REPORT ON WORKSHOP

SUBMITTED BY

NAME : V.KRISHNAN

COURSE : ELECTRICAL TRANSIENT AND ANALYSIS PROGRAM

TRAINING PERIOD : 08.12.2018 to 08.01.2019

DATE OF SUBMISSION : 21.12.2018

 Power system studies on ETAP

(Electrical Transient and Analysis Program)

Modules available in ETAP:

1. Load flow analysis

2. Short circuit studies
3. Motor acceleration studies
4. Harmonic studies
5. Transient stability
6. Relay coordination
7. Arc flash studies
8. Optimal power flow
9. Unbalanced loadflow
10. DC Load flow
11. DC Short Circuit
12. Ground Grid Design
13. Cable Ampacity
14. Cable Puling
15. etc
16.

1. Load flow analysis :

Objective of the load flow analysis is to determine the following things

o Component loading or circuit loading

Steady state bus voltage
Real, Apparent, Reactive power flow
Modelling of Transformer tap position
System loss
Generator / excited voltage set points
Performance under emergency condition (Contingency Analysis)
Steady State Stability Limit

2. Standards:-

o 1. IEEE - 399 : Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial

• Power Systems Analysis
o 2. IEC 60034 : Rotating Electric Machines
o 3. IEC 60076 : Transformers
 60038
60050
60502
60909
61363

3.Ferranti Effect:

During light load / No load conditions in Long/ Very Long, HV / EHV line, Vr > Vs due to
shunt capacitance. This is called Ferranti effect. It is more pronounced with increase
frequency. In DC there is no Ferranti effect since there is no Capacitive reactance effect.

Receiving end voltage will be higher than the sending end voltage at no load condition
and low load condition in EHV/HV lines and long transmission lines.

Types of Transmission lines:-

1. Short transmission line ( below 80 km )

2. Medium transmission line ( 80 – 160 km )
3. Long transmission line ( above 160 km )

• When the distance between the conductor and ground is low then the shunt
capacitance will be high ( Hill areas )
• Transposition is required in long transmission line to reduce the unbalance in
line parameters

4. Surge Impedance Loading:

Surge Impedance Loading is a very essential parameter when it comes to the study
of power systems as it is used in the prediction of maximum loading capacity of
transmission lines.

Define surge Impedance Loading

5. Simulation for SIL:

a) Ferranti Effect
 Plot kW, kVAR

As per above simulation in Sending end voltage is greater than receiving end
voltage

Bus 1 voltage = 400 kV

Bus 2 voltage = 427 kV

Transmission parameters, Z = 0.1 + 0.4j and Y = 3.6 x 10^-6

b) At SIL
 Voltage at sending end and receiving end will be
same at SIL. (Here SIL is calculated with R=0 and simulation R = 30 ohm hence the drop in
voltage due to R. Repeat the simulation with very small R value)

In this case surge impedance load is connected to bus 2 as per calculation, Now
voltage at the receiving end is controlled.

𝐿
Zs = √𝐶

𝑍 𝑅+𝑗𝑋
Which is derived from SIL = √𝑌 = √𝐺+𝑗𝐵

Shunt Conductance (G)is negligible in T.L

Therefore substitute the line parameters then we get Surge impedance

Zs= 333.33 ohm

Interns of power

S = V2 / Zs = 4002 / 333.33 = 480 MVA

So in above simulation 480 MVA static load is connected in bus 2 and the receiving end
voltage is controlled

Vs = 400kV , Vr = 366.3 kV ( results obtained from simulation)

Prepare manual calculation for Ferranti effect (Reactive power generated and
Consumed)

Identify the right shunt reactor value to reduce the Vr during no load

6. Types of Buses:-
1. Swing bus
2. PV bus ( Voltage control bus )
3. PQ bus ( load bus )

Bus Known Unknown

Slack Voltage, Angle , PD, QD PG , QG

PV PG, Voltage , PD, QD QG , Angle

PQ PD, QD, PG, QG Voltage and Angle

7. Types of Loads:-
Varies types of loads are there, ZIP load is called constant
Impedance load, constant current load, constant power load.

1. Constant Impedance load (Ex: Heater, Any R L C loads)

2. Constant Current Load (Ex: Any power electronic device, Mobile
charger)
3. Constant Power Load (Ex: Motors)

Refer the book Voltage stability by Cutsum

a)Power consumption formula for the ZIP load:

𝑽 𝟐 𝑽
P= P0[𝒂 ( ) + 𝒃 ( ) + 𝒄] where P = Real power, Q= Reactive power ,
𝐕𝟎 𝐕𝟎
 𝐕 𝟐 𝐕
Q= Q0[𝐚 (𝐕𝟎) + 𝐛 (𝐕𝟎) + 𝐜] a – impedance, b – current, c – power

8. Simulation:-

Name plate tab of the Lumped load screenshot is given below.

