Livestock Production Manual

Li
vestock
Producti
on
Manual
Table of Contents
Dairy and Veal Production
Introduction........................................................................... 3
Dairy Terminology.................................................................. 6
Breeds.................................................................................. 9
Feeding and Operations........................................................10
Housing..............................................................................11
Milking...............................................................................12
Identification.........................................................................13
Record Keeping....................................................................14
Life Cycle of Dairy Cattle........................................................15
Lactation..............................................................................17
Life Cycle of Veal Calf...........................................................19
Veal Operations.................................................................... 20
Movement of Calves Through Veal Industry.................................20
Acknowledgments................................................................21
Beef Cattle Production
Introduction..........................................................................22
Cattle Terminology.................................................................23
Beef Cattle Breeds.................................................................27
Production System and Life Cycle...............................................29
Feeding..............................................................................31
Housing..............................................................................32
Identification........................................................................32
Culling (Removal from a Herd)..................................................33
Cattle Diseases, Treatments & Residues
Introduction..........................................................................35
Calves and Young Cattle.........................................................36
Adult Cattle..........................................................................40
Tissue Residues and Cattle.......................................................45
Acknowledgments..................................................................47
Table of Contents
Swine Production
Introduction........................................................................48
Swine Terminology.................................................................49
Swine Breeds........................................................................50
Swine Operations..................................................................51
Feeding Swine......................................................................52
Identification....................................................................52
Record Keeping....................................................................53
Life Cycle of a Pig from Birth to Death..........................................53
Common Swine Diseases and Treatments.....................................55
Tissue Residues and Swine......................................................57
Goat Production
Introduction........................................................................59
Goat Terminology..................................................................60
Goat Breeds.........................................................................61
Goat Operations...................................................................63
Feeding Goats......................................................................63
Identification....................................................................64
Record Keeping....................................................................64
Life Cycle of a Goat from Birth to Death........................................65
Diseases and Treatments..........................................................66
Tissue Residues and Goats.......................................................67
Acknowledgments..................................................................68
Biosecurity
Introduction........................................................................69
Components of a Biosecurity Plan..............................................70
Visiting a Livestock Facility.......................................................72
Species Specific Biosecurity Procedures......................................74
Developing Biosecurity Plans for Livestock Production.....................76
Summary..........................................................................77
This manual was produced as a collaborative project between the Western Institute for
Food Safety and Security at the University of California – Davis and the Food and Drug
Administration under the “Model Training Programs for Specialty Produce Crops,
Dairy and Lab Procedures” Cooperative Agreement (1U54FD004327).
Dairy Cattle and Veal
Production
Introduction
T
he dairy industry in the United States has changed
dramatically over the past 75 years. Since the
1940s the number of dairy farms in the country
has dropped from over 4 million facilities to about
65 thousand farms. The total number of dairy cows in
the U.S. has also dropped by 75%, from approximately
25 million cows to approximately 9 million cows.
Also since the 1940s, the total number of herds

in the United States has grown smaller, but the
number of cows in each herd has grown larger. It
is estimated that the average U.S. dairy houses
about 150 cows. However, there is a wide range
among individual dairies with Midwestern dairies
tending to be smaller averaging about 90 cows
per herd and large dairy herds out west averaging
Torrey Johnson
about 1,000 cows per herd. If calves are raised
on site as replacements, then a good proportion of
the animals on the dairy will be replacement heifers
of varying ages. For such dairies, the total number
of cattle on the dairy can be roughly estimated by
multiplying the number of cows being milked by two.
Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 4

While both the number of dairy farms and the number of dairy cows in the U.S. has dropped
dramatically, the total amount of milk produced in the U.S. has climbed from 54 billion
kilograms to 84 billion kilograms (Figure 1). This increase in milk production is due to a 5-fold
increase in the amount of milk produced per cow. There can be great variability in milk production
from herd to herd with herd averages ranging from less than 14,000 pounds of milk per cow,
per year, to more than 23,000 pounds of milk per cow per year. The average U.S. dairy cow makes
about 20,000 pounds of milk every 12 months, about 2,300 gallons, or 14 times her body weight.
The dairy and veal industries are intricately linked. The following information about dairy
and veal production are general practices that apply to most operations. The relationship between
these two industries will be described in the section on life cycles. Among individual dairies there is
some variability and sometimes there are extreme differences in practices from one dairy to another.
Figure 1: Milk Yields and Dairy Cow Numbers
USDA

Dairy Terminology
When communicating with dairy and veal producers, it is important to have a functional understanding
of common terminology used in these industries.
Artificial Insemination (AI) The introduction of semen passed through a straw and pipette into the cow’s
reproductive tract for the purpose of achieving pregnancy. The use of AI provides dairy farmers with
the ability to breed cows for specific traits in future animals. This is achieved by inseminating cows
with semen from bulls that have been selected for specific desirable traits.
Bulk Tank A large tank used for cooling and storing milk at a cold temperature until it can be picked up by
a milk hauler for transport to a creamery. Bulk tanks are usually made of stainless steel and must be cleaned
after each milk collection.
Bulls Male cattle that have not been castrated and are fertile. Bulls can be extremely dangerous and
can cause serious injury or death to personnel when appropriate safety precautions are not taken when
working around these animals
Calf A young bovine, either male or female, up to

one year of age.
Clean-up Bull A breeding bull that is used to

naturally inseminate heifers and cows that do not
become pregnant by means of artificial insemination.
Colostrum The first milk produced by a

cow following calving. Colostrum has higher
concentrations of proteins, fats, vitamins and
antibodies (immunoglobulins) compared to milk
that is used for human consumption.
Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS
Cull Cows Cows that are removed from the herd

for health or production reasons.
Dairy Calves Female or male dairy cattle being fed a ration that includes milk or liquid milk replacer
and which are not intended for veal production; one of the 3 classes of ‘non-lactating dairy cattle’ defined
under current federal guidelines.
Dairy Cow Female dairy cattle that are intended for production of milk for human consumption.

Dry Cow Therapy or Treatment An intramammary antibiotic that is administered into each teat at the
beginning of the dry period to prevent udder infections that could develop during the dry period and/or
treat active infections that are present at the time of drying-off.
Dry Dairy Cows Female dairy cattle that had previously lactated, but which are not currently producing
milk (i.e., cows that are between lactations; the period of time between two lactations is also referred to
as the ‘dry period’ (see below).
Dry Period Approximately two months before she is due to calve again, a lactating dairy cow stops
getting milked and is allowed ~60 days to gain back weight that may have been lost during lactation;
the udder is also able to repair and regenerate secretory mammary gland tissue during this time before the
next calving and resumption of routine daily milking.
Extralabel Use of a prescription medication or supplement that is not in accordance with the directions
on the manufacturer’s label. Extralabel use can only be done by a producer under the direction of a licensed
veterinarian with whom there is an established Veterinarian-Client-Patient relationship.
First-Calf Heifer After giving birth to its first calf, a replacement dairy heifer is commonly referred to by
producers as a first-calf heifer.
Formula-Fed Calf A calf raised to about 16 to 18 weeks of age on an all liquid diet. The majority of veal
marketed in the U.S. is formula-fed. Also called milk-fed or special-fed veal.
Fresh Cows Dairy cows that have recently calved.
Lactating Dairy Cows Female dairy cattle that are producing milk.
Lactating Cow Treatment/Therapy An intramammary antibiotic that is designed for use during the
normal lactation period.
Milk Fed Veal Calf A bull calf that is raised on milk replacer for about 16 weeks before slaughter.
Dry Cow Treatment Dairy Calves Lactating Dairy Cow
Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS Keith Weller, USDA ARS

Non-Formula Fed Veal A calf that has been weaned from milk-replacer at about two months of age
and has transitioned to a solid food diet of hay and/or grain. Non-formula fed veal will be marketed at up
to 700 pounds. This class represents a very small fraction of the total veal marketed in the U.S.
Pre-Ruminant An animal with a rumen that is not yet anatomically or functionally mature.
Replacement Dairy Bulls Intact male dairy cattle intended for reproductive purposes such as natural
breeding or for collection of semen for use in artificial insemination (AI)); one of the three classes of
‘non-lactating dairy cattle’ defined under current federal guidelines.
Replacement Dairy Heifers Female dairy cattle from the time of weaning until the time of first calving;
one of the 3 classes of ‘non-lactating dairy cattle’ defined under current federal guidelines.
Rumen The largest compartment of the forestomach in a mature ruminant animal and the site
of microbial fermentation that is required to produce useable nutrients from consumed feed
materials that would otherwise be indigestible. The rumen is anatomically joined to the reticulum
to form a ‘reticulorumen’ that precedes the next two compartments (omasum and abomasum (the
true stomach of a ruminant)). The abomasum corresponds to the stomach of a human being.
Teat Sealant Being Applied To Dairy Cow

Teat Sealant A paste that is infused into the
end of each teat following dry cow treatment.
Such products are used to seal the end of the
teat to prevent introduction of infectious
agents into the udder during the dry period.
Veal Calves Immature beef and dairy breed

cattle that lack a functional rumen and that are
intended for meat production. Veal calves are
considered as a distinct regulatory class from
suckling calves because of their handling,
housing, and proximity to slaughter.
Voluntary Waiting Period A two to three

month period of time following calving before Heather Johnson, UC Davis WIFSS
which a cow is not rebred by AI or allowed to
have exposure to a bull. During this time, the
cow’s reproductive system is allowed to recover before being rebred. Also during this time, lactation begins
and milk production will reach its peak. After the voluntary waiting period is over, the cow will be bred
back again. A cow will be milked during most of the pregnancy.
Weaning The process of transitioning a calf away from a diet containing milk or milk replacer, to an all
solid feed diet or ration.

Withdrawal Interval Describes a withdrawal period for a drug that has been used in an
extralabel manner.
Withdrawal Period The period of time that is required to elapse following the administration of
an approved animal drug before which milk can be sold for human consumption, and/or the animal can
be slaughtered for human consumption. The withdrawal period is necessary to ensure that tissue and/or
milk residues of a drug have fallen below a federally approved concentration limit, such that the animal
and/or its milk are safe for human consumption. The withdrawal period is sometimes referred to
withdrawal time.
Breeds
Holstein
One similarity between dairy herds all across the U.S. is the preponderance of
a single dairy breed: the Holstein. Favored for high milk production, Holsteins
represent the vast majority of all dairy cows in the country.
Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
Jersey
The second most common breed is the smaller Jersey, which is favored by some
producers for it’s higher milk fat and protein content; these differences make
Jersey milk highly valued for cheese production.
Tim McCabe, NRCS
Other Breeds
All of the other breeds, such as the Brown Swiss (pictured left), Ayrshire and
Guernsey each make up a very small fraction of the total number of cows in the
U.S. dairy population.
Wikimedia

Feeding and Operations
Dairies are classified by the way cattle in a particular Feed Truck Bringing Feed to Cows
herd are fed and housed. Most of the dairy operations

in the U.S. are classified as conventional and tend to
be large-herd operations. In conventional operations,
feed grown on the farm or purchased elsewhere is
brought to the cows. Typical examples of cow feed
include hay (which is grown, cut, dried, harvested and
baled in the field for later feeding to cows), and corn
silage (which is made from chopped and fermented
corn that is stored in silos or plastic bags before being
fed to cows).
Less common than conventional operations are grazing

Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
or pasture operations. On these farms, rather than
bringing the feed to the cow, the cows are brought to
the feed in the pasture. Because there are relatively few
places in the country where true grazing is available
year-round, grazing operations comprise only a very
small fraction of the dairy farms in the U.S.
Many operations take advantage of intermittent Cows in Pasture Operation
pasture by allowing grazing when it is available and

then feeding cows indoors during seasonal, inclement
weather. About a third of U.S. dairy operations utilize
this management style. These tend to be small farms
that house very few of the total number of dairy cows
in the U.S.
Jeff Vanuga, NRCS

Housing
Dairy cattle require proper housing throughout their lifetime in order to maintain safety and health. Dairy
farmers typically use different types of housing depending on the age and the stage of the animals’ life cycle
and region in which they live.
Calves
The majority of dairy operations in the U.S. house calves in individual pens or
hutches typically made of plastic or wood. Raising calves in individual hutches
has some health benefits including individual feeding and less opportunity for
transfer of diseases between calves. Calves can also be raised in groups, although
this is less common than the use of individual calf hutches or pens.
Adults For adult lactating cows, there are three major types of primary housing:
Tie Stalls/Stanchion
Approximately half of dairy farms in the eastern U.S. maintain lactating cows in
a “Tie Stall” or “Stanchion” type of housing system. This housing type combines
housing and milking at one location; such stalls are the most common type of
housing in the eastern U.S. In a tie stall/stanchion operation, cows are restrained
in a bedded stall, with an area for eating and drinking in front of them and
a manure collection channel behind. The milking system used in this system
Damien Hardy can be fixed or portable but in either case the cows are milked while standing
in the Tie Stall.
Free Stall
In this type of housing there are individual stalls with metal pipe partitions
between stalls, and cattle are not confined to one particular stall. Cows can
move around freely and have access to feeding areas and water troughs.
Nearly three-fourths of U.S. dairy operations with 500 or more cattle are free
stall operations.
NRCS
Dry Lot
A dry lot is an outdoor pen typically augmented with shade structures. About
one-third of dairies in the western U.S. (California, Idaho, New Mexico, Texas,
and Washington) are dry lot operations.
Torrey Johnson

Milking
Directly related to how cows are housed is how they are milked. There are two general types of
milking facilities: tie stall/stanchion and parlor. In tie stall/tanchion operations, cows are typically milked
while standing in their individual stall. In parlor milking systems, cows are walked multiple times per day
to a dedicated milking area (parlor). While approximately 60% of dairy operations use tie stall/stanchion
milking systems, over three-fourths of cows in the U.S. are milked in parlors. Many factors go into the
choice of parlor used, including frequency of milking, available labor, need to treat cattle individually
while in the milk parlor, and cow numbers. There are several common styles of milking parlor used by dairy
operations in the United States today.
Side Opening (Tandem) Parlor - Less than 10% of operations and less than 5% of dairy cows in the U.S.
are milked in a side opening (tandem) type of parlor. These are more suited to operations with up to
about 400 cows where there is a high level of management and more individualized care for cows while in
the parlor. Cows are milked from the side in this system.
Herringbone (Fishbone) Parlor - Approximately 50% of operations and 50% of cows in the U.S.
are milked in a herringbone (fishbone) parlor. In this system cows are milked while standing on an
elevated platform in about a 45-degree angle facing away from the milker. In this system cows are milked
from the side.
Parallel (Side by Side) Parlor – In this system cows stand on an elevated platform at a 90-degree angle
facing away from the milker who must milk the cows from between the rear legs of the cow. The advantage
to this system is that the distance between animals is shorter and reduces walking distance for the milkers.
Common Styles of Milking Parlors
Side Opening (Tandem) Herringbone (Fishbone) Parallel (Side by Side)
WIFSS UC Davis

Rotary (Carousel; Turnstile) Parlor – In this type Dairy Cows being milked in a Rotary parlor
of parlor, cows move onto a rotating platform,
facing either inward or outward depending
on the system. While this system is typically
more costly to construct, the actual day to day
milking procedures are more automated and
more efficient. As such, this system is best
suited to large herds (>1000 cows). This system
does not easily allow for individualized
cow treatment.
Identification
Gunnar Richter
Keeping track of which dairy cows are healthy
and profitable requires animal identification
and accurate record keeping. The majority
of U.S. dairy farms identify individual
cattle with ear tags. Other, less commonly
used identification methods include neck
chains or collars, leg bands, photographs or Dairy Cow with Ear Tag and Neck Chain
sketches, branding, tattoos, and electronic
systems such as bar coding, radio frequency
identification (RFID), and pedometers. Some
dairies use more than one identification
method. A very small number of small
dairy operations with relatively small herds
in which the farmer can identify each
animal individually do not use any form of
recorded animal identification.
There are several other identification types

that may be present on dairy cattle in addition
to individual identifications. These include,
but are not limited to, brucellosis tags or
tattoos that are applied following vaccination;
back tags applied at sale barns or slaughter
facilities; brands; and temporary identification
systems commonly used to mark cows that
have been treated with drugs, or for other
identification purposes.

