to the continental slope or continental rise. I would then take the
sample off the east coast of the US because this is a passive margin and will
have a continental rise where as the active margin off the coast of California
will lack one.

How does the particle size of sediments affect sinking velocity?

The smaller the particle size, the slower the settling velocity.

QUIZ 5 (Properties of water, Ocean Structure, and Light and sound in water)

QUIZ 6 (Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation)

QUIZ 7 (Waves and Tides)

QUIZ 8 (Coasts)
QUIZ 9 (Ocean Chemistry)

QUIZ 10 (Introduction to Life, Plankton)

QUIZ 11 (Invertebrates and Vertebrates)

QUIZ 12 (Intertidal and Subtidal)

QUIZ 13 (Estuaries and Reefs)

QUIZ 14 (Marine Resources and Environment)

Exam 1 1/17/2015 5:18:00 PM

1Exam 1 Feb. 19 @12:30PM

Origins of Earth & Oceans

Big Bang (~13.8 billion years ago)
Solar system (~5 billion years ago)
Earliest fossil record (~3.5 billion years ago)

·Earth's structure: density stratified

History of Oceanography
6·What was the Library at Alexandria?
7·What is latitude, what is longitude
9·What was the invention that made determining longitude possible? Who
invented it
Early explorers: Polynesians, Vikings, Chinese (what are the general time
periods that these different explorers sailed the oceans?)
·Chinese Inventions: Compass, central rudder
·European Explorers: Prince Henry, Christopher Columbus, Magellan
Magellan - first to circumnavigate the globe
Cook (meticulous notes, extensive mapping),
Ben Franklin - Gulf Stream

·Challenger Expedition: 1st oceanic expedition

·Fram: No arctic landmass
·R/V Meteor: 1st modern research vessel

Structure of the Earth

·Major layers of Earth:
Inner core (solid)
outer core (liquid)
mantle
- upper mantle/asthenosphere = plastic/pliable”
- crust/lithosphere = rigid/solid

P waves vs. S waves: Which arrives at a seismograph first? What type(s) of

material(s) can each wave type travel through? What do these seismic
waves tell us about the internal structure of the earth? (Density
stratification)

·Continental Drift, Wegner

Plate Tectonics
What are the 3 types of plate boundaries? What is the movement of plates
at these boundaries and characteristics of these boundaries (ex: is there
volcanic activity/earthquakes, destruction or creation of crust?) See Table
3.1 in the lecture.

What did Marie Tharp discover? the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was a divergent
boundary and so changed the debate on plate tectonics

What are the 3 types of convergent boundaries?

What can paleomagnetism tell us?

Wilson cycle
17·What are the stages, characteristics of each stage, and examples
(locations) of each stage?

Mantle Plumes & Hotspots

What is the age of the oldest sediments in the oceans, and why are they so
much younger than the earth in general?
What are terranes and how are they formed?
What are ophiolites? co2 is very low

Ocean Basins
How do the following technologies work, and what can they tell us about the
oceans/ocean basins? Echosounders, multibeam sonar, satellite altimetry

Continental Margins
characteristics of active vs. passive margins?
·Continental margin zones: shelf, shelf break, continental slope, rise
Ridge Systems
·Found at spreading centers (divergent boundaries)
How do the rates of spreading in the Pacific and Atlantic differ? How does the
rate of spreading affect the bathymetry?

Abyssal Plains appear to be relatively smooth & featureless due to the

accumulation of sediments

trenches and island arcs - Ocean-ocean

·Sediment Distribution: Despite only covering ~6% ocean area, the

continental slopes contain ~41% total volume of marine sediments.

Turbidites - graded layers of terrigenous sand embedded with smaller

particle sediments that are formed by turbidity currents

What regions in the oceans are the different sediment types most abundant?

Exam 1 Feb. 18

Exam 2 Mar. 11

Exam 3 Apr. 15

Exam 4 May. 6
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