In Load type property for

o constant power load – 100 % has to set on constant KVA

o constant impedance load – 100 % on constant Z
o constant current load – Model type –>Polynomial
Ratings- p1 = 0 (impedance), p2 = 1 ( current) , p3 = 0 (power)

a)Lumped load screenshot:

9. Example for ZIP load:

o 25 MW constant current load from voltage source with V = 0.95pu
and calculate the power consumption on the load
o As per the manual calculation using the above formula for power
consumption on ZIP load
o P = 23.75 MW (Validate with manual calculation using formula)
o and simulation results for the same problem also given below, as per
simulation real power consumption (P) on load is
o P = 23.8 MW (Plot it in kW so that results are more accurate)
10. Simulation:
a) Simulation for power consumption on Constant current load

Solve all three questions

Solve a question with combination on all type of loads and simulate to validate.

11. Tap changer:

The purpose of a tap changer is to regulate the output voltage of a bus. It

does this by altering the number of turns in HV winding and
thereby changing the turns ratio of the transformer. Two types of tap changer
are there.

1. On Load Tap Changer

2. Deenergised Tap Changer

o Tap changers are always installed in HV side of the transformer because

in HV side current will be low so that arc is reduced while changing the
tap
o HV side of the transformer has more winding so it has enough space to
provide more number of taps.

1. on Load Tap Changer:

OLTC is used for changing the tap of the transformer while it is connected
to load.

Modelling of OLTC:-

Formula for modelling the no of steps of OLTC

Max−min
Steps of OLTC = + 1
step
 Where,

Max = maximum range of the OLTC

Min = minimum range of the OLTC

Steps = Range of the taps (default values = 1.25, 2.25)

1.25
Upper band and lower band = = ±0.625
2

Simulation:-

Simulation performed for modelling OLTC of Transformer for the following

condition

• choose the tap ratio to maintain the 11kv voltage within ±5 % tolerance for
the system shown in simulation when the 110 kv grid voltage fluctuates
from -17.5 % to 12.5 % and load changes from 10MW to 38 MW ( lumped
load is 100% constant power load )

Taps has to be designed in a way that for the following maximum and minimum
conditions the 11kv bus voltage fluctuations has to be within ±5 %

Conditions:-

Grid voltage = 112.5% , 11 kv bus voltage = +5 % , Load = 38 MW (pf??)

Grid voltage = 82.55% , 11 kv bus voltage = -5 % , Load = 38

Grid voltage = 112.5% , 11 kv bus voltage = +5 % , Load = 10

Grid voltage = 82.5% , 11 kv bus voltage = +5 % , Load = 10

From above conditions

Max range of OLTC = 7.5

Min range of OLTC = -12.5

Steps = 1.25

Formula for modelling the no of steps of OLTC

Max−min
Steps of OLTC = + 1
step
 Values are substituted in the above formula.

No of steps = 17

a)Tap setting of transformer :

a) After providing taps to transformer simulation done for above four conditions

Display the tap position

• From simulation results 11kv bus voltage is maintained for ±5% tolerance by
providing taps to transformer as modelled
tap changer:

It is used for providing taps for the transformer when it is not connected to load.
Percentage of the tap can be given in fixed tap row as per shown in the screenshot

a) off load tap changer setting

Power factor correction:-

Because of change in grid voltage, bus voltage the power of grid may change. To
maintain the power factor capacitor banks has to be connected parallel to the loads.

Formulas for power factor correction:-

1. P = I2 R
2. P =√3VIcosɸ
3. Q = I2 X
4. Q = √3VIsinɸ
5. S = I2 Z
6. S = √3VI
7. S= √P 2 + Q2
P
8. cosɸ = S
Example:-

• Find out grid power factor for the given system. What is the capacitor
rating required to boost the grid power factor to 0.95 when the load of 38
MW, 0.8 PF load is connected to bus 2...
Validate the results with manual calculation

a) Power factor correction simulation

b) Reactive power flow from grid and Reactive power compensated by capacitor bank
• Grid PF is found from simulation 𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ = 0.74
• Pf to be maintained 𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 0.95
• Capacitor bank value calculated = 17.14 Mvar
From PF correction formula
• From simulation b) we can find out the reactive power demand of the load 22.8
Mvar is compensated by the capacitor bank (17.14 Mvar) and the reactive power
flow from grid is also reduced from 27.5 to 9.3 Mvar because the required
reactive power to maintain Pf at 0.95 is compensated by capacitor bank.
• Hence power factor correction at grid to 0.95 is done
Contingency Analysis: (Kindly note contingency and configuration are
different)

Contingency Analysis is a major activity in power system planning and operation.

In general an outage of one transmission line or transformer may lead to over
loads in other branches and/or sudden system voltage rise or drop. Contingency
analysis is used to calculate violations.