Temporary marking systems may include leg bands Dairy Cow with Temporary Markings and Leg Band
typically applied to rear limbs so that milkers can
easily identify treated cattle or livestock marking
sticks/chalk commonly applied to the hip area or tail
head. It is extremely important that any temporary
marking systems used to identify animals treated with
drugs be clearly visible to milkers who can be alerted
to the presence of a treated cow in the milking parlor
since milk from cattle that have been treated with
antibiotics will have to be kept separate from milk of
non-treated cows until appropriate withdrawal times
have been observed.
Record Keeping
It is critically important for farmers to have established
control systems in order to avoid drug residues in
milk. The Food and Drug Administration, Center for
Veterinary Medicine’s Compliance Policy Guide, “CPG
Sec. 615.200 Proper Drug Use and Residue Avoidance
by Non-Veterinarians”, provides guidance concerning
proper animal identification and record keeping to
avoid drug residues in animals used in food production.
Recommendations include identifying and tracking
animals to which drugs were administered in order to
preclude the sale of edible animal tissue, milk, or eggs
containing illegal residues. Identification may be by
specific animal identification, pen or lot, quarantine
or segregation, or other means. Additionally, FDA
recommends maintaining a system of medication or
treatment records that, at a minimum, identifies the
animal(s) treated (individual animals, pens, lots, etc.), Lynn Betts, NRCS
the date(s) of treatment, the drug(s) administered, who
administered the drug(s), the amount administered,
and the withdrawal time prior to slaughter (and when
milk, eggs, etc. can be used, if appropriate).

Proper identification of individual animals also allows the dairy farmer to more accurately keep track
of health and production records for each individual cow. There are a number of systems that are
commonly used. These include hand-written records, on-farm computer records and subscription to the
National Dairy Herd Improvement Association (or DHIA). The DHIA is a national database that keeps track
of milk production by testing cows on the farm every month. Nearly half of U.S. dairy farms are
currently subscribed to the DHIA tracking system. However, DHIA participation is not required by
FDA and the records solely produced by this system may not be sufficient to address medication or
treatment record recommendations in CPG 615.200. Most methods of recordkeeping can be very effective
if managed carefully. Many U.S. dairy farms use handwritten records. Larger dairies may be more likely to
use on-farm, electronic recordkeeping systems.
The format of identification and record keeping is not important as long as an established control system
is in place to allow farmers to track treatment of animals to avoid the risk of violative drug residues
appearing in the human food supply.
Life Cycle of Dairy Cattle

Dairy Calves Depending on the management
system of the dairy, a calf will be allowed to
nurse colostrum directly from its mother, fed
by hand from a bottle, or fed by a tube passed
through the esophagus directly into the stomach to
ensure the calf receives the full amount of
colostrum necessary for optimum health. After
it nurses or is hand-fed colostrum, a calf is typically
separated from its dam (mother) within 12 hours
following birth and is placed into a small calf
pen or enclosure allowing for individual feeding
of milk or milk replacer, and administration
of medical care if needed. The fate of the calf will
then depend on whether it is a heifer or a bull calf. Scott Bauer, NRCS

Females: Heifer calves and adult dairy cows As future milk cows, female calves are considered to
be replacement animals for older cows that leave the dairy for a variety of reasons including illness,
injury, and/or productivity. On many smaller farms, these replacement heifers will be raised on the
dairy farm where they were born. Alternatively, some larger farms will send its heifers to an off-site
facility known as a heifer ranch where they will be raised. Once they have become older, heifers will be
returned to the farm of origin. The ages at which heifers are returned vary, but often this happens when they
have reached puberty or have become pregnant (Figure 2).
Either on the dairy farm or at a heifer ranch, heifers will be fed milk replacer for approximately 2 months
before being weaned and transitioned to an all solid feed diet. Weaning ages differ from dairy to dairy,
but typically weaning occurs at around 8 weeks of age or older.
A heifer will reach sexual maturity between fourteen and eighteen months of age, depending on the breed.
At this time, the heifer will be bred by either artificial insemination (AI) or by exposure to a breeding
bull. Some U.S. dairies use only AI, and many use a combination of AI and a clean-up bull. The average
gestation period for dairy cows is 9 months.
Figure 2 - Movement of Cattle in the Dairy and Beef Industry
WIFSS UC Davis

Lactation
Lactation begins immediately following calving. Figure 3 - Breeding and Lactation Cycle
The first milk that is expressed from the udder
after calving and during the first several days
of lactation is called colostrum and has higher
concentrations of protein, fat, vitamins and
antibodies (immunoglobulins) compared to
regular milk. The antibodies in colostrum
come from the mother’s body. On many
dairies, unused colostrum is saved for feeding
to other calves or stored frozen for future
use. Colostrum is vitally important to the
health of a calf because the high levels of
immunoglobulins in colostrum help provide
the calf with the ability to resist infections.
When fed to calves during the first 24 hours of
life, the antibodies in colostrum are absorbed
from the calf’s gut into its bloodstream. Without
the important immune support function
provided by immunoglobulins in colostrum,
calves become much more susceptible to
developing a variety of diseases, and if they
do get sick, such calves are usually much
more likely to be given drugs to treat such
diseases. Colostrum is not sold for human
WIFSS UC Davis
consumption and most dairy cows produce far
more colostrum than is needed by one calf.
Milk from recently fresh cows is withheld from the bulk tank for approximately four days following
calving to ensure that colostrum is not accidentally collected into the bulk tank and sold for
human consumption. Often, milk from cows during the first three to four days following calving is
commingled and fed to calves.
After the voluntary waiting period is over, the cow will be bred again usually by AI.
Fresh cows (those that have just calved) may be segregated from the rest of the herd for a period of days
to make sure that they are not experiencing any complications following calving. After this designated
fresh period is over, a cow will be introduced into the main milking herd to enter the normal milking
cycle on the dairy. On many dairies, cows are often grouped based on age and/or milk production
and fed specific rations to meet the metabolic needs necessary to support the level of milk production in
a particular group.

A dairy cow will be milked during most of her pregnancy and will typically produce milk for about
ten months. On most dairies cows are milked between two and three times per day. In a typical lactation,
milk production increases very rapidly, peaks around two months following calving, and
then slowly decreases. A dairy cow will stop being milked about two months before she is due to give birth.
This two month period, after milking has stopped and before the next calf is born, is known as the dry
period. During this time, the cow is able to gain back weight that may have been lost and the udder is
able to repair and regenerate secretory tissue (Figure 3).
At the beginning of the dry period, the farmer may administer antibiotics that are infused into each
teat. This practice is known as dry cow treatment and is done to assist in clearing any udder infections
that might have developed during lactation and to prevent new udder infections that develop during the
dry period.
The entire cycle of breeding, calving and milking is repeated throughout a dairy cow’s life. The average
U.S. dairy cow has a calf approximately every 13 months and will complete three to five of these cycles
during her lifetime prior to leaving the herd (Figure 3).
A dairy cow will leave the herd for a number of reasons (Figure 2). There is a relatively low
on-farm mortality rate for dairy heifers and cows, but it is possible for an animal to become sick or
injured and die or need to be humanely euthanized. Most dairy cows are removed from the herd
(culled) and sold for slaughter or to another farm. The reasons for culling vary, but the most common
reasons are reproductive problems, mastitis or other udder health problems, poor production or lameness.
The cull rate is between 25% and 33% of the cows on an average dairy. Culled cows are then replaced
by replacement heifers.
Males: Bull Calves Steers and Bulls (Figure 2)

The majority of male calves, or bull calves, born on
a dairy will ultimately be sold for
slaughter. Depending on when it is
sent to slaughter, a bull calf’s life
span is between 3 weeks and 18 months. If it
is slaughtered within 3 weeks of birth, it is
called bob veal. Bull calves may be sold and raised
on milk replacer for about 16 weeks and
marketed as milk fed veal. Frequently
male dairy calves are castrated and sent to
a calf raising operation. Once castrated Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS
these calves are
called steers and will eventually be sent to a feedlot for ‘finishing’ where they
are raised until about 18 months of age on a diet of mostly grain. The grain diet increases the fat content
of the meat to produce the tender, marbled beef desired by consumers. Rarely, bull calves will be retained
on the dairy as replacement breeding bulls.

Life Cycle of Veal Calf
The veal industry is very closely tied to the dairy industry. Veal calves
are defined differently by the United States Department of Agriculture,
with a focus on meat production, and the Food and Drug Administration,
with a focus on drug metabolism. For production purposes, the USDA
–Food Safety and Inspection Service defines different classes of veal
calves by using age and weight at slaughter. In general, the USDA
defines a calf as being no more than 750 pounds live weight. Bob veal
calves are those calves slaughtered at three weeks of age or younger.
Formula-fed, milk-fed, or special-fed veal are calves raised to about
16 to 18 weeks of age on an all liquid diet. The majority of veal marketed
in the U.S. is formula-fed. Non-formula fed veal are calves that have
been weaned from milk-replacer at about two months of age and have
transitioned to a solid food diet of hay and/or grain. Non-formula fed
veal will be marketed at up to 700 pounds. This class represents a very
small fraction of the total veal marketed in the U.S.
The FDA defines veal calves as immature cattle (either dairy or beef) intended for meat production that
lack a functional rumen; such animals are considered to be pre-ruminating. The anatomical differences
between mature cattle and pre-ruminant calves results in large differences in the way that drugs are
metabolized and excreted. The growth and maturation of the rumen is a process that occurs as a calf
begins to consume solid feed (typically alfalfa hay and a grain mix commonly called calf ‘starter’). A calf
will have developed a fully functioning rumen by the time its diet is completely solid feed. Thus, when
a calf is allowed to develop naturally through weaning and the introduction of solid feed is started at a
young age, the rumen will develop normally, and the calf’s ability to metabolize and excrete drugs will
change to that of a ruminating animal. In contrast, bob veal and formula-fed veal calves that are fed
an all-liquid diet without the addition of any solid feed, do not develop a rumen and essentially remain as
pre-ruminants. Suckling calves, which will be slaughtered later as mature animals, are a different class of
calves than veal calves because their diet will eventually be transitioned to solid food and the rumen will
develop normally as this transition occurs.
Most drugs have neither been tested nor approved for use in young calves, or calves that have not developed
a mature, functional rumen. A particular veterinary drug label may emphasize this with warning text such
as “A withdrawal period has not been established for this product in pre-ruminating calves. Do not use
in calves to be processed for veal.” An example where immature animals excrete drugs more slowly than
more mature animals is when phenylbutazone, an analgesic approved for use in horses, is administered
in an extralabel manner. It can take a one-day-old calf four times longer to clear this drug from its system
compared to a six month old calf.

Veal Operations
The majority of veal operations currently use individual veal crates to minimize calf-to-calf contact and
disease. Because of lack of public acceptance of this practice, the industry is being driven to adopt the
use of group housing for veal production. The industry goal is to have all U.S. veal operations transition to
group housing by 2018. Currently, about one third of veal operations in the U.S. house calves in groups.
Most veal raising operations are located in the upper Midwestern parts of the U.S. in communities with
a strong dairy industry. These operations are generally small family farms that house, on average, between
200 and 225 animals.
Movement of Calves Through Veal Industry

Although the majority of veal calves originate from dairy farms, marketing channels for these animals
can be complex and varied (figure 2). A bull calf leaving a dairy can be sent directly to slaughter (as bob
veal) or to an auction yard. From the auction yard this animal will be purchased by another operation in
the veal or beef production chain. A bull calf is frequently purchased from the dairy by a middleman calf
dealer. The calf dealer may resell the calf as either bob veal or formula-fed veal. Alternatively, the dealer
may sell larger, healthier looking calves to a calf raising operation where the calves will be castrated and
raised as steers for a number of months before being shipped to a feedlot for finishing on a predominantly
grain diet. Feedlot steers are typically slaughtered between eighteen and twenty months of age, at between
1,200 and 1,400 pounds. With the variability and frequent changes in ownership, tracing historical
animal ownership through records can be extremely challenging.
Figure 2 - Movement of Cattle in the Dairy and Beef Industry
WIFSS UC Davis

Acknowledgments
Authors and Contributors: Editors:
Mike Payne, DVM, PhD Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD

John Angelos, MS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM Juanita Humphrey
Heather Johnson, MS
Publication Design Graphic Design
Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD Jeff Hall

Jeff Hall
References:
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21 Part 530: Extralabel drug use in animals.
Compliance Policy Guide (CPG) Sec. 615.200. Proper Drug Use and Residue Avoidance by Non-
Veterinarians.
Dairy Cattle Identification Practices in the United States, 2007. Info Sheet. United States Department of
Agriculture; Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health;
Veterinary Services. November 2007.
Facility Characteristics and Cow Comfort on U.S. Dairy Operations, 2007; United States Department of
Agriculture; Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Veterinary Services; National Animal Health
Monitoring System; December 2010
Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank: http://www.farad.org/regulatory/useclass_cattle.asp
A guide to colostrum and colostrum management for dairy calves.