Example:

Contingency analysis is done for the following Single line diagram

a) Single Line Diagram

2.5MVA transformer is ONAN only (3.125 should be 2.5)

6.6/0.433

Display the transformer Impedance, Load rating etc

b) Conditions:

90% - is it Voltage or
Peak Generation
Power?
Normal Generation 100%
Minimum Generation 110%
90% - is it Voltage or
Peak load
Power
Normal load 70%
Minimum load 20%
 c) Cases:

Service In Service Out

case 1 Xmer 4, Xmer 2 , Xmer 3 Xmer 1
case 2 Xmer 1, Xmer 3 , Xmer 4 Xmer 2
case 3 Xmer 1, Xmer 2 , Xmer 3 Xmer 4
case 4 Xmer 1, Xmer 2 , Xmer 4 Xmer 3

Procedure and screenshot for applying the conditions and cases in Etap:-

a) Loading and Generation categories:-

Project – settings - loading category, generation category

b) Configuration for 4 cases:-

Configuration manager – New – case 1, case 2 , case 3 , case 4

• In configuration manager cases can be created and In each case CBs also can be
close and open

c) Study case:
New study case – Generation peak, Load Peak ( Pg, Pd )
 d) Edit study case:
a) Loading tab b) Alert tab:-

• Edit study case – loading tab – loading and generation category is assigned as
peak
• Alert tab - For all the equipments Critical, Marginal values can be given in
percentage. If the bus voltage is going beyond the critical or marginal limits alert
will be shown while running simulation.

e) Scenario wizard:
• For each study case new scenario has to be created and renamed as Pg Pd
scenario
• Then for each configuration status of each study case, Output report name has to
be changed then only for corresponding study case and configurations reports
will be generated
• After selecting Scenario , Study case , Configuration we have to Run the
simulation by clicking Run button
f) Study wizard:

o In study wizard all the scenario has to be added by clicking add button
then after adding all the scenarios we have to run the simulation

g) Load flow analyzer:

o In load flow analyzer all the study reports are shown here we can see for
what is the cases simulation has been done.
o Report type: General information, Bus results, Loads, Sources, Branch
results can be viewed in report type tab.
o All those reports can be exported in excel by clicking export.
Simulation reports:-
a) General:

b) Bus:

c) Branch
d)Load
 e) Source

• various scenario is done for various scenario and configuration, results of

Branch, Bus , Load , Source also obtained
• From the results obtained we can observe that Xmer 1 , Xmer 2 is over loaded for
all the cases and categories so adding another Xmer in Bus 2 , Bus 8 or Increasing
the capacity of the Xmer 1,2 shall be suggested as per results obtained from
contingency analysis.

Write your conclusions and recommendation based on the various scenario

Present your results in much better way (Graphs instead of tables etc)

Short Circuit Analysis

Topics covered in Short circuit analysis:- (Write similarly for Load
flow studies as well)

1. Short circuit and it’ effect

2. Types of faults
3. Types of unbalance
4. Value of fault current at different location (Explanation with example)
5. Objective of Short circuit studies
6. Standard for Short circuit studies
7. Limitations of IEC 60909
8. Assumptions in IEC 60909
9. Symmetrical components for Generator, Transformer, Transmission line
10. Grounding
a) Effect due to Un grounding
b) Purpose of Grounding
c) Types of Grounding
11. Significance of X/R ratio
12. C-factor

ETAP Practice
Modelling in ETAP
a) Simulation Questions 1,2,3
b) Inference from the result by using plot and data options

Short Circuit and its Effect:-

A short circuit is simply a low resistance connection between the two conductors
supplying electrical power to any circuit. This results in excessive current flow in the
power source through the ‘short,’ and may even cause the power source to be destroyed

Effects:-

When a short circuit occurs, the current in the system increases to an abnormally high
value while the system voltage decreases to a low value.

1. The heavy current due to short-circuit causes excessive heating which may result
in fire or explosion. Sometimes short-circuit takes the form of an arc and causes
considerable damage to the system. For example, an arc on a transmission line
not cleared quickly will burn the conductor severely causing it to break, resulting
in a long time interruption of the line.

2. The low voltage created by the fault has a very harmful effect on the service
rendered by the power system. If the voltage remains low for even a few
seconds, the consumer’s motors may be shut down and generators on the power
system may become unstable.

3. Affects sensitive equipments operation.

4. Weakening the insulation.

5. For every 10 degree Celsius increase more than equipment insulation rated
temperature its life will be reduced by 50 %

Causes of fault:-

1. Insulation failure
2. Switching over voltage
3. Lightning
4. Overload
5. Equipment damage
6. Tree branches/ Birds
7. Wind / Ice loading
8. Environment / chemical pollution

Types of Faults:-

1. Symmetrical fault
2. Unsymmetrical fault

Symmetrical fault:-
 ➢ Line to line to line fault ( L-L-L)
➢ Line to line to line to ground fault ( L-L-L-G)

• Severity of the fault is very high – 90 %

• Probability of fault occurrence is 2 %

Unsymmetrical fault:-

➢ Line to ground fault ( L-G)

➢ Line to line fault ( L-L)
➢ Line to line to ground fault ( L-L-G)

• (I could not get what you mean)Probability of occurrence

1. Line to ground fault ( L-G) – 85 %
2. Line to line fault ( L-L) – 8%
3. Line to line to ground fault ( L-L-G) – 5%
• Severity of the fault
1. Line to ground fault – 10 % (No, SLG fault is also severe in
solidly earthed system)
• Single phase fault is greater than three phase fault when fault is
near to the solid grounded Generator/Transformer and auto
transformer

Value of the fault current at different location:-

• If the fault is near to source then the fault current will be high
because of low impedance between fault and source
• If the fault is away from the source then the fault current will be
low because of higher impedance

Example:-
 • In this simulation bus 2,3,4 is faulted
• Fault current at bus 2 is higher than the fault current at bus 4

(Explain what fault you have

created, What results are plotted)

Objectives of short circuit studies:-

1. To find Short time withstand capacity of the equipment.

2. Circuit Breaker selection based on As- symmetrical fault
current.
3. Information for relay setting.
4. Withstand capacity of the insulation.
5. Analysis of network behaviour during short circuit.
6. Cable selection based on Short circuit current.

Standards for short circuit analysis:-

1. IEC – 60909 – For short circuit analysis steady state studies

2. IEC – 61363 – For transient state studies
 3. ANSI C57 - Short circuit analysis for 60 Hz systems

Assumptions in IEC – 60909: (Extract from the standard,)

1. Three phase fault current occurs simultaneously

2. Type of fault is same for the entire Short circuit duration.
3. No change in network parameters during short circuit
4. Arc path resistance is negligible.
5. Transformers shunt elements are neglected.
6. Positive, negative, zero sequence shunt capacitance is neglected on
high impedance transmission line.
7. For low impedance transmission line only zero sequence shunt
capacitance is considered.
8. All the faults are considered as bolted fault ( fault path impedance is
zero).
9. Non rotating loads are neglected.

Limitation of IEC – 60909:-

1. It can be used up to 550 KV only.

2. It can be used for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz.
3. For laboratory and instrument testing IEC-60909 is not applicable.
4. It cannot be used in shipping and aircraft applications

Sequence components:-

For analysis purpose un-symmetrical components shall be changed into

symmetrical components after mathematical calculations or analysis again
symmetrical components can be changed into un-symmetrical components.

1. Zero sequence components

2. Positive sequence components
3. Negative sequence components

Un symmetrical components in terms of symmetrical components

Va = Va0 + Va1 +Va2

Va = Vb0 + Vb1 +Vb2

Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 +Vc2

Symmetrical components of Generator:-

 • Negative sequence reactance and positive sequence reactance are
greater than zero sequence reactance
• Va1 = Ea1 - Ia1 Za1
• Va2 = - Ia2 Za2
• Va0 = - Ia0 ( Zao 3 Zn )
• X0 < X2 < Xd”

Symmetrical components of Transformer:-

• In Transformer positive, negative, zero sequence impedance are

same Z0 = Z1 = Z2
• But Zero sequence impedance of the transformer value is depends
upon winding configuration
• If the transformer winding is
1. Star delta Z0= 0
2. Delta star Z0 = Z1 or Z2
• Positive , Negative sequence impedance will be same Z 1 = Z2
Z0 is 90% to 110% of Z1 as per IEC 60076

Symmetrical components of Transmission line model:-

• In transmission line positive and negative sequence components

are equal
• Zero sequence reactance will be 3 times of positive sequence
reactance

1. Z0 = Zs +2 Zm
2. X0 = 3X1
3. X1 = X2

Fault current formula:-

 𝟑 𝐄𝐚𝟏
1. L-G Fault current If = 𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝟐+𝒁𝟎+𝟑𝒁𝒏+𝒁𝒇

√𝟑 𝐄𝐚𝟏
2. L-L fault current If = 𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝟐

𝟑 𝐄𝐚𝟏
3. L-L-G Fault current If = 𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝟐 𝑰𝑰 (𝒁𝒐+𝟑𝒁𝒏)

𝐄𝐚𝟏
4. Three phase fault current If =
𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝒇

Where
Ea1 – Positive sequence supply voltage
Z0 , Z1 , Z2 , - Zero, positive, Negative sequence Impedance
Zn - Neutral Impedance
Zf - Fault path impedance ( As per IEC 60909 Fault
path impedance is negligible )

Types of Grounding:- (Refer V K Metha & Earthing Practices 1 and Earth

Practices II by Dr K Rajamani)

1. Equipment Grounding:-
Non conducting metal part is connected to ground. Equipment
grounding is used to protect the equipment and personnel.

2. System Grounding:-
Neutral of the system is connected to ground. It is used to protect
the system. There are various types of system grounding.

1. Solid grounding
2. Resistance grounding
3. Reactance grounding
4. Resonance grounding
5. Ungrounded System

C-Factor:- (Extract the table given in IEC 60909)

It is source voltage correction factor as per IEC 60909 minimum and maximum
values are given below

C max= 1.1

C min = 1.0
 a)C-Max:

b)C-Min:

X/R for Peak Current:-

• Method A – Using the uniform ratio X/R in calculating the peak current

• Method B – Using the X/R ratio at the short circuit location in calculating the
peak current

• Method C – Using equivalent frequency in calculating the peak current

 C) ANSI

• As per ANSI C37 standard pre-fault voltage can be fixed as shown in screenshot.