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/dairy/downloads/bamn/BAMN01_Colostrum.pdf
Guidance for Industry #191. Changes to Approved NADAs — New NADAs vs. Category II Supplemental
NADAs. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. Center for
Veterinary Medicine. November 19, 2009.
Reinemann, DJ. Milking Parlor Types. University of Wisconsin-Madison Milking Research and Instruction
Lab. December 2003.

Beef Cattle Production
Introduction
M
odern domestic cattle evolved from a
single early ancestor, the aurochs, and
remains of domesticated cattle dating
to 6,500 B.C. have been found in Turkey and
other sites in the Near East. Domestication of
cattle followed sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs.
Early cattle were multi-purpose, providing meat,
milk, and labor to their owners. Currently in
the U.S., cattle are selected more for the single
purpose of meat production, or in some cases,
production of milk as well.
The Beef Cattle Industry is not a single entity.

In contrast to other intensive animal agriculture
systems, very little vertical integration exists
in the beef cattle industry. As a result, each
phase of production is operated by different Bruce Hoar, UC Davis WIFSS
individuals. Throughout the country, beef

cattle are raised under a tremendous variety of
different management inputs, environmental
settings, and production intensities.
Beef Cattle Production • Page 22

Cattle Terminology
A variety of terms are commonly used in the beef industry. Having a functional knowledge of these terms
is important when communicating with beef cattle producers.
Backgrounder Operation (also referred to Cattle Grazing in Backgrounder Operation

as a ‘stocker’ or ‘grower’operation) A type of
beef cattle rearing operation in which weaned
younger/lighter weight steer calves and weaned
heifer calves that are not being kept as future
breeding cows are raised to about 12 to 16
months of age while grazing on inexpensive feed
sources such as grass or other forages. Animals
develop lean muscle mass and increased body
frame/size prior to entering a feedlot while on
these operations.
Bull An intact, sexually mature male bovine

that is intended for breeding purposes.
Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
Beef cattle Cattle that are intended for
meat production.
Calf A young bovine, either male or female, up

to one year of age. Cow Calf Operation
Cattle Fed in Confinement for Slaughter

One of the use classes for beef cattle defined
by the FDA; it refers to beef and dairy breed
cattle that are confined in group pens and fed
a high-energy diet until the time of slaughter.
Cow-calf Operation A type of beef cattle

operation with the purpose to produce calves
that will become either future breeding cows
or breeding bulls, or calves that will be raised
for meat production. The goal of a cow-calf
operation is to have each cow produce and raise
one calf per year.
Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
Culling Removal of an animal from a herd

usually for health or production reasons.

Fed Cattle Steers and heifers that have been fed concentrates while on a feedlot.
Feeders Weaned calves grazing pasture that have reached sufficient weight and maturity to go to a feedlot
to be placed on a high energy ration for finishing; they are generally older, weigh more, and carry more
condition (finish) than stocker cattle (‘stockers’). Feeders are categorized within the FDA beef cattle use
class definition of ‘Growing Cattle on Pasture or in Dry Lot’.
Feedlot (or Finishing) Operation A Feedlot or Finishing Operation
confinement production operation in which

beef cattle (or dairy cattle that are being raised
for beef production) are raised to market
(slaughter) weight while being fed
high concentrate diets on a feedlot (or
‘feedyard’). Feedlots range in size from
less than 100-head capacity to many
thousands. While at a feedlot, cattle are
grouped into pens where they can socialize
and exercise. The period of time that cattle are
on a feedlot is referred to as the “finishing
phase.” The diets fed to cattle on feedlots are
usually a cereal grain, commonly corn, wheat,
or barley, and cereal grain by-products such Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
as distillers’ grains. Cattle (heifers or steers in
feedlots) typically remain on a feedlot from
90 to 180 days before being sent to a processing
facility at 18 to 22 months of age. At
Grass Finished Beef
which point the cattle will have reached
‘market weight’ and weigh approximately 1200
to 1400 lbs (545 to 637 kg).
Finishing Period The final feeding stage of

cattle on a feedlot prior to animals reaching
market weight.
First-calf Heifer After giving birth to its first

calf, a replacement beef heifer may be referred
to as a first-calf heifer.
Grass-Fed/Grass-Fnished Beef Beef that

comes from cattle that have been raised
primarily on pasture forages; also refers to Kate Jewell, Creative Commons
cattle that are fed pasture forage as opposed
to cattle that are raised on a feedlot being fed
high concentrate diets.

Grower Operation (also referred to as a ‘stocker’
or ‘backgrounder’operation) A type of beef cattle
rearing operation in which weaned younger/
Lactating Beef Cow and Calf
lighter weight steer calves and weaned heifer
calves that are not being kept as future breeding
cows are raised to about 12 to 16 months of age
while grazing on inexpensive feed sources such as
grass or other forages. During this time animals
develop lean muscle mass and increased body
frame/size prior to entering a feedlot.
Growing Cattle on Pasture or in Dry Lot

(includes ‘stockers’ and ‘feeders’) – An FDA beef
cattle use-class definition that refers to weaned
beef or dairy breed cattle that are maintained on
pasture or in a dry lot, receiving the majority of
their diet from forage.
Lynn Betts, NRCS
Heifer A female bovine from the time of weaning
until the time of first calving.
Lactating Beef Cows An FDA beef cattle use-

class definition that refers to lactating beef breed
Purebred Charolais Bull
female cattle that are nursing calves intended for
meat production. Milk from lactating beef cows
is NOT intended for human consumption.
Market Weight The weight at which an animal

is harvested for meat production. For beef cattle
raised on a feedlot operation, market weight is
typically reached at 18-22 months of age at 1200
to 1400 lb (545 to 637 kg).
Non-Lactating Beef Cows An FDA beef cattle

use-class definition for female beef cattle that
had previously nursed calves, but which are NOT
currently producing milk.
Robert Scarth
Pre-Ruminant An animal with a rumen that is
not yet anatomically or functionally mature.
Purebred Cattle Cattle whose ancestors

over many generations are derived from a
recognized breed.

Replacement Beef Bulls An FDA beef cattle use class definition that refers to intact male beef breed cattle
intended for reproductive purposes.
Replacement Beef Heifer An FDA beef cattle use class definition that refers to female cattle that are
intended for reproduction to produce calves intended for meat production. The term ‘heifer’ specifically
refers to a female bovine from the time of weaning until the time of first calving.
Rumen The largest compartment of the forestomach in a mature ruminant animal and the site
of microbial fermentation that is required to produce useable nutrients from consumed feed
materials that would otherwise be indigestible. The rumen is anatomically joined to the reticulum
to form a ‘reticulorumen’ that precedes the next two compartments (omasum and abomasum (the
true stomach of a ruminant)). The abomasum corresponds to the stomach of a human being.
Seedstock Operation A type of beef cattle operation whose goal is to produce purebred cattle for the
purpose of genetically improving a particular breed. Such herds are usually small, and produce bulls and
replacement females for sale to cow-calf producers.
Slaughter Cattle An FDA beef cattle use class Slaughter Cattle
definition that refers to cattle grazing on pasture

and suitable for slaughter.
Steer A castrated bovine male.
Stockers Weaned cattle of either beef or

dairy breeds that are maintained on pasture
or a dry lot and receive the majority of their
diet from forage prior to entering a feedlot.
Stockers are usually younger, weigh less, and
are of lower condition (finish) than ‘feeders’.
Stockers are typically sent to a feedlot at 12
to 16 months of age. Stockers are categorized
within the FDA beef cattle use class definition Bob Nichols, NRCS
of ‘Growing Cattle on Pasture or in Dry Lot’.
Stocker Operation (also referred to as a ‘backgrounder’ or ‘grower’operation) - A type of beef cattle

rearing operation in which weaned younger/lighter weight steer (castrated male) calves and weaned heifer
calves that are not being kept as future breeding cows are raised to about 12 to 16 months of age while
grazing on inexpensive feed sources such as grass or other forages. During this time animals develop lean
muscle mass and increased body frame/size prior to entering a feedlot.

Suckling Calves An FDA beef cattle use class definition that refers to immature, pre-ruminant cattle
(including dairy breeds intended for meat production), maintained with and dependent upon their dam for
nourishment. Veal calves are NOT considered suckling calves.
Beef Calf
Veal Calves An FDA beef cattle use class definition
that refers to immature cattle, including beef
and dairy breeds, that lack a functional rumen
and that are intended for meat production. Veal
calves are recognized as a distinct regulatory
class from suckling calves because of their
handling, housing, and proximity to slaughter.
Weaned Cattle An FDA beef cattle use class

definition that refers to beef or dairy breed cattle
that are maintained on pasture and receive the
majority of their diet from grazing on pasture.
Weaning The process of transitioning a

calf away from a diet containing milk or milk Gary Kramer, NRCS
replacer to an all solid feed diet or ration. Most
beef calves are weaned from their dams at 6 to
10 months of age weighing 450 to 700 pounds.
Beef Cattle Breeds

At least 250 breeds of beef cattle are recognized worldwide. Despite this high number of breeds, beef
cattle are broadly classified as to whether they are descendants of two early lineages: European cattle (the
so-called “Taurine” cattle derived from Eurasian subspecies) or zebu cattle (characterized by a humped
back and prominent dewlap (fold of skin at the lower neck and between the front legs)) derived from
Indian subspecies that are known for having heat tolerance. Cross breeding of cattle is used extensively
to provide hybrid vigor in the offspring and to improve growth rate, reproductive efficiency, and certain
carcass/meat characteristics. Over 60 beef cattle breeds can be found in the United States; six common
breeds are described below:
Angus
The most predominant breed in the United States and first imported to the U.S.
from Scotland around 1878. This breed is very popular, as it is adaptable to a
variety of conditions, and is born without horns (also known as “polled”). Both
Black and Red Angus are common.
Bruce Hoar, UC Davis WIFSS

Brahman
A breed of zebu cattle, imported from India, and noted for their extreme
tolerance to heat and resistance to insects.
Creative Commons
Charolais
This breed is typically white and was introduced to the U.S. from France in
the 1940’s.
Adrian Michaels, Wikimedia
Hereford
Classically appear as red-coated with a white face. Both horned and polled
varieties are found in the U.S. This breed originated from southern England.
Sarah Smith, Creative Commons
Limousin
Another French breed of beef cattle, and noted for having lean, tender meat.
Kate Jewel, Creative Commons
Santa Gertrudis
This breed was developed on the King Ranch in southern Texas and is a result
of breeding Brahman bulls with Beef Shorthorn cows. They are very adaptable
to harsh climates.
C. Goodwin, Wikimedia

Production System and Life Cycle
The beef production systems can be divided into 4 types of operations: cow-calf, backgrounder (also called
‘stocker’ or ‘grower’), feedlot, and seedstock.
The life cycle starts on a cow-calf operation with the Cow Calf Operation
purpose to produce calves that will become either
future breeding cows or breeding bulls, or calves
that will be raised for meat production (Figure 1).
The goal of a cow-calf operation is for each
cow to produce and raise one calf per year.
Most beef cattle herds rely on natural breeding,
therefore a set of bulls are maintained for
breeding purposes. The cows are bred during
the breeding season and calves are born after
about a nine month gestation period. Birth
weight of calves are typically 60 to 100 pounds.
The cow-calf phase runs from birth to
weaning which usually occurs when the calf is
approximately 6 to 10 months of age and weighs Gary Kramer, NRCS
450 to 700 pounds.
At weaning, some female calves will remain in the herd as replacement heifers and will be bred at
approximately 15 months of age to deliver their first calf at two years of age.
Figure 1. Beef Production Cycle
WIFSS UC Davis

Steer calves and most heifer calves not being kept Stockers
as future breeding cows will leave the herd of origin
between six and twelve months of age. Those calves
that are younger/lighter weight are typically raised
as ‘stockers’ and will enter stocker operations where
they are raised to twelve to sixteen months of age.
During this time, cattle are grazed on inexpensive
feed sources such as grass or other forages and
develop lean muscle mass while increasing body
frame and size prior to entering a feedlot. Stocker
operations exist on many different forage types in
geographically diverse areas of the U.S. and include
wheat fields of Oklahoma, grasses in the Flint Hills
of Kansas, lush pastures of southern Florida, and
corn stalks in Iowa. Changing weather patterns Scott Bauer NRCS
and market conditions (e.g., high corn prices) have

major impacts on stocker operations.
The final phase in beef production is the feedlot Finishing on a feedlot
where cattle have a three to six month ‘finishing

period’. Feedlots can range in size from small
farmer-feeders with 20 or fewer animals to large
scale feedlots with a capacity of 100,000 or more
animals. The purpose of a feedlot is to increase the
animal’s body weight and add fat (referred to as
marbling) to edible tissues to provide consumers
with a taste and texture they desire from beef.
This is accomplished by feeding cattle high energy
concentrated diets. Diets are typically based on a
cereal grain, usually corn, wheat, or barley, and
cereal grain by-products such as distillers’ grains.
Feeder cattle (heifers or steers in feedlots) will
Jeff Vanuga NRCS
remain in feedlots anywhere from 90 to 180 days
before being sent to a processing facility at 18 to
22 months of age. At this time cattle have reached ‘market weight’ weighing approximately 1,200 to
1,400 pounds.
Of increasing popularity amongst U.S. consumers is beef that has been ‘grass-finished’ or ‘grass-fed’.
Producers of grass-fed beef raise their cattle on grass pasture until they reach market weight instead of
sending cattle to a feedlot for final finishing. Because the energy densities of grasses are lower than cereal
grains, it takes longer for grass-fed beef to reach market weight compared to cattle raised on a feedlot.
‘Seedstock’ operations represent a relatively small subset of the beef industry. These operations function
to produce purebred cattle for the purpose of genetically improving a particular breed. Such herds are
usually small, and produce bulls and replacement females for sale to cow-calf producers.