X/R Ratio:-

• It is the ratio of reactance and resistance. For any system reactance will be
greater than the resistance
• If resistance is greater than the reactance then there will be more loss
• So the X/R ratio has to be more than 1
• If the reactance value is very high then reactive drop will be high so the value has
to be optimum.
• As per IEC 62271 for 50 Hz system X/R = 14 (Relate with time constant and
Power factor, IEC 62271)

60 Hz system X/R = 17

Transformer impedance tolerance:-

• For the short circuit studies impedance tolerance is important factor.

• Negative impedance tolerance of the equipment will be used for short circuit
studies because in negative tolerance impedance value will be low so the current
will be high so it should be considered for short circuit studies.
If
% of Z <= 10 then tolerance will be ±10
% of Z > 10 then tolerance will be ±7.5

Example:-
 For the given system three phase and single phase fault current at bus 3has to be
find out.

a)SLD-1 for Short circuit studies

Grid Parameters:

Rated KC= 33kV

X/R = 14

KAsc = 40

Transformer Parameters:

Voltage = 33/11 KV

Base MVA = 25

Impedance = 10 %

Z tolerance = ±10
X/R = 20 (typical value taken)

Grounding = Solid grounding

Manual calculation:- (Prepare in an excel sheet and attach)

If the fault is at bus 3, all the equipments impedance has to be calculated which is
connected till bus 3

Generator Impedance Per unit value can be calculated from following formulas.

• MVAsc = √𝟑 𝑲𝑽 𝑿 𝑲𝑨𝒔𝒄

Where MVAsc – Short circuit power

KV - Rated voltage
KAsc – Short circuit capacity per second

𝐙𝐬 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
• Zp.u = 𝐙𝐬 𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐞

Where Zp.u = Source Impedance per unit

Zs.base = Base Impedance
Zs.acutal = Actual Impedance
`
𝐊𝐕𝐛𝟐
• Zs.base =
𝐌𝐕𝐀𝐛

Where KVb - Base voltage

MVAb = Base power (MVA)

• X/R = 14 so X= 14 R
• Z= √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐

Transformer Impedance shall be calculated by given formulas.

%𝐙
• Zp.u =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
• Zold = Zp.u - 10% of Zp.u

𝑲𝑽𝒃.𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝟐 𝑴𝑽𝑨 𝒃.𝒏𝒆𝒘

• ZT.Pu = Zpu.old X (𝑲𝑽𝒃.𝒏𝒆𝒘) X ( 𝑴𝑽𝑨 𝒃.𝒐𝒍𝒅 )

For Transmission Line Impedance shall be calculated by given formulas.

𝐙𝐬 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
• Zp.u = 𝐙𝐬 𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐞
 𝐊𝐕𝐛𝟐
• Zs.base = 𝐌𝐕𝐀𝐛

Fault current calculation.

𝟑 𝐄𝐚𝟏
1. L-G Fault current If = 𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝟐+𝒁𝟎+𝟑𝒁𝒏+𝒁𝒇

𝐄𝐚𝟏
2. Three phase fault current If = 𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝒇

3. Actual fault current If.actual = If.p.u X Ibase

Simulation of short circuit analysis:

• Simulation as per IEC 60609

a) Single phase fault current b) Three phase fault current

Display the results at right place (19.05kV & 6.34kV at same bus???)
C) Manual and Simulation results are compared:

Note: Manually calculated values has to be multiplied by Cmax = 1.1

Three phase fault current(KA) Single phase fault current

( KA)

Simulation Manual Simulation Manual

Bus 3 1.52 1.38 0.952 0.86

Formula for manual calculation:

𝑽𝒎
1. Iss = |𝒁|√𝟐 ( Steady state current )

𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
2. Vrms = √𝟐

𝑽𝒎
3. Isym = Iss = |𝒁|√𝟐 (Initial Symmetrical RMS fault current ) ( Irms)

4. IAsym = √𝑰𝒕𝒓𝟐 + 𝑰𝒔𝒚𝒎𝟐 ( Initial As-symmetrical fault current )

5. Imm.rms = 2 Ip ( maximum momentry RMS fault current )

= 2 √𝟐 Isym

𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱
6. Ip = Peak current = Irms = √𝟐

7. Im.rms = √𝟑 𝑿 𝑰𝒔𝒚𝒎 ( momentry RMS fault current )

8. Idc.rms = √𝟐 X Isym

Where Vm = Maximum voltage

Itr = Transient Current, |𝒁| =Magnitude of Impedance

• The entire fault currents can be obtained from simulation also. Simulation
results given below
Simulation: (Where IEC 61363 is used, Why)

• Simulation has to be run for IEC 61363

• Select IEC 61363 plot graphs

a)IEC 61363 Plot selection:

Discuss three cases

Grid with Infinite X/R

Grid with X/R = 14

Physical Generator

b) Percent of DC component fault current:

C) A.C component fault current:-

• By clicking on line -> data - > values can be obtained

d) Top envelop of fault current:

e) DC component fault current:
f)Total fault current:-

Report for simulation:-

• All the values which are calculated manual shall be compared with simulation
report.
• As-symmetrical is used for selecting circuit breakers rating.