Feeding
Beef cattle, like other ruminants, possess a multi- Cattle Feeding
compartment forestomach that allows otherwise

indigestible fibrous plant material such as dry
hay and corn stalks to be digested by bacteria
and protozoa living in the forestomachs in such
a way that such feeds are converted into useable
nutrients for the animal. On cow-calf and
stocker operations, profitability is dependent on
availability of inexpensive feed sources, primarily
pasture or other grazing land. Cattle can utilize
feed of lower quality that would not be appropriate
for consumption by non-ruminant animals such as
pigs or chickens. Mineral and protein supplements
are also provided to ensure that all the nutritional
Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
requirements of the cattle are met. During periods
of the year when plant growth is not sufficient,
additional feeds, such as grass or alfalfa hay, is provided.
On feedlot or finishing operations, cattle are housed in pens of usually between 100 to 125 other animals.
High energy cereal grain-based diets are incorporated into the diet or ‘ration’ to allow for high growth
rates of between 2.5 to 4 pounds per day. Such high growth rates are achieved by feeding diets that
are 70 to 90% grain; these diets allow cattle to gain ~1 pound for each 6 pounds of feed that is consumed.
Cattle are usually fed twice per day into feed bunks that allow sufficient space for all cattle to eat
simultaneously. Constant access to water is provided usually via water troughs or through automatic
watering bowls.
The FDA defines specific use classes for beef cattle as it does for dairy cattle. These use classes are defined
based on the type of diet that the animal is consuming, as well as the intended function of the animal.
‘Suckling calves’ are immature, pre-ruminant cattle (including dairy breeds intended for meat production)
that are maintained with and dependent upon their dam for nourishment. ‘Veal calves’ are recognized as
a separate use class defined as immature beef and dairy breed cattle that lack a functional rumen and
that are intended for meat production. Veal calves are recognized as a distinct regulatory class from
suckling calves because of their handling, housing, and proximity to slaughter. ‘Weaned cattle’ are beef
or dairy breed cattle that are maintained on pasture and receive the majority of their diet from grazing
on pasture. ‘Stockers’ refers to weaned calves that are grazing pasture to enhance growth prior to finishing
and slaughter; they are usually younger, weigh less, and are of lower condition (finish) than ‘feeders.’
The term ‘feeders’ refers to weaned calves grazing on pasture that have reached a sufficient weight and
maturity such that they can be placed on high-energy rations for finishing. Feeder cattle are usually
older, weigh more, and have more condition (or ‘finish’) compared to stockers. ‘Slaughter cattle’ refers
to cattle that are grazing on pasture and that are suitable for slaughter. ‘Replacement beef heifers’ are
female cattle that are intended for reproduction to produce calves intended for meat production.

Housing
The majority of cattle on cow-calf and stocker Feedlot
operations are raised outdoors. In inclement

weather, some form of shelter such as barns,
sheds, or windbreaks, and some form of
bedding, will be provided for the cows and
calves. Access to shade is necessary in climates
with very high ambient temperature/ humidity.
In arid climates sprinkler systems may be used in
hot weather for cooling and dust control.
Large feedlots will confine cattle in pens to

maximize feed intake and growth rates. Most
pens will be outdoors, and therefore will have
dirt floors, and bedding will be provided.
Dr. Bruce Hoar, UC Davis WIFSS
Understandably, pen conditions can deteriorate
significantly during times of inclement weather.
The lots are usually paved if located in wet
climates to minimize mud problems. Some
feedlots will be located indoors, and will have
slatted floors so that feces and urine can fall
through and washed away.
Identification
Animal identification is an extremely important Ear Tag
aspect of animal traceability when it comes
to disease control or outbreak investigations.
According to the January 2013 ‘Final Rule on
Traceability for Livestock Moved Interstate’
published by the USDA, cattle that are required
to be officially identified for interstate movement
must be identified by means of either: an official
eartag; a brand registered with a recognized
brand inspection authority and accompanied
by an official brand inspection certificate, when
agreed to by the shipping and receiving State
or Tribal animal health authorities; tattoos and
other identification methods acceptable to a
Dr. Bruce Hoar, UC Davis WIFSS
breed association for registration purposes,
accompanied by a breed registration certificate,
when agreed to by the shipping and receiving

State or/Tribal animal health authorities; or a group/lot identification when a group/lot identification
number (GIN) may be used. A GIN is the identification number used to uniquely identify a “unit of
animals” of the same species that is managed together as one group throughout the preharvest production
chain. When a GIN is used, it is to be recorded on documents that accompany the animals moving
interstate, however, it is not necessary to have the GIN attached to each animal.
Keeping track of which cows are healthy and profitable requires records and animal identification.
Nearly two-thirds of beef cattle operations use some form of individual animal identification (ID) on at
least some cows, and almost 80% percent of cows have some form of individual ID. Plastic ear tags are
the most common single type of individual cow ID for operations and individual cows. Other forms of
ID include Brucellosis tag, hot-iron brand, ear tattoo, ear notch, freeze brand, and electronic ID
or microchips.
Culling (removal from a herd)

Cattle may be removed from a herd for a variety of reasons including health or production problems,
infertility, and economic reasons (drought, herd reduction, market condtions).

Acknowledgements
Authors and Contributors:
Bruce Hoar, DVM, MPVM, PhD

John Angelos, DVM
Editors:
Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD

Juanita Humphrey
Publication Design

Jeff Hall
Graphic Design
Jeff Hall
References:
Beef 2007-2008; Part I: Reference of beef cow-calf management practices in the United States, 2007-08.
United States Department of Agriculture; Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Veterinary Services;
National Animal Health Monitoring System
FACT SHEET: Feedlot Finishing Cattle. Accessed July 22, 2014.

http://www.beefusa.org/uDocs/Feedlot%20finishing%20fact%20sheet%20FINAL_4%2026%2006.pdf.
Greiner, SP. Beef Cattle Breeds and Biological Types. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Publication
Final Rule: Traceability for Livestock Moved Interstate; Accessed July 22, 2014.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/2012/12/pdf/traceability_final_rule.pdf
Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank. Accessed July 22, 2014.

http://www.farad.org/regulatory/useclass_cattle.asp
Modern Beef Production Fact Sheet. Cattlemen’s Beef Board and National Cattlemen’s Beef Association.
Updated 9/2009. Accessed July 21, 2014. http://www.explorebeef.org/

Cattle Diseases, Treatments
& Tissue Residues
Introduction
W
hether young or adult, cattle can be
adversely affected by disease leading
to decreased production. The diseases
of young cattle (dairy or beef) primarily include
calf diarrhea and respiratory disease whereas adult
dairy cows and beef cattle mostly have problems
associated with milk production, reproductive
disorders, or lameness.
Cattle Diseases, Treatments & Residues • Page 35

Calves and Young Cattle
Calf with Diarrhea
Scours (Calves) Calf diarrhea, or scours,
is a very common problem in young cattle.
Diarrhea is defined as excessive and frequent
passage of watery feces. In severe cases,
diarrhea can result in animal debilitation from
dehydration and electrolyte losses and may
result in death if it is not recognized quickly and
treated appropriately. In calves this disease is
commonly associated with infection of the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract by bacterial, viral, or
protozoal agents; however, dietary (nutritional)
changes can also result in diarrhea caused by
inappropriate feed or feed mixtures for the age
of the calf, or even sudden changes in the type
of feed. Nearly 25 percent of calves on a given Dr. John Angelos, UC Davis WIFSS
farm may be affected each year, and in severe
cases where the disease is not recognized and
treated in time, a significant number of deaths
may occur.
Multiple factors can contribute to a calf Feeding Colostrum to a Calf

developing scours and in many cases more
than one of these factors will play a role in
the development of the condition. One
common factor is inadequate feeding of
colostrum following birth. Colostrum is
an important source of immunoglobulins
(antibodies) that not only act locally in the
gut to bind ingested pathogens but also are
absorbed into the calf’s bloodstream to provide
the calf with a ready source of antibodies that
are needed to combat infections. Colostrum
must be received by the newborn within
24 hours of birth in order to be absorbed
systemically. Without this important immune Dr. Munashe Chigerwe, UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine
support, calves are much more susceptible
to disease, more likely to develop disease,
and as a result, much more likely to receive
drugs as a form of treatment for disease.
Exposure to high concentrations of GI
pathogens in the calf’s environment is another
contributing factor to the development

of diarrhea. Virtually every calf is exposed to one or more disease causing agents at some point during early
life and mixed infections are common. Diarrheal pathogens can rapidly spread between calves and result
in outbreaks of diarrhea.
Bull calves tend to be at greater risk for

developing scours than heifer calves because
they generally have a lower economic value
and may not receive an adequate amount of
colostrum immediately following birth. Because
most bull calves do not remain in a herd, they are
also more likely to be sold multiple times over
a short period of time during early life. Such
frequent changes of ownership and location, as
well as commingling of animals, can put these
young, and potentially immunocompromised,
calves at a higher risk of exposure to a wide
range of infectious agents.
Dr. John Angelos, UC Davis WIFSS
Scours is the most important condition affecting
young calves in the dairy industry. Producers
are motivated to prevent and treat scours, especially in their valuable heifer calves, as these animals represent
the future milk cows that will remain in the herd. Producers count on a supply of healthy heifers every
year to replace the dairy cows that will be culled from the herd. According to the National Animal Health
Monitoring System, it is common for a significant number of all unweaned heifer calves to be diagnosed
with scours, and most of these will be treated with an antibiotic.
Treatment of Scours
When producers treat calf scours, their focus is on replacing the fluids
and electrolytes that were lost from the calf’s body. Replacement fluids
can be delivered by a number of routes, including oral, intravenous,
and subcutaneous. Some producers may also administer anti-
inflammatory and antipyretic (to treat fever) drugs in addition to
fluids. The thought is that reducing fever and inflammation can
assist in the healing process.
Although some of the causative diarrheal agents are not susceptible

to antibiotics, most calves with diarrhea will be treated with
antibiotics to prevent secondary complications such as septicemia
(bacterial infection in the blood) as well as to treat a primary GI
infection in the event that the diarrhea is bacterial and is susceptible
to an antibiotic. Producers use a variety of antibiotics, delivered by a
variety of methods when treating scours. Common antibiotics used
for treatment of scours include oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline,

neomycin, and sulfamethazine. Antibiotics can be given either parenterally (by injection), orally (via
bolus in the mouth), via medicated milk replacer or by adding it to the water, as long as the manufacturer’s
instructions printed on the label are followed. Extralabel drug use in feed, including milk and milk
replacers, is strictly prohibited.
It is important to know that some infectious causes of diarrhea in calves are zoonotic diseases and can infect
people. Whenever working around calves, sick or healthy, it is always a good idea to wear disposable gloves
to reduce exposure to possible zoonotic pathogens.
Respiratory Disease
Pneumonia, an inflammation of the lungs can Yearling Beef Cattle in Sale Yard
occur in cattle of any age, but the disease is
particularly prevalent in housed calves, weaned
calves and feedlot cattle. In broad terms, the
pneumonias in these groups of animals are
classified as ‘bronchopneumonias’ because
the infectious agents that typically cause lung
diseases in these age groups gain entry to the
body through the airway. In housed dairy
calves bronchopneumonia is often referred to
as ‘enzootic’ pneumonia and in feedlot cattle
it is called ‘shipping fever’ because the disease
is often associated with recent shipment to a
feedlot. These diseases are often also referred
to as ‘BRD’ (bovine respiratory disease) and Wikimedia Commons
drug manufacturers will commonly refer to
BRD on a list of indications for use of a drug on
a manufacturer’s drug label.
Bacterial and viral agents are both important causes of bronchopneumonias in cattle. In many cases
a primary viral infection that involves the airway can also then lead to a secondary bacterial infection
of the airway. Common bacterial causes of pneumonia in cattle include Mannheimia haemolytica
(M. haemolytica), Pasteurella multocida (P. multocida), Histophilus somni (H. somni), and Mycoplasma
bovis (M. bovis). Recently weaned calves or cattle sent to a feedlot are at greater risk for developing
pneumonia as a result of multiple factors that include dietary changes, transport to a different
location, commingling of new animals, and exposure to new pathogens. Such changes can result in
stress in an animal that may also lead to immunocompromise and an increased susceptibility to
bacterial/viral infections that cause pneumonia. In severe cases of pneumonia the lungs can become
congested and consolidated making breathing and air exchange very difficult for the calf. Some of
the early clinical signs of pneumonia in cattle include lack of appetite, depression, a stiff gait and a
rough, ungroomed hair coat. Body temperatures can also become elevated. Later in the course of
disease an increased respiratory rate with nose or eye discharge and cough are commonly observed.

Regardless of the agent causing the disease, most cattle that develop pneumonia
are treated with antibiotics. Common choices for antibiotic treatment of
BRD include but are not limited to florfenicol, enrofloxacin, ceftiofur,
oxytetracycline, tilmicosin and tulathromycin. These are examples of products
labeled for treatment of BRD associated with Mannheimia haemolytica,
Pasteurella multocida, and/or Histophilus somni, and when used appropriately,
are quite effective. If the pneumonia is caused by a bacterial infection,
antibiotics will help to clear the infection in the lungs. If the pneumonia is
viral in nature, antibiotics may help to protect the animal from other secondary
bacterial infections that may develop during recovery. Often a nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drug such as flunixin meglumine is also administered
because it can act as an antipyretic (fever reducer). Also, providing a warm, Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS
dry environment, making sure that nutritional needs are met, and preventing
other illnesses from developing will help support healing and recovery.
Despite treatment, there are instances when the producer will decide that selling the animal is the best
economical option. For instance, a calf with severely affected lungs may never recover completely, and
her growth and potential for milk production may be reduced. In these cases, the calf may be sent to
slaughter early. If producers do not administer drugs according to manufacturer label directions and
then do not keep accurate treatment records to ensure that appropriate drug withdrawal periods are
observed prior to sending an animal to slaughter, illegal tissue residues may be detected at slaughter.
Dairy Management Inc.

Adult Cattle
Mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of one or more Inflammed Udder in a Cow with Mastitis

quarters of a cow’s mammary gland. Mastitis
most commonly occurs as a result of bacterial
infection of the udder that is caused when
bacteria gain entry to the mammary gland
through the end of the cow’s teat. Although all
types of cattle are at risk of developing mastitis,
the disease is mainly a concern for the dairy
industry because of the direct impact on the
quality and safety of milk products sold for
human consumption. Treatment for mastitis
most commonly involves the use of antibiotics
because such treatment can reduce the duration,
severity and reoccurrence of the illness.
While different antibiotics are administered
by different routes such as intravenously,
subcutaneously, or intramuscularly,
the most frequently used route of antibiotic administration for mastitis is infusion into the gland
through the teat end. This method of treatment is called intra-mammary infusion. Antibiotic
treatments by any route of administration can result in residues in meat or milk if drugs are not
used in accordance with approved label directions or extralabel use requirements under 21 CFR 530.
Intra-Mammary Infusion
Antibiotics administered through the udder
can become absorbed into the bloodstream and
circulate throughout the cow’s body. Different
drugs are metabolized differently and may be
stored in different organs or tissues before
being completely eliminated from the body. If
a cow is slaughtered before the drug residues
have been metabolized and excreted, drug
residues may be present in tissues. Thus,
intra-mammary infusion of antibiotics may
lead to drug residues not only in milk, but also
other edible tissues. For this reason, approved
mastitis antibiotic preparations will have both
a milk discard time as well as a slaughter or
meat withholding time (withdrawal period) Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS
listed on the manufacturer label.

While dairy farmers and employees usually remember to hold out the milk of treated cows from the bulk
tank, they may forget that a cow treated for mastitis can have a longer slaughter withdrawal period that may
be much longer than just the milk discard time. Cows that are sold and slaughtered prior to completion
of that withdrawal period are at risk of having detectable tissue residues of antibiotics or other drugs.
Some dairy cows are given an intramammary infusion of antibiotics during the dry period between lactations
as a way to help treat stubborn or sub-clinical infections. Antibiotics that are labelled for use during this
dry period are called dry cow therapy or dry cow treatment and a cow is said to have been ‘dry treated’ if
she received such treatment at the start of her dry period. Dry cow treatments may have higher antibiotic
concentrations in contrast to lactating cow intra-mammary treatments that are designed to be given while
the cow is still being milked during her lactation. Dry cow treatments are often also formulated with slow
release vehicles such as peanut oil. Another big difference between lactating and dry cow therapies is that dry
cow treatments typically have much longer withdrawal periods compared to lactating treatments. If a cow
is culled during a dry period, there may be a risk for violative drug residues if that cow had been dry treated.
“Extralabel Drug Use” or ELDU is only

permitted under the direction and supervision
of a licensed veterinarian within the context of
a valid veterinarian-client-patient relationship,
who will provide a scientifically based
extended withdrawal period. Treating mastitis
in an extralabel manner can dramatically
increase the risk of violative tissue residues.
For instance, infusing a cow’s udder with
gentamicin, a drug approved for horses, can
result in kidney residues for many months!
As is the case for treatment of diseases

in all food producing species, if a
cow treated for mastitis does not have
adequate identification (such as ear tags,
leg bands, or neck chains) and the producer does not have complete treatment records, the
likelihood of violative tissue residues being detected at slaughter is dramatically increased.

Metritis
In general terms, metritis is an infection and Cow with Metritis

inflammation of the uterus. While there
are more specific definitions for the terms
‘endometritis’ versus ‘metritis’ depending of the
layers of the uterine wall that are involved in
the inflammatory process, the term ‘metritis’ is
commonly used to represent both conditions.
In cattle, metritis is often characterized by the
presence of a foul-smelling, watery vaginal
discharge plus a fever. The vaginal discharge
originates from the infected uterus and is
frequently associated with situations such as
unsanitary calving facilities, difficult calvings
that required producer or veterinary assistance
to resolve, and retained placentas. ‘Retained’ Dr. John Angelos, UC Davis WIFSS
placenta means the presence of placental tissue
attached to the inside wall of the uterus for
more than 12 hours after calving.
Although there are FDA approved parenterally Intravenous Drug Administration

(i.e., subcutaneous, intravenous, or
intramuscular) administered antibiotics that
are specifically labelled for treating metritis,
producers will sometimes choose to administer
an antibiotic that is approved for treatment of
metritis by a parenteral route of administration
directly into the uterus. An example is
the administration of oxytetracycline (an
antibiotic) placed or infused into the uterus.
These are examples of extralabel drug use.
Performing such extralabel treatment should
only ever be done according to policies
established by 21 CFR 530 in consultation
with the attending herd veterinarian who can Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS
assist the producer in determining appropriate
milk and meat withdrawal intervals.
Antibiotics administered directly into the uterus can enter the bloodstream and circulate throughout the
cow’s body. Some of these drugs can be concentrated in the kidney, an organ that is commonly tested
at the time of slaughter for the presence of drug residues. Proper animal identification and treatment
records are necessary so that a producer does not forget that a cow has received intrauterine antibiotics
and inadvertently send the animal to slaughter prior to the necessary slaughter withdrawal time.

Lameness
Lameness is a very common problem in dairy Lame Cow with Sore Right Front Leg
cows and ranks second only to mastitis in cow
health problems.
Footrot One of the most common causes of

lameness in both dairy and beef cattle is foot rot.
Other names for foot rot are bovine interdigital
phlegmon, acute interdigital necrobacillosis,
and infectious pododermatitis.
Footrot is caused by a bacterial infection between

the digits/claws and is extremely painful. When
it is not recognized and treated appropriately,
the infection can become deep-seated involving
vital structures such as the joints of the Dr. John Angelos,UC Davis WIFSS
digit. Treatment is aimed at controlling the
infection and reducing inflammation/ pain with
antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs.
A variety of different prescriptions as well as Foot Rot Between Toes on Cow’s Foot
over-the-counter antibiotics can be effective
against foot rot and include, but are not limited
to, penicillin, oxytetracycline, florfenicol,
and tulathromycin. Three prescription anti-
inflammatory drugs are approved for use in cattle
in the U.S.A.: dexamethasone, isoflupredone
acetate, and flunixin meglumine (flunixin).
Aspirin can also be used for inflammation and
does not require a veterinarian’s prescription.
Flunixin belongs to the class of drugs known
as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and
is only approved for intravenous use. To help
control foot rot on a dairy, foot baths containing
disinfectants are routinely used in alleys that Dr. John Angelos, UC Davis WIFSS
cows must walk through as they exit the
milk parlor.

Hairy Foot Wart on Heel of Cow’s Foot
Hairy Foot Warts Hairy foot warts are
another extremely painful condition that cause
lameness in dairy cows. The lesion usually has
wart-like hairy growths that arise from the
skin surface or may be less wart-like and
appear more red and raw. Thus, other names
include hairy heel warts, strawberry heel
warts, digital dermatitis, and papillomatous
digital dermatitis. Cows with these growth can
be extremely lame, however the skin growths
may not look that severe.
It is believed that hairy foot warts are caused by a
type of bacterium that thrives in wet conditions
commonly found on dairies. Fortunately, the
disease can be controlled through the application Dr. Dusty Nagy, University of Missouri,
of topical antibiotics. Since hairy foot warts are
easily transmitted between animals through
use of common hoof trimming equipment the disease can be prevented by disinfecting hoof trimming
equipment used on cases of suspected hairy heel warts and between dairies.
Subacute/Chronic Laminitis One of the most important causes of lameness in dairy

cows is laminitis - inflammation of the laminae (the living part of the hoof wall that is
responsible for growth of the hoof wall). The underlying cause of laminitis in dairy cattle is brought
about by the dietary changes created during the transition from the pre-calving diet (the dry cow diet) to
the post-calving diet that is more carbohydrate-rich.
The list of potential hoof problems that result Sole Bruising and Abscess from Subclinical/Chronic Laminitis:
from laminitis do not usually develop suddenly
and so these problems are said to come about
because of ‘subacute’ or ‘chronic’ laminitis. Some
hoof problems that can result from laminitis
in dairy cows include: sole hemorrhages,
slipper feet, widened and flattened hooves
with horizontal ridges that form fissures and
full thickness wall breaks, softer-than-normal
‘powdery’ sole horn that is easily traumatized,
sole abscesses, shallow heels, sole ulcers,
white line ‘disease’, white line abscesses, and
heel erosions. While some of these individual
diseases are treated with antibiotics and anti-
inflammatory drugs and managed with hoof
trimming and supportive measures, the best
prevention for laminitis is proper management
of the cow’s diet.

Tissue Residues and Cattle
In all species and all classes of food animals, the principal cause of all violative residues is a failure to allow
adequate time for livestock drugs to be metabolized and excreted. Common circumstances which can lead
to an inadequate “withdrawal period” can be grouped into three general categories:
Inadequate animal identification and/or amimal treatment records It is important for farmers to have
established control systems in order to avoid drug
residues in meat and/or milk. Inadequate animal
ID can lead to the wrong animal being marketed.
Inadequate records can result in inadvertently
sending treated animals to market earlier than
the established withdrawal period or adding milk
from a treated cow into the bulk tank.
Failure to follow the label directions A rigorous

drug approval process is a major safeguard that
protects consumers of livestock products from
drug residues. Part of that approval process
includes an FDA-approved label. Drug labels
include specific directions on how the drug
should be used, the conditions for use, the route Lynn Betts, NRCS
of administration, the slaughter withdrawal
period and a milk discard time if appropriate.
FDA definitions for veal calves and non-lactating

cows become very important when following
label directions. For example, if pre-ruminating
veal calves are given colostrum or milk from a
cow who was treated with drugs prior to calving,
the calf may receive residues of drugs prescribed
for ruminating cattle. This can lead to residues in
the bob veal calf if sent to slaughter within three
weeks of birth. This is an especially important
consideration if colostrum/milk from treated
cows is comingled and fed to all calves. Another
example is that replacement heifers are considered
to be “non-lactating dairy cattle” because they
have not yet had a lactation, while adult dairy Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS
cows that have already had one lactation cycle,
but that are in the dry period of their cycle, are classified as dry dairy cows and not as non-lactating dairy
cattle. The withdrawal period may be different between these two cow classifications.

An important difference between dry and lactating therapy is the duration of time following drug
administration that a dairy producer must wait before the milk from that cow is allowed to be sold for
human consumption. This period of time is very prolonged for dry cow therapies and typically extends past
the initial milkings of colostrum following calving. Failure to follow the directions for dry and lactating
therapy witholding times could lead to residues in the milk.
Failure to follow requirements for extralabel use When drug use deviates from explicit label directions,
the time that the drug persists in the tissues and milk can also change. There are legitimate reasons for
deviations from label directions by a veterinarian. This practice is called “Extralabel Drug Use” or ELDU.
Because of the risk for violative drug residues, on-label treatment should always be the producer’s first
choice. Extralabel treatment should be a treatment of last resort and only done under the supervision
of a veterinarian in accordance with 21 CFR 530. Under 21 CFR 530 ELDU requires there to be a valid
Veterinarian-Client-Patient Relationship and extended veterinarian-provided withdrawal periods based on
scientific evidence. According to 21 CFR 530.12, the veterinarian must provide an ELDU label for the drug
being used that includes the class/species identification of the animal(s) being treated; dosage; frequency;
route of administration; duration of therapy; the extended meat withdrawal period and the extended milk
discard time based on scientific evidence. When the ELDU directions provided by a veterinarian are not
followed, a violative residue may occur in milk or meat.
In cases where drugs are being used in an extralabel manner, veterinarians are also required to keep
specific records in accordance with 21 CFR 530.5. The records must include:
1. The established name of the drug and its

active ingredient, or if formulated from
more than one ingredient, the established
name of each ingredient;
2. The condition treated;
3. The species of the treated animal(s);
4. The dosage administered;
5. The duration of treatment;
6. The numbers of animals treated; and
7. The specified withdrawal, withholding, or

discard time(s), if applicable, for meat, milk, eggs, or any food which might be derived from any food
animals treated.
A veterinarian must keep all required records for two years or as otherwise required by Federal or State law,
whichever is greater. Also, any person who is in charge, control, or custody of such records shall, upon
request of a person designated by FDA, permit such person designated by FDA to, at all reasonable times,
have access to, permit copying, and verify such records.

Acknowledgements
Authors and Contributors: Editors:
Bruce Hoar, DVM, MPVM, PhD Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD
John Angelos, MS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM Juanita Humphrey
Publication Design Graphic Design
Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD Jeff Hall

Jeff Hall
References:
Beef 2007-2008; Part I: Reference of beef cow-calf management practices in the United States, 2007-08.
United States Department of Agriculture; Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Veterinary Services;
National Animal Health Monitoring System
Goats: Penn State Extension. Accessed May 18, 2014.

http://extension.psu.edu/animals/goats
FACT SHEET: Feedlot Finishing Cattle. Accessed July 22, 2014.

http://www.beefusa.org/uDocs/Feedlot%20finishing%20fact%20sheet%20FINAL_4%2026%2006.pdf.
Oklahoma State University Breeds of Livestock: Goats. Accessed May 20, 2014
http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/
Greiner, SP. Beef Cattle Breeds and Biological Types. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Publication
Final Rule: Traceability for Livestock Moved Interstate; Accessed July 22, 2014.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/2012/12/pdf/traceability_final_rule.pdf
Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank. Accessed July 22, 2014.

http://www.farad.org/regulatory/useclass_cattle.asp
Modern Beef Production Fact Sheet. Cattlemen’s Beef Board and National Cattlemen’s Beef Association.
Updated 9/2009. Accessed July 21, 2014.
http://www.explorebeef.org/
Dairy 2007. Part I: Reference of Dairy Cattle Health and Management Practices in the United States,
2007. USDA. APHIS. Veterinary Services. National Animal Health Monitoring System. October 2007.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/dairy/downloads/dairy07/Dairy07_dr_PartI.pdf

Swine Production
Introduction
P
ork is the most widely consumed meat in the
world. In the United States, approximately
50 pounds of pork are consumed per person
per year. Pork production is an important
component of American agriculture, with
production concentrated in Corn Belt states (such
as Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Indiana
and Illinois) and North Carolina. Modern pork
production is mostly done in enclosed buildings
to protect animals from the weather, from
predators, and from the spread of diseases. Over
the past 50 years low prices have resulted in larger,
more efficient operations with many smaller farms
finding it hard to produce pigs profitably.
Wild boars domesticated in Northern Europe

around 1500 B.C. mixed with smaller Asian
species domesticated in China around 3000
Amanda Slater
B.C. are believed to be the ancestors of modern
domesticated hogs. Hogs came to the Americas
with Columbus on his second voyage in 1493,
but may have also been brought to the Hawaiian
Islands even earlier by Polynesians.
Swine Production • Page 48

Swine Terminology
There are a number of terms that are unique to the Sow with piglets
swine industry and warrant definition here:
Barrow Castrated male pigs intended for slaughter.