Three Phase fault on NO load Operating Generator:-

• During transient period transient reactance will be lower than sub transient
reactance.
• And sub transient reactance will be lower than steady state reactance
• Xd” < Xd’ < Xd
• So that Transient fault current will be higher than the sub transient and steady
state fault current
• If” > If ‘ > If
• Induction machine fault current will decrease to steady state on 2 to 4 cycles
• Synchronous machine fault current will decrease to steady state on 6 to 8 cycles

Write your understanding and conclusions

1. Harmonic Analysis:

Objective:

• The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current and

voltage are distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
• In power systems, harmonics are defined as positive integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency. Thus, the third order harmonic is the third multiple
of the fundamental frequency.
• There are two types of harmonics.

1. Current Harmonics.

2. Voltage Harmonics.
Current Harmonics:

• Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load,

such as a rectifier is connected to the system, it draws a current that is not
necessarily sinusoidal.
• The current waveform can become quite complex, depending on the type of
load and its interaction with other components of the system.

Voltage harmonics:

• Voltage harmonics are mostly caused by current harmonics. The voltage

provided by the voltage source will be distorted by current harmonics due to
source impedance.
• If the source impedance of the voltage source is small, current harmonics will
cause only small voltage harmonics. It is typically the case that voltage
harmonics are indeed small compared to current harmonics.

Sources Of Harmonics:

• Switched Mode Power supply.

• Uninterrupted Power Supply.

• Soft Starter.

• Electronic Ballast.

• Arc Furnace.

• Discharge Lamps

• Rectifier.

Effects of Harmonics:

• The possibility of amplification of some harmonics as a result of serial and

parallel resonance.
• Performance reduction in generation, transport and energy usage systems.
• The aging of the grid insulation components and as a consequence, energy
reduction.
• Malfunctioning of the system or some of its components.
 • False tripping of branch circuit breakers.
• Metering errors.
• Lower system power factor, resulting in penalties on monthly utility bills.
• Increased internal energy losses in connected equipment, causing
component failure and shortened life span.

Need for Harmonic analysis:

Harmonic studies are performed to determine harmonic distortion

levels and filtering requirements within a facility and to determine if
harmonic voltages and currents are at acceptable levels.

Harmonic studies has to be done for the following conditions.

• Harmonic loads are 30 to 50% of total load.

• Wherever voltage sensitive devices are available.
• Harmonics studies has to be done for all the industry.

Total Harmonic Distortion:

Total harmonic distortion, or THD, is the summation of all harmonic components

of the voltage or current waveform compared against the fundamental
component of the voltage or current wave.

Individual harmonic distortion:

Individual harmonic distortion is the ratio between the RMS value of the
individual harmonic and the RMS value of the fundamental.
𝐈𝐧
%IHD =
𝐈𝟏

I1
In = n

Where In = Harmonic current, I1 = Fundamental current , n = Harmonics

Harmonic Limits:

• As per the IEEE 519 standard, there are limits for voltage and current
harmonics.

• Voltage harmonic limits are mentioned in the following table 1.

• Current harmonic limits are mentioned in the following table 2.

Table:

S.No Voltage Rating % IHD % THD

1 Up To 1KV 5 8

2 1KV < V <69 KV 3 5

3 69KV <V <161KV 1.5 2.1

4 Above 161 KV 1 1.5

Power Factor:

There are three types of power factor.

• Displacement Power Factor.

• Distortion Power Factor.

• True Power Factor.

Displacement Power Factor:

• The displacement power factor is the power factor due to the phase
shift between voltage and current at the fundamental line frequency.
• Displacement power factor = Cos (ɸ)

Distortion Power Factor:

• Distortion power factor is caused by the presence of harmonics in the

current waveform.
𝟏
• Distortion P.F =
√𝟏+𝐓𝐇𝐃𝟐
• Distortion power factor should always less.
 True Power Factor:

• True power factor is defined as the product of Displacement power

factor and Distortion power factor.
• True power factor = Displacement power factor x Distortion power
factor

Total Demand Distortion(TDD):

√∑n
h=1 Ih2
TDD = Load Current

K-Rated Transformer:

K-factor transformers are designed to reduce the heating effects of harmonic

currents created by loads.

• The K-factor rating is an index of the transformer's ability to withstand harmonic

content while operating within the temperature limits of its insulating system.
• K-factor is a weighting of the harmonic load currents according to their effects on
transformer heating, as derived from ANSI/IEEE C57.110. A K-factor of 1.0
indicates a linear load (no harmonics). The higher the K-factor, the greater the
harmonic heating effects.

Harmonic Sequence:

• Harmonic sequence refers to the phasor rotation of the harmonic voltages and
currents with respect to the fundamental waveform.

• Harmonics are grouped into positive , negative and zero, sequence components.

• Positive sequence harmonics (harmonic numbers 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, etc.) produce

magnetic fields and currents, rotating in the same direction as the fundamental
frequency.