Usually castrations are performed at a very young
age (a few days old).
Boar Intact, sexually mature, male pigs intended

for breeding purposes. Boars are generally not
intended for slaughter in the U.S.
Farrowing The process of giving birth to a litter

of piglets.
Finishing Pigs Barrows and gilts from approximately Wikimedia Commons

120 to 150 lbs (55 to 68 kg) to market weight
for slaughter.
Gilts Female pigs intended for slaughter or breeding purposes that have not yet farrowed a litter.
Growing Pigs Barrows and gilts from approximately 50 to 60 lbs (23 to 27 kg) to 120 to 150 lb
(55 to 68 kg).
Market Pigs Pigs that are marketed and slaughtered for pork production. Typically these pigs are
slaughtered at 5.5 to 6 months of age at 200 to 300 lbs (91 to 135 kg).
Nursing Pigs Pigs from birth until weaning and still nursing.
Piglet A newborn pig until it is weaned from a diet of milk to an all solid-feed ration.
Replacement Gilt Breeding female pigs that have not yet farrowed a litter; usually weigh 220 to 300 lbs
(100 to 135 kg).
Roaster Pigs Pigs of both sexes and any age marketed with the carcass unsplit and with the head intact.
Sow A female pig that has had at least one litter of piglets.
Stags Male pigs that are castrated at any age after reaching sexual maturity. Sexual maturity is reached
at five to six months of age.
Starter or Nursery Pigs Boars, barrows, and gilts from approximately two to four weeks of age and
approximately 50 to 60 lbs (23 to 27 kg)

Swine Breeds
More than 70 recognized or “official” breeds of pigs exist in the world. In the United States, most hogs
bred for consumption are the combination of a dark breed boar bred to a white breed sow. Dark breed
boars enhance the meat quality of their offspring, while white breed females are used for their ability
to produce many piglets and have good maternal instincts. Some of the most common breeds are
presented here.
Duroc
There is considerable color variation within the Duroc breed, ranging
from a very light golden, to a very dark red that approaches mahogany.
The ears should be droopy. Quick growth and maturity and heavy
muscling make this a good breed for meat production.
Wikimedia Commons
Hampshire
The Hampshire breed was developed in the United States and is now one of
the world’s most important breeds. Black with a white belt over the shoulders.
Hampshires are a heavily muscled, lean meat breed that are regarded by many
as the best terminal sire breed for all purposes.
Evelyn Simak
Landrace
Wikimedia Commons Landrace pigs are white in color with droopy ears. They are known for
having and raising large litters of piglets. Landrace are known for their
long body, high percentage of carcass weight in the ham and loin, and
ideal amount of fat. Landrace are prolific mothers and are exceptionally
heavy milkers.
Wikimedia Commons
Yorkshire
Yorkshire pigs are also white in color, but have erect ears. They are the
most common breed of swine in the United States and Canada. This is a
very durable and muscular breed with a high proportion of lean meat and
low back fat.
For those interested in learning more about breeds of swine, visit
http://www.thepigsite.com/info/swinebreeds/php where there are detailed
Kevin Noone descriptions of all breeds.

Swine Operations
Before the 1960’s, most pork in the U.S. was Indoor Confinement Operation
raised in outside lots or on pasture systems.
The development of slotted floors and liquid
manure handling equipment, allowed producers
to more easily care for large numbers of animals,
and protect them from the weather in an
enclosed building.
Almost all large swine operations now are total

confinement operations, and these produce the
majority of market hogs in the United States.
The buildings have a controlled environment
provided by fans for ventilation and heaters for
warmth. Many of the buildings will have flexible
USGS
curtains on the side walls that can be opened
and closed to allow for natural ventilation. In this
type of system, feed intake and animal health is more easily monitored. Also, there is reduced risk of
disease since there is less contact with wildlife, and between different age groups of pigs.
Outdoor rearing systems generally require less capital input, however there is lower productivity in
terms of product output when compared to a confinement system. Pigs are especially susceptible to
heat stress, making it necessary to provide shade structures in warm climates if rearing pigs outdoors.
Farrowing huts, bedded with straw, are often used for the gestation and farrowing phases in outdoor swine
production systems.
Hoop-type buildings can be used for gestating and finishing pigs. These buildings have wooden or concrete
sidewalls 3-4 feet high upon which are mounted hoops that support covers. The ends of the building
are left open during warmer weather.
Outdoor Facility Fans on Indoor Facility Hoop Type Building
Tim McCabe, USDA NRCS Bob Nichols, NRCS Creative Commons

Feeding Swine
Swine are classified as having a monogastric Hogs Being Fed in Outdoor Pen
digestive system, characterized by a simple,

glandular stomach. Humans and carnivores are
also monogastrics.
In swine diets a variety of feedstuffs such as corn,

barley, milo, or oats are used to provide energy,
while oilseed meals (primarily soybean meal)
are the major source of protein. Vitamins and
minerals are also added to the feed to optimize
health and growth at each stage of life. The ration
is normally changed to provide more energy
and less protein as the pig grows. Pig rations
are usually ground or partially ground prior
Lynn Betts, NRCS
to mixing.
Feed can be delivered to pigs by a variety of methods and the one chosen will depend on the type
of housing, availability of labor, management preference, and feedstuffs being used. In automated
delivery systems, feed is delivered to pigs via feed lines and drawn from a feed bin using an auger. This
system requires a power source to get feed from the bin to the pen. Hand delivery is more labor intensive,
and is usually used in outdoor rearing systems and farrowing rooms. With this method, workers
monitor feed intake and delivery on an individual basis.
Identification
Ear notching is widely used in the swine industry, Ear Notch
and involves removing V-shaped notches from the
pig’s ear that correspond to a specific litter number
and also an individual pig number from that litter.
Ear notching is used when the pig needs to be
recognized separately from other pigs, such as
breeding stock and exhibition animals.
Ear tags are often used in conjunction with ear

notches in a breeding herd. These are typically
plastic tags with numbers printed on them to
identify individuals.
Slap tattoos (a temporary tattoo, usually on the

shoulder of the animal) may be used when hogs
are sent for slaughter. This allows the transporters
and slaughter facilities to readily identify ownership of the shipment.

Record Keeping
Large confinement swine operations will utilize Ear Tag for Record Keeping
commercial computer software to keep track of
sows and growing pig production. These software
programs can generate a variety of reports that
allow the manager to track individual, as well as
group performance. Culling and feeding decisions
are often based on performance records.
Smaller farms and outdoor swine producers will

also maintain records. Written paper records are
commonly observed in these situations. Breeding
records and drug usage records are the information
most commonly kept by producers.
Wikimedia Commons
Life Cycle of a Pig from Birth to Death

Over 100,000,000 swine are slaughtered annually AIAO Indoor Swine Facility
in the United States, with the vast majority being
market hogs. About 3% of the total number of
pigs slaughtered consist of other classes, including
roaster pigs, boars, and sows.
In large, integrated hog farms, a group of pigs will

move together through the system from birth to
slaughter. That is, a group of sows will farrow at
the same time, the piglets will be weaned at the
same time, and those pigs will then move through
the nursery and finishing units together. This
“all-in, all-out” (AIAO) approach helps maximize
production and limits disease transmission. Each
room or building is completely emptied and
sanitized between groups of pigs, therefore new
groups of pigs enter freshly disinfected environments. The facility has a separate room or building for
each group of pigs weaned. AIAO animals in each room are of a uniform age and size, and are isolated to the
extent possible, to decrease the possibility of diseases spreading from older animal groups to younger ones.

Swine production is generally classified into four production phases (on large farms, each phase occurs in
a separate barn, and often a separate physical location):
Breeding/Gestation Historically, sows have been Sow and Her Piglets in a Farrowing Pen
bred by placing a number of sows in a pen with
one or more boars. Now, boars are often rotated
between sow pens to make sure that all sows
are bred while they are in heat. Sows come into
estrous three to five days after their piglets are
weaned, and are bred at this time. If the sow is
not bred, she will return to estrous about 21 days
later. After breeding, the sow has a gestation
period of about 115 days (three months, three
weeks, and three days). The goal of most pork
producers is to have, on average, greater than two
litters per sow per year
Keith Weller, USDA ARS
Farrowing Just prior to farrowing, pregnant
animals are moved to individual pens or stalls
in the farrowing barn. Sows typically farrow from eight to twelve piglets, which as a group are called
a litter. Most confinement operations place the sow in a farrowing pen or crate which restricts her
movement to protect her baby pigs. Farrowing and lactation occur in the same facilities until the baby pigs
are weaned. An average sow will raise three to five litters of pigs in her lifetime.
Pigs are born with sharp teeth and curly tails. The tips of the teeth are clipped at birth to prevent
injury to the sows udder and other piglets, and the tail is shortened to prevent tail biting.
Piglets are weaned anywhere from five days to four weeks, with most operations weaning at two
to three weeks.
Nursery Weaned pigs are moved to either a Weaned Pigs in a Nursery

nursery facility or a wean-to-finish building. In
either case, both weaned types of facilities may
be on a separate site from the farrowing facility.
In confinement barns, the floors will be constructed
from plastic or plastic covered steel, with slots
to allow manure to fall through. The temperature
is closely controlled, as pigs can suffer from
heat and cold stress. Pigs are normally removed
from the nursery at about six to ten weeks of age
and placed in the finishing building.
Wikipedia

Grow-Finishing Pigs are fed in the grow- Pigs in a finishing facility
finishing facility until they reach market weight of
250 to 275 pounds. The grower stage takes starter
pigs from about 35 to 60 pounds to 120 to 150
pounds body weight while the finishing stage
takes pigs from about 120 to 150 pounds up to
230 to 270 pounds body weight. During these
stages pigs are fed specialized diets to maximize
growth and achieve a target of 230 pounds body
weight by 175 days of age. Marketing typically
occurs at five to six months of age. At this
time, gilts may be selected to become replacement
sows and be moved to a breeding/gestation
facility. The remainder of the market weight pigs
Wikipedia
are sent to slaughter.
Leaving the Herd Market pigs are sent to slaughter at about 6 months of age, weighing 200 to 300
pounds of live weight. This represents the most common reason for leaving the herd. Sows and boars
are culled from the herd due to old age, reproductive failure, poor performance (small litter size, high
preweaning mortality, low birth weight), illness or injury. About one in five, to one in four, breeding
age females are culled or die every year. Those that are culled are usually sold to livestock auctions or
sent directly to slaughter
Common Swine Diseases and Treatments

All-in, all-out production in confinement barns Sick Pig
has helped many swine farms greatly reduce

the incidence of disease in their herds. There
continues to be several significant infectious and
non-infectious diseases that affect swine
production, and a few of the more important ones
are presented below.
More information can be found at “The Pig Site”
(http://www.thepigsite.com/diseaseinfo/).

Respiratory Disease Market hogs are susceptible to a variety of microbial agents that can cause
respiratory infections and pneumonia including viruses, bacteria, and some parasites. Often,
disease transmission is exacerbated if less than ideal environmental conditions (poor ventilation,
high humidity) exist in the swine units. The most common type of treatment for respiratory
infections is antibiotic therapy. Drugs used to treat bacterial pneumonias in pigs include
oxytetracycline, ceftiofur, florfenicol, sulfamethazine, tulathromycin, lincomycin, and tylosin.
Some of these drugs are supplied in the form of medicated feeds, injectable formulations, or both.
Gastrointestinal Problems such as Ileitis, bloody Intestinal Roundworm from a Pig

diarrhea, and gastric ulcers are common in market
hogs. Antibiotics are used in the U.S. to help treat
some of the causes of these conditions. In some
cases medications are provided through feed to
help control and/or treat these diseases in large
groups of pigs. Drugs provided through the
feed include chlortetracycline, tiamulin, tylosin,
and lincomycin.
In outdoor rearing systems, internal and external

parasites are more commonly encountered than
in confinement barns. Parasite treatments include
ivermectin, hygromycin B, levamisole, and
fenbendazole. Roundworms are often seen in sows Dr. John Angelos, UC Davis WIFSS
and boars, especially in those reared outdoors.
Fenbendazole is an antiparasitic drug that can be
administered in the feed to control infestations
with roundworms.
Lame Pig with Sore Left Hind Leg
Lameness is a common reason for sows and boars
to be culled from a breeding herd. While there are
potentially many causes of lameness, producers
may not establish a definitive diagnosis, and
often will administer antibiotics such as penicillin
procaine G, in the hopes that the causative agent is
a bacteria that is susceptible to the drug.

Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV) and Porcine Delta Coronavirus (PDCoV)
Recently, two new viral infections of swine have
been identified in the U.S. swine population: porcine
epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and porcine delta
coronavirus (PDCoV). Together these viruses
are responsible for a condition described as novel
swine enteric coronavirus disease (SECD). In
suckling piglets, PEDV causes a severe disease
characterized by acute watery diarrhea, vomiting,
loss of appetite, and dehydration; are fatal in 50 to
80% of affected piglets. PDCoV is believed to cause
a similar disease in suckling piglets. Both viruses
are only known to affect swine and are not threats
to public health. Efforts to develop vaccines to
protect pigs against these diseases are ongoing.
Scott Bauer, USDA
Tissue Residues and Swine

Tissue residues are possible when drugs are administered in ways that are not specified on the manufacturer’s
label. For example, procaine penicillin G, an over the counter drug that is readily available at feed
stores, is often administered at doses that far exceed those listed on the label. If a producer has not
consulted with a veterinarian with whom they have a valid Veterinarian-Client-Patient Relationship,
such use would constitute extra-label-drug-use (ELDU) and would be illegal. Such use can result in
a producer not observing an appropriate withdrawal period for the drug prior to sending an animal to
slaughter, and could result in violative tissue residues of a drug being detected at slaughter. Inadequate
record keeping or lack of individual animal identification may lead to an animal being sent to slaughter
prior to the end of an adequate withdrawal period.
Inadequate record keeping or lack of individual animal identification may lead to an animal being sent
to slaughter prior to the elapse of an adequate withdrawal period.
Creative Commons

Acknowledgements

John Angelos, MS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM
Editors:

Juanita Humphrey
Publication Design:

Jeff Hall
Graphic Design:
Jeff Hall
References:
Ag 101 Pork Production, United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed May 21, 2014.
http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/printpork.html
Guidance for Industry #191. Changes to Approved NADAs — New NADAs vs. Category II Supplemental
NADAs – Final Guidance. United States Department of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug
Administration. Center for Veterinary Medicine. November 19, 2009.
The Pig Site: The Different Breeds of Swine. Accessed May 21, 2014.
http://www.thepigsite.com/info/swinebreeds.php
The Pig Site: Quick Disease Guide. Accessed May 22, 2014.
http://www.thepigsite.com/diseaseinfo/
Proper way to ear notch pigs, NebGuide. Accessed May 22, 2014.
http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=1056
Novel Swine Enteric Coronavirus Disease (SECD). USDA. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service.
Veterinary Services. June 5, 2014. Accessed August 6, 2014.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_dis_spec/swine/downloads/secd _case_definition.pdf

Goat Production
Introduction
G
oats are one of the oldest domesticated
livestock animals and are used for
production of fiber, milk, or meat.
Goat breeds are commonly split into ‘meat
goats’ and ‘dairy goats’. Goats are also raised
for other uses such as brush or weed control,
livestock exhibits, packing, and as companion
livestock (pets). In the United States, the
majority (over 2/3) of goats are raised for
meat. While goat meat is consumed widely
throughout the world and especially in
developing countries and among certain ethnic
groups, it is not commonly sold in traditional
grocery marketplaces in the United States.
Goats are efficient converters of low-quality

forages into meat, milk, and fiber for specialty
markets. As such, in the past decade in the
Trisha M Shears
United States there has been an increase in goat
production. If resources are limited, a small herd
of goats may be enough to provide supplemental
income for small, part-time farmers thereby
helping to enable self-sufficiency.
Goat Production • Page 59

Goat Terminology
Terms that are unique to the goat industry:
Billies Breeding male goats are sometimes

called billies.
Buck A male goat that has not been castrated

and is used for breeding purposes. Bucks are
typically associated with a foul odor arising
from scent glands (located near the horn
base) and urine which a buck will spray on
its face, beard, front legs and chest.
Cabrito Roasted meat from goat kids 4 to 8

Don Preisler, School of Veterinary Medicine UC Davis
weeks of age; used as barbecue meat.
Chevon Meat from goat kids 48 – 60 pounds or 6 – 9 months of age.
Doe A female goat that has delivered kids (‘kidded’); also referred to as a ‘nanny’.
Doeling A doe from the time that it has been weaned (taken away from its mother) until she has
delivered a kid.
Goat For USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, ‘Goat’ refers to animals of both sexes and any age,
however producers use specific terms to describe various life stages/types of goats when discussing and
marketing their animals.
Kid A goat that is less than 1 year old.
Kidding The process of giving birth.
Wether A castrated male goat (unable to reproduce); most male goats in production settings are castrated
at a young age.
Kid Doe Buck
Don Preisler, SVM UC Davis Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons

Goat Breeds
Over 100 different breeds of goats have been developed in modern times. The breed that a producer
chooses to raise depends on the product that is desired. For example, Angora goats are used primarily
for fiber production, while Boer goats are more suited to meat production. Breeds of goats used for milk
production in the United States are Alpine, LaMancha, Nigerian Dwarf, Nubian, Oberhasli, Saanen,
Sable (a Saanen with a colored coat), and Toggenburg. Young males of any dairy breed can also be used
for meat production; however, meat goat carcasses are generally leaner and more muscular than dairy
goat carcasses. Small-frame breeds such as Nigerian Dwarf and Pygmy are commonly kept as companion
(‘pet’) livestock. Almost any breed can be used for brush control. Some of the more commonly kept breeds
are listed below:
Alpine
Primarily a dairy breed of goats that originated in the Alps, Alpine goats have
no distinct color pattern and may range from pure white through shades of
fawn, gray, brown, black, or combinations of these colors. These are hardy,
adaptable animals that thrive in any climate while maintaining good health and
excellent production.
Damien Hardy
Angora
These goats are used to produce mohair. The Angora dates back prior to early
biblical times. They originated in central Turkey, a mountainous area with a
dry climate and extreme temperatures. The average U.S. Angora goat produces
about 5 pounds of mohair per shearing, and is usually sheared twice per year.
Both sexes have horns.
Erica Peterson
Boer
This breed is originally from South Africa and is used primarily as a meat goat.
Unlike dairy goats, which breed only in the fall to winter months, Boer goats
(as well as some other meat goat breeds) are polyestrous, meaning they can
breed throughout the year. This allows for year-round kidding and continuous
goats for meat production.
Wikipedia

LaMancha
A dairy breed that can be recognized by its extremely short ears which may,
on quick inspection, appear to be absent. Any color or combination of colors is
acceptable with no preferences. The hair is short, fine and glossy.
Wikimedia Commons
Nigerian Dwarf
A miniature goat of West African origin that is similar to that of larger dairy goat
breeds. This breed is often raised for show purposes, but will be disqualified
from the show ring for being over-sized. Many people raise Nigerian dwarf
or Pygmy goats as pet animals or for animal projects for 4-H or FFA (Future
Farmers of America) youth development programs.
Trisha M. Shears
Nubian
A multi-purpose goat that is useful for the production of milk, meat, and hides.
This breed is named for Nubia, in northeastern Africa where early ancestors
of today’s Nubian breed originated The breeding season for Nubian does is
longer than some other dairy breeds, so it is possible to produce milk year
round with these goats. The breed is characterized by its long, pendulous ears
and Roman nose.
Wikipedia
Saanen
The Saanen dairy goat originated in the Saanen Valley in Switzerland. Saanen
goats are known for high milk production, and medium to large body size with
a white or light cream colored coat.
Wikimedia Commons
For those interested in learning more about goat breeds, visit http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/ for
additional details on these and other goat breeds.

Goat Operations
Dairy Goat Dry Lot
In the U.S., goat raising occurs under extremely
varied conditions. Access to inexpensive forage/
browse (forbs, woody plants, vines, brush) is critical
for economical production. Therefore, open or
fenced range with uncultivated acreage is the most
common production setting used for goats intended
for meat or fiber production. A fenced farm, with
cultivated grasses or browse is also frequently
encountered, for at least a portion of the year. A
dry lot, where feed is delivered to the goats, is typical
of dairy goat operations, where ready access to the
animals is required for milking. Many producers
will use a combination of some or all of these, Allison Lippert, FDA
depending on seasonal feed availability and access.
Goats require tight fencing. Electric netting fencing

material can provide a temporary enclosure;
however, goats will eat through such a fence if not
continuously electrified.
Feeding Goats
Grazing Goats
Goats have a preference for browse. Goats can be
grazed with other livestock, and can complement
sheep and cattle, thus maximizing the use of
marginal pastureland.
Pasture grasses, either native or cultivated, are

the primary feed source used by goat operations.
A carefully planned rotational grazing program
can enhance pasture production and help control
internal parasites. Moving goats out of pasture
when plant growth is still over three inches tall can
help reduce internal parasite infections.
USFS Region Five
Concentrates (corn, milo, barley, wheat, oats, and
rye) may be used as an energy supplement, especially
for goats that are in the later stages of pregnancy
or during lactation when they are producing
milk. Cut hay is also commonly fed, especially
when pasture and browse are less readily available.

Identification
Commonly used types of animal identification Ear Tag
(ID) are collars, leg bands, tattoos placed in the
ear or tail fold (important for goats with very little
ear tissue, such as LaMancha), plastic or metal
ear tags, radio frequency identification (RFID)
tags and RFID implants (microchips). Animal
IDs are used by producers for official registration
with breed registries, tracking animal health and
production for record keeping purposes, and for
meeting state/federal requirements when goats
are moved interstate or in commerce/exhibitions.
Today, microchips are becoming increasingly more
common, especially in very small breeds such as the
Nigerian Dwarf and Pygmy goats. Microchips are Premier 1 Supplies
usually placed in the tail web (the loose, hairless

area under the tail) and require special “readers” to
obtain the information on the tag.
An example of a federal disease control program that requires goats, as well as sheep, to be officially
identified is the National Scrapie Eradication Program (NSEP) which is coordinated by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Scrapie is a
transmissible spongiform encephalopathy affecting sheep and goats. It is a uniformly fatal degenerative
neurologic disease that is related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy (‘mad cow’ disease). Under
the National Scrapie Eradication Program, all goats, except low-risk commercial goats exempted by the
State in which they reside, goats in slaughter channels, and castrated male goats (wethers), must have
official identification when moving in interstate commerce or during ownership changes. In addition, some
States may require other classes of goats to be identified or may exempt certain animals during intrastate
commerce. Current information on each individual
State’s identification and movement requirements
can be found at www.eradicatescrapie.org.
Record Keeping
While some large producers may use computer
software programs to keep track of production,
many producers use paper/written records as their
primary form of record keeping. Breeding records
and drug usage records are most commonly kept.
Dairy goat producers often track milk production
as well. Don Preisler, School of Veterinary Medicine UC Davis

Life Cycle of a Goat from Birth to Death
Breeding/gestation Goats are classified as Breeding Does
being seasonally polyestrous. This means that

they have estrous cycles and can be bred for
only a part of the year. In the United States,
most breeding occurs in late summer through
early winter. The gestation period is around 150
days; therefore, kidding typically occurs in late
winter to spring. Anywhere from one to three
(occasionally four) kids are born from each
pregnancy. This varies a lot with breed. Most
goats have one pregnancy per year; however
some meat breeds may have three pregnancies
every two years. Young does can enter the
breeding herd and be bred as early as seven
Don Preisler, School of Veterinary Medicine UC Davis
months of age. Replacement does should be
approximately two-thirds of their mature weight
when they are first bred.
Dairy Milking Barn
Nursing/Lactating Dairy does will be milked
for approximately 10 months following kidding,
and then held dry for two months prior to her
next kidding. This will allow her to regain
weight and prepare for the next lactation. Non-
dairy goats will raise their kids to weaning which
can occur anywhere from six to 12 weeks of age,
depending on the intended use of the kid.
Leaving the Herd Unlike cattle or pigs,

dedicated facilities for fattening and finishing
goats are uncommon. More typically, a goat
intended for slaughter may receive some extra
Allison Lippert, FDA
feed for a few weeks prior to slaughter.
Young kids are sold for meat at a variety of ages, however, the most common practice is to slaughter when
the kid is about four to six months of age or 50 to 80 pounds.
Does and bucks are culled and slaughtered primarily due to old age, poor performance, and economic
issues such as drought, herd reduction, or market conditions. Culled animals are usually sold to livestock
auction markets or directly to slaughter. In a typical goat herd, about 15 – 20% of does and bucks are culled
each year.

Diseases and Treatments
Goats are generally hardy animals and can survive under harsh environmental conditions. However,
infectious and non-infectious diseases can and do occur, which can negatively impact health and production.
Some of the more commonly encountered disease conditions of goats are presented below.
Abscesses/Boils/Lumps on the head, Caseous Lymphadenitis on the Neck of a Goat
shoulder, upper rear legs, and internally

can be caused by a disease called caseous
lymphadenitis (CL). This is an economically
important disease in goats caused by the
bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis.
This organism also causes a disease in horses
called ‘pigeon fever’. Different strains of C.
pseudotuberculosis affect different domestic
livestock species. The choice of treatment for
CL depends on the location of the abscess as
well as prior presence of the disease within
the herd. Antibiotics can be used to treat the
condition however responses to antibiotic
treatment alone can be poor. Dr. Joanie Rowe, School of Veterinary Medicine UC Davis,
Mastitis/Udder Inflammation is a common

disease of dairy animals, including dairy goats and cows While bacterial infections account for most cases
of mastitis in goats, other agents can cause mastitis including viruses. In severe cases of bacterial mastitis, the
udder will be hot and painful, the milk will be abnormal, and milk production will be reduced. The animal
may also be systemically sick depending on the severity of the infection and causal organism. Producers
usually treat such conditions with antibiotics administered either systemically (intramuscular,
subcutaneous, or intravenous) or intra-mammary.
Joint Swelling or Crippled Goats are common reasons for goats to be culled from a breeding herd. Producers
may not establish a definitive diagnosis for the cause of disease, and often will administer antibiotics, such
as procaine penicillin G, in the hopes that the causative agent is a bacteria that is susceptible to the drug.
Because some of the causes of joint swelling can by bacteria or viruses that can be transmitted between
animals in a herd through activities such as milking and kidding/nursing, it is generally a wise decision on
the part of the producer to consult a veterinarian to determine any underlying causes of joint swelling in
crippled animals.
Parasites both internal (such as roundworms, stomach worms, lungworms) and external (such as mites
and lice), are often seen in goats. Weight loss, rough hair coat, and diarrhea are common signs of parasitism.
Anemia (pale mucous membranes) due to internal parasites can also be an indicator of parasitism. Pasture
management is important in control programs for parasites of goats.

Tissue Residues and Goats
Whenever a drug is administered to an animal in which the meat or milk will enter the food supply,
there needs to be adequate time between drug administration and slaughter or milking for the drug to be
cleared from the animal’s system. ‘Withdrawal time’ is the time required following the administration of
an approved animal drug to an animal until the time that tissue and/or milk residues of the drug have
fallen below a federally approved concentration limit and the animal and/or its milk are safe to enter the
human food chain. ‘Withdrawal period’ is also often used to describe this period of time. ‘Withdrawal
interval’ is a term used to describe a withdrawal period for a drug that has been used in an
‘extra-label’ manner, or not in accordance with the directions on the manufacturer’s label. Sometimes
withdrawal period/time/interval are used interchangeably; however, it is important to understand the
distinctions between these terms.
Violative tissue residues are possible in meat or milk when drugs, which include withdrawal time, are
used in ways that are not in accordance with the directions on the drug manufacturer’s label. For example,
procaine penicillin G, an over-the-counter (OTC) drug that is readily available at feed stores, is often
administered at doses that far exceed those listed on the label. If a producer has not consulted with
a veterinarian, this would be a violation of the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA),
and the producer may not realize that an extended Neck Chain on a Goat for Identification
withdrawal interval is required. This could result
in violative drug residues occurring in the human
food chain.
Inadequate record keeping or lack of individual

animal identification may lead to an animal being
sent to slaughter before an established withdrawal
time/interval has elapsed.
Since goats are a species of minor economic

importance, there is limited economic incentive
for manufacturers of animal health products to
obtain drug labels that include goats. As a result
there are less than a dozen compounds with label Wikipedia
approval for goats. In order to treat disease and
limit animal suffering, goats are frequently treated
with products approved for other species such as cattle. Using medications in an unapproved species,
without the guidance of a veterinarian, is a practice which increases the risk of violative tissue residues.
Extra-label use of drugs must always be done in consultation with a veterinarian, who can help establish
a recommended withdrawal interval for meat and milk. One commonly used resource for veterinarians to
help in establishing such withdrawal intervals is the Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank (FARAD).
FARAD is a congressionally-mandated risk-management program that is supported by the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA). For information about FARAD, visit www.farad.org.