• Negative sequence harmonics (harmonic numbers 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, etc.) develop

magnetic fields and currents that rotate in a direction opposite to the
fundamental frequency set.
 • Zero sequence harmonics (harmonic numbers 3, 9, 15, 21, etc.) do not develop
usable torque, but produce additional losses in the machine. Zero sequence
harmonics are those harmonics which doesn’t rotate at all because they’re in
phase with each other.

Harmonics Injected By Pulse:

• Pulse converter is used to reduce the harmonics. The higher the pulse, harmonics
level will be reduced.

np± 1 (where P- no of pulses )

• When the pulses are high then the Harmonics will be less

Mitigation of Harmonics:

There are two ways to mitigate the harmonics.

1. Passive Filter

2. Active Filter

Passive Filter:

Passive or Line harmonic filters are also known as harmonic trap filters
and are used to eliminate or control more dominant lower order harmonics
specifically 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th.

• It can be either used as a standalone part integral to a large nonlinear

load (such as a 6-pulse drive) or can be used for a multiple small single
phase nonlinear loads by connecting it to a switch board.

• LHF is comprised of a passive L-C circuit (and also frequently resistor R

for damping) which is tuned to a specific harmonic frequency which
needs to be mitigated (for example, 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc).

• Their operation relies on the “resonance phenomenon” which occurs

due to variations in frequency in inductors and capacitors.

Active Filter:
 • Active filters are now relatively common in industrial applications for
both harmonic mitigation and reactive power compensation (i.e.,
electronic power factor correction).

• Unlike passive L-C filters, active filters do not present potential

resonance to the network and are unaffected to changes in source
impedance.

• Shunt-connected active filters (i.e. parallel with the nonlinear load) are
the common configuration of the active filter.

• The active filter is comprised of the IGBT bridge and DC bus

architecture similar to that seen in AC PWM drives. The DC bus is used
as an energy storage unit.

• The active filter measures the “distortion current” wave shape by

filtering out the fundamental current from the nonlinear load current
waveform, which then fed to the controller to generate the
corresponding IGBT firing patterns to replicate and amplify the
“distortion current” and generate the “compensation current”, which is
injected into the load in anti-phase (i.e. 180° displayed) to compensate
for the harmonic current.

• When rated correctly in terms of “harmonic compensation current”, the

active filter provides the nonlinear load with the harmonic current it
needs to function while the source provides only the fundamental
current.

• Active filters are complex and expensive products. Also, careful

commissioning of active filter is very important to obtain optimum
performance, although “self tuning” models are now available.

• However, active filters do offer good performance in the reduction of

harmonics and the control of power factor. Their use should be
examined on a project-by-project basis, depending on the application
criteria.

Manual Calculation for Modeling Harmonic filters:

𝐊𝐕 𝟐
Xbank perphase = 𝐌𝐕𝐀𝐫

Xbank = XL - Xc
𝐗𝐜
nXL = ( At resonance condition )
𝐧

XL = Lѡ
 Where ѡ = 2ᴨF
𝐗𝐋
L= 𝟐ᴨ𝐅

Xc = n2 XL
𝟏
Xc = 𝐜ѡ

𝟏
C= 𝟐ᴨ𝐟𝐗𝐋

Example:

a) Harmonics analysis for the given SLD:

• Load flow analysis has been done and screenshot given below
b) Harmonics in Load:

• In harmonic analysis Loads which are connected to the bus has to inject
harmonics to bus for that Loads-> harmonics tab -> select the source from
library
• That is 6 pulse device so 5th and 7th order harmonics will be injected by load
 • Formula for Harmonics order by no of pulse= np±1

c) Edit study case:

• For which Bus THD value has to be found out will be selected in edit study
case.

d) Harmonic analysis and % of THD:

• Run Harmonic load flow
• Total THD value is also obtained from simulations.
• For reducing the THD level. Harmonics filter has to be connected in load
• So appropriate Harmonic filter has to be modelled.
e) Harmonic filter:

• To size the Harmonic filter Parameter tab – Size filter

• Harmonic order – 5 ( for 6 pulse)
• Harmonic current = 151.5 A (at PCC of Bus 2 Obtained from load flow
analysis of SLD )
• Existing Pf = 0.82 , Desired Pf = .95
• Size filter and substitute
Max Kv
• In parameter tab -> Rated KV = √3
• Q factor = 40 ((XL1/RL1) for inductor L1.)
f) Harmonic analysis after connecting filters:

• After addition of Harmonic filter. % of THD is reduced.

• THD = 16.06 % before adding filters
• THD = 3.69 % after addition of filter
• THD = 5 % ( For 11kv system as per IEEE 519 )
• Now for 11 kv system % of THD as per IEEE 519 standard

g) Harmonic analysis plot:

 • From graph it can be observed that 5 th order harmonics at Bus 13 is reduced.

h) Harmonic analysis report:

• Harmonics of the Bus 2 and Bus 13 are obtained from Harmonic report.
• Hence the harmonic level at bus 13 is reduced by adding the Harmonic filter
as designed.