Acknowledgments

John Angelos, DVM, PhD, DACVIM
Editors:

Juanita Humphrey
Publication Design:

Jeff Hall
Graphic Design:
Jeff Hall
References:
Animal Care Series: Goat Care Practices. University of California Cooperative Extension
(http://afghanag.ucdavis.edu/c_livestock/goats/Man_Goats_Care_Practices_UCD.pdf)
Goats: Penn State Extension. Accessed May 18, 2014.

http://extension.psu.edu/animals/goats
National Scrapie Eradication Program: Animal Identification and Record keeping Guide for Sheep and
Goats. United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary
Services. 2012
Oklahoma State University Breeds of Livestock: Goats. Accessed May 20, 2014
http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/

Biosecurity
Introduction
M
aintaining the highest possible animal
health status is critical to the sustainability
and profitability of producers of animal
agricultural products. As consumers become more
Farm-Level Biosecurity Measures Due to Disease Outbreak
educated and have an ever-increasing demand for
high quality, safe, humanely and often sustainably-
produced animal products, programs to monitor
and certify the health and welfare of production
animals are increasingly being implemented in
all segments of animal agriculture to assure that
these goals are being met. Access to premium
markets will increasingly depend on the ability of
producers to demonstrate freedom from serious
animal diseases and pests. This assurance is made
possible through the development of optimum
biosecurity programs. Processor requirements,
quality assurance programs, and retaining market
access and competitiveness will demand that Kate Jewell
such biosecurity programs be implemented.
In addition, on-farm biosecurity can control
production limiting diseases that currently cost
livestock producers millions of dollars each year.
Biosecurity • Page 69
Most of the reasons for implementing a biosecurity
program are self-evident and include maintenance
of animal health, welfare, and productivity, as
well as the reduction of disease transmission and
negative economic impacts caused by disease
incursions. Other reasons may not be as apparent,
but are nonetheless critical to consider. A strong
biosecurity program can protect the health of the
people working with and consuming the products
of the animals, allow for the continued movement
of animals, provide for protection of ancillary
agricultural industries (such as feed suppliers,
veterinarians, nutritionists, and others), as well as
assist in export and domestic marketing. Another Creative Commons
reason for implementation of strict biosecurity

practices is that such practices can help maintain healthy ecosystems and therefore help support
agricultural sustainability.
Biosecurity is a holistic concept of direct relevance to food safety and the protection of the
environment. Biosecurity refers to any activity taken to keep disease out of an area – whether that be
cleaning your boots before entering a farm, building a new barn, repairing a fence, or developing a
vaccination program – the goal always being to maintain the health of animals on a livestock facility.
Components of a Biosecurity Plan

One way to approach development of a biosecurity
plan is to divide the plan into five major
components: Assessment, Resistance, Isolation,
Traffic control, and Sanitation. When managed
properly, these five components will allow the
biosecurity objectives of the livestock producer to
be met. These components are discussed below:
Assessment The first step is to assess the potential

for disease organisms to enter a livestock herd.
A list of specific diseases which may affect the
herd in question should be constructed. For each
specific disease of concern, you should evaluate
the likelihood of herd exposure, potential impact Gary Kramer, NRCS
on the herd, and understand what options are
available for control of the disease if it did occur. The assessment should also include a general evaluation
of the potential for contamination of livestock from other/outside livestock, wild animals, contaminated
feedstuffs, equipment, and other possible sources.
Resistance Resistance refers to the ability of an Cow Being Vaccinated
animal to respond to exposure to an infectious
agent. This includes both specific immune
mechanisms as well as general metabolic processes
and both components must be properly maintained
for an animal’s resistance to be optimized. Specific
disease conditions may be addressed by proper
vaccination programs, however, effective vaccines
do not exist for many of the infectious agents
that can affect livestock. Therefore, it is critical
that general resistance mechanisms are supported
by proper nutrition. Stress can also impair such
resistance mechanisms, so minimizing stress is
also very important. Purchasing animals of known
disease and vaccination status, as well as continual
on-site testing and surveillance, can help to
maximize resistance to infectious disease agents.
Isolation Isolation refers to the prevention of contact between animals as much as possible. The most
important first step in disease control is to minimize commingling and movement of animals. This includes
all new purchases as well as commingling between established groups present on the farm. Separating by
age and production groups is an important biosecurity measure, even in operations with a high turnover
rate. It is important to ensure that facilities, such as fences and isolation areas, are well maintained and
cleaned or disinfected appropriately prior to adding new groups of animals.
Traffic Control Traffic Control includes traffic Feeding Truck on Confined Dairy Operation
both onto and within the operation. It is important
to understand that traffic includes more than
vehicles. All animals, including dogs, cats, horses,
wildlife, rodents and birds, as well as people must
be considered. It also involves traffic within the
production unit between different age groups (if
present) on the facility. Generally speaking, farm
workers who have contact with both younger less
mature animals and older more mature animals
should plan activities that cause contact with
younger animals, before moving to older animals.
Planning facilities so that traffic is minimized is an
important part of an overall biosecurity plan.
Creative Commons
Sanitation Sanitation addresses the disinfection Foot Bath at Entrance to Pasture
and cleanliness of materials, people and equipment
entering and while on the production facility. One
extremely important overarching goal of disease
control is to prevent fecal – oral contamination.
Equipment which may contact the oral cavity or
animal feed should always receive special attention
with regard to disinfection. Removal of organic
matter, especially feces, is critical. Blood, saliva,
and urine from sick or dead animals should also
be targeted. Disinfectants do not work equally
well on all types of materials. For example, in the
presence of organic matter, some disinfectants are
ineffective. This point helps illustrate why things
Colin Smith
that are hard to clean usually won’t get adequately
disinfected. All equipment used for manure or dead
animal handling must be cleaned thoroughly before being used with feeds, or ideally, completely different
equipment should be used. Disinfection protocols should be established, written down, and followed.
Visiting a Livestock Facility

Before visiting a farm, it is essential that you prepare
yourself in order to prevent disease transmission.
You may consider contacting the producer to
discuss specific biosecurity requirements of the
farm. Additionally, you may contact the State
Veterinarian and/or Regional USDA-APHIS office
to determine if special measures are required to
control animal diseases. If the facility is known or
suspected to be involved in a contagious animal
disease outbreak, contact the Center for Veterinary
Medicine and/or the Center for Food Safety and
Applied Nutrition for additional precautions
which may be necessary. APHIS and/or the State
Veterinarian may also have special restrictions or Wikipedia
precautions for you to follow.
Before arrival, ensure that your vehicle is clean and has been recently washed. Obtain equipment and
supplies, such as laundered or disposable coveralls/smocks, disposable plastic gloves, rubber boots,
reusable cloth or plastic laundry basket, soap, water, hand towels, sanitizing solutions and equipment.
Make sure any equipment you take has been thoroughly cleaned and sanitized. Clipboards, briefcases,
flashlights, coolers, and other objects should be cleaned between uses/farm visits as these can spread
diseases between individuals and between farms.
The following procedures are applicable to virtually any farm that you visit. Some farms will have additional
biosecurity measures so you should check with the owner or manager prior to your visit.
1. Wear rubber boots or other suitable footwear, Handwashing

which is disinfected upon arrival and again
prior to departure. Disposable foot coverings
are preferable. Use foot baths if available.
2. Wash your hands with soap and water. Wear

disposable gloves as required by the protocol of
the facility.
3. Wear disposable or freshly laundered coveralls.

Shower-in and shower-out if requested to do so
by the facility.
4. Wear appropriate head coverings as necessary.

UC Davis WIFSS,
5. Minimize materials carried with you, such as
notebooks, flashlights, etc. to only those items that are necessary to complete your task.
6. If the farm has animals of various ages, try to work from the youngest to the oldest.
7. Avoid direct contact with livestock, wild animals, or pets, bodily fluids or animal by products when
visiting facilities. Whenever possible, avoid stepping directly into manure piles.
8. Upon completing your visit, return to your vehicle, remove your personal protective equipment and
place them in a disposable bag. Clean and sanitize boots/footwear.
9. Repeat these procedures for each separate location visited or inspected.
Further information on visiting a farm can be found in the FDA Investigations Operations Manual, 2014
(http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ICECI/Inspections/IOM/UCM150576.pdf).
Species Specific Biosecurity Procedures
The steps listed above can be universally applied Dairy Operaation
to any livestock production facility; however, there
may be certain unique situations encountered
depending on the species of livestock involved.
These are described below.
Dairy Cattle All dairies will have a milking

parlor, as this is a requirement in the Pasteurized
Milk Ordinance; however much variability will be
encountered relative to other aspects of the dairy
and its animals such as the amount of grazing,
type of housing, and type of milking parlor.
Biosecurity on dairies can be difficult to ensure,
as there is much traffic on and off the farm,
there can be many farm workers and generally Creative Commons
few controls. If you visit a dairy, park in an area

well away from any animal housing area. It is usually best to park near the house or office to meet with
the producer before proceeding to the animal area. Your vehicle may also transport infection if you
drive through contaminated areas and may require frequent cleaning between sites. In general, entry
to animal housing or feeding areas, corrals, pens or special treatment facilities should be avoided unless
there are specific reasons to enter those areas. As much as possible, avoid stepping into fecal material,
feed bunks, and feed storage areas. Do not handle any animals (including pets) unless official duties
require such contact.
Beef Cattle There is tremendous variability in Beef Cow-Calf Operation

how beef cattle are raised. Cow-calf production
is considered as an extensive production system,
with some grazing, and feed provided seasonally
as required. Similarly, stocker cattle are raised
under extensive conditions and are maintained
by grazing. In contrast, feedlots are usually an
intensive production system, with all feed provided
by farm workers to the animals. Most feedlots
have dirt-floored pens, but some are in slotted
floor barns.
Jeff Vanuga, NRCS
In extensive production systems, such as cow-calf and stocker, biosecurity can be a challenge, given that
the animals are on pasture with many miles of fencing, and little direct animal control. Feedlots are
somewhat more secure; however, often there is a lot of traffic on and off a facility. Feedlots may have
visitor control areas and some form of security. The same precautions to be taken when visiting a dairy farm
also apply to beef cattle facilities.
Swine The majority of pigs raised in the United Finishing Barn in an All-In, All-Out Swine Operation
States are raised under intensive production
systems such as with finishing hogs on a large
production unit. Vertical integration on some
facilities has resulted in there being a separation
of different phases of production. On such
facilities you may find a gestating barn, a farrowing
barn, a growing barn, and a finishing barn. These
may be on the same or separate physical locations.
All feed is provided to the animals, and all-in,
all-out production is common. In all-in, all-out
production, a group of animals all of a similar
age group is moved into an area/pen/unit
etc., and then all moved out at the same time
prior to the area/pen/unit being disinfected Jeff Vanuga, USDA NRCS
in advance of the arrival of the next

group of animals. Some pigs are raised less intensively and sows may be on pasture for a
portion of the year, farrow outdoors, and have no farrowing crates. Given the differences in how
the pigs are raised, biosecurity will be highly variable as well. In general, there is lots of traffic and
movement on and off all farms. On intensive production units, it is common for there to be visitor control,
with limited access, and some degree of security. Large farms are likely to have a requirement that all
visitors and personnel shower-in and shower-out when entering animal areas.
Goats and Sheep In many ways, small ruminant Goat Operation

production mirrors cattle production. Meat
goats and sheep are usually extensively reared,
utilizing grazing as the primary source of nutrition
with seasonal supplementation. Feedlots for
finishing kids and lambs are not common. Dairy
animals are treated like dairy cattle, with a
milking parlor, and variable amounts of grazing.
Biosecurity measures also mirror those intended
for cattle.
Jeff Vanuga, USDA NRCS
Developing Biosecurity Plans for Livestock Production
It may be useful to have basic knowledge of specific approaches to a biosecurity plan for livestock
production. One useful approach has been to create a 10-step approach that involves creation of tailor-made
working instructions for the producer and farm-workers. The main objective is to reduce the effects of risk
factors or control these risks so that the probability of disease will be as low as reasonably feasible on
that particular production facility.
Step 1. Make the farm more closed, which means

making it less likely that animals that have not
been raised on-site or that have been purchased
from the outside are allowed into the herd as
replacements/additions. It is usually difficult to
have a completely “closed” herd, but the more
closed it is, the better.
Step 2. Design a People Entrance Protocol. There

needs to be a written plan that is enforced related
to hygiene of workers and visitors entering onto
the facility.
Step 3. Similarly, a protocol needs to be

established for all animals that enter and exit
the premises. This includes the health and
vaccination status of the animals, as well as the
disinfection/cleaning protocol of all vehicles used
for transporting those animals.
Step 4. It is highly recommended that every unit on a farm have a separate set of protocols specific to
that unit. For example, the farrowing barn and the gestation barn would each be considered separately.
This will assist with employee training and adherence to Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP) documents.
Step 5. Protocols for day-to-day activities need to be formally established. This would include items
such as health care, feeding management, hygiene and disinfection.
Step 6. Monitoring protocols are essential. There is a saying that “if you cannot measure it, you cannot
manage it”. Having results that can be measured are vital if improvement in the process is going to be
a tangible goal.
Step 7. The importance of a well-trained staff cannot be over-emphasized. If the workers are assigned
responsibilities within the biosecurity plan and are rewarded for achievements, they will embrace
the concept thereby greatly increasing the probability of success.
Step 8. Given that we have divided the facility into separate units, it should be apparent that training
programs specific for each unit need to be in place and training efforts should be directed to the individuals
working in those specific units. It makes no sense to teach the person in charge of a calf unit about mastitis
control in the milking string, if they only ever work in the calf unit.
Step 9. Each unit of a farm will have its own separate set of risk factors to consider. Therefore a separate
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) should be established for each unit. While there may be overlap
(e.g. the whole farm may have the same water supply), having separate documents will aid in compliance.
Step 10. Another critical factor to realize is that any Biosecurity Plan will not be a static document.
Having regular meetings among all those involved, and then adapting the plan to become more functional,
will allow it to develop and improve over time. Remember, too, that the workers are the people that will
have the most intimate knowledge of conditions in their unit, so their input is essential and should be
carefully considered when making improvements to the plan.
Summary
We have discussed the importance of biosecurity
for disease control on various livestock operations.
It takes a true commitment to a Biosecurity Plan
for it to be successful, however, this commitment
is worthwhile as it will fundamentally help to
improve animal health and well-being, maintain
public health, ecosystem health, food safety,
food defense and the economic well-being of the
production unit. There are many ways by which
diseases can be introduced or spread. While
disease risk cannot be completely eliminated,
risk can be managed. Everyone can play a critical
role in minimizing infectious disease introduction
and spread. UC Davis, WIFSS
Acknowledgements

John Angelos, MS, DVM, PhD, DACVIM
Editors:

Juanita Humphrey
Publication Design:

Jeff Hall
Graphic Design:
Jeff Hall
References:
National Animal Health Emergency Response Corps Training Site

http://naherc.sws.iastate.edu/
Canadian Food Inspection Agency Animal Biosecurity

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/biosecurity/eng/1299868055616/1320534707863
Biosecurity for Pork Producers

https://webadmin.pork.org/filelibrary/Biosecurity/final%20biosecurity%20book.pdf
Farm and Ranch Biosecurity

http://www.farmandranchbiosecurity.com/

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Beef Cattle Production

Cattle Diseases, Treatments & Residues

Also since the 1940s, the total number of herds

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 4

Figure 1: Milk Yields and Dairy Cow Numbers

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 5

Calf A young bovine, either male or female, up to

Clean-up Bull A breeding bull that is used to

Colostrum The first milk produced by a

Cull Cows Cows that are removed from the herd

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 6

Fresh Cows Dairy cows that have recently calved.

Dry Cow Treatment Dairy Calves Lactating Dairy Cow

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 7

Teat Sealant Being Applied To Dairy Cow

Veal Calves Immature beef and dairy breed

Voluntary Waiting Period A two to three

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 8

Jeff Vanuga, NRCS

Tim McCabe, NRCS

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 9

herd are fed and housed. Most of the dairy operations

Less common than conventional operations are grazing

Many operations take advantage of intermittent Cows in Pasture Operation

pasture by allowing