Equipment Parameters for Each studies:

Not visible. Send the excel sheet
Equipments General Load flow Analysis Short circuit Analysis Harmonic Studies

Bus ID, Tag number, Standard , conductor typle Nominal voltage, Condition , Connection Nominal voltage, Condition , Connection Nominal voltage, Condition , Connection

Primary, secondary voltage, base MVA , % Primary, secondary voltage, base MVA , %
Primary, secondary voltage, base MVA , % impedance,
impedance, class , type, X/R value , Tap setting impedance, class , type, X/R value , Tap setting
2 winding transformer Id, Tag number , Service,Standard class , type, X/R value , Tap setting value , Grounding,
value , Grounding, positive , zero sequence value , Grounding, positive , zero sequence
phase shift
impedance, Impedance tolerance impedance, Impedance tolerance, Harmonics

Bus duct Id, Tag number , Service,Standard Type and material ( cu,al). Type and material ( cu,al). Type and material ( cu,al).

Cable type, insultation type , no of cores, type of

Cable type, insultation type , no of cores, type of Cable type, insultation type , no of cores, type of
concutor, voltage rating, no of runs, length,
Cable Id, Tag number , Service concutor, voltage rating, no of runs, length, Impedance ( concutor, voltage rating, no of runs, length, positive
positive , zero sequence Impedance ( R,
R, X, L , Y) , zero sequence Impedance ( R, X, L , Y),
X, L , Y),

conductor type ( al, cu) , length , ground wire conductor type ( al, cu) , length , ground wire type,
conductor type ( al, cu) , length , ground wire type, R, X type, R, X values per km, configuration type , R, X values per km, configuration type , spacing ,
Transmission Line Id, Tag number , Service
values per km, configuration type , spacing , transposed spacing , transposed ,Postive, negative , zero transposed ,Postive, negative , zero sequence
sequence impedance impedance

voltage, current rating , connection, impedance voltage, current rating , connection, impedance
Reactor current Limiting Id, Tag number , Service voltage, current rating , connection, impedance
,zero sequence , positive sequence impedance ,zero sequence , positive sequence impedance

Rating,zero sequence , positive sequence Rating,zero sequence , positive sequence

Impedance Id, Tag number , Service Rating
impedance impedance

Mode of operation ( configuration ), Rated voltage ,

Mode of operation ( configuration ), Rated voltage
Mode of operation ( configuration ), Rated voltage , X/R X/R ratio, MVAsc, Kasc, positive, negative, zero
Power Grid Id, Tag number , Service , X/R ratio, MVAsc, Kasc, positive, negative, zero
ratio sequence impedance, balanced or un balanced
sequence impedance, balanced or un balanced
,Harminics library

Mode of operation ( configuration ), Rated voltage Mode of operation ( configuration ), Rated voltage ,
Mode of operation ( configuration ), Rated voltage , X/R
, X/R ratio, power factor , MVA, MW , grounding X/R ratio, power factor , MVA, MW , grounding
Generator Id, Tag number , Service ratio, power factor , MVA, MW , grounding type, Qmin ,
type, zero sequence , negative sequence, type, zero sequence , negative sequence, transient
Qmax
transient reactance Xd" , Xd"/R reactance Xd" , Xd"/R, Harminics library

Rated Kv, Full load current (FLA ), Power factor, Rated Kv, Full load current (FLA ), Power factor, HP ,
Rated Kv, Full load current (FLA ), Power factor, HP , HP , Speed , Slip , No of poles , locked rotor Speed , Slip , No of poles , locked rotor current , PF,
Induction Machine Id, Tag number , Service
Speed , Slip , No of poles , locked rotor current , PF current , PF, Zero sequence , negative sequence Zero sequence , negative sequence impedance ,
impedance , Transient reactence Transient reactence, Harmonics

Rated Kv, Full load current (FLA ), Power factor, Rated Kv, Full load current (FLA ), Power factor, HP ,
Rated Kv, Full load current (FLA ), Power factor, HP , HP , Speed , Slip , No of poles , locked rotor Speed , Slip , No of poles , locked rotor current , PF,
Sytnchronous Machine Id, Tag number , Service
Speed , Slip , No of poles , locked rotor current , PF current , PF, Zero sequence , negative sequence Zero sequence , negative sequence impedance ,
impedance , Transient reactence Transient reactence, Harmonics

Reted Voltage , Power, PF, Constant current , Impedance, Reted Voltage , Power, PF, Constant current ,
Lumped load Id, Tag number , Service
Power load , Impedance, Power load , LRC

Static Load Id, Tag number , Service Reted Voltage , Power, PF Reted Voltage , Power, PF, Harmonics

Capacitor Id, Tag number , Service

Id, Tag number , Service,Standard, status, Rated Id, Tag number , Service,Standard, status, Rated
HV Circuit Breaker Id, Tag number , Service,Standard
voltage, rated currert voltage, rated currert , Short circuit current

Id, Tag number , Service,Standard, status, Rated

Id, Tag number , Service,Standard, status, Rated voltage,
LV Circuit Breaker Id, Tag number , Service,Standard voltage, rated currert , Short circuit current, Trip
rated currert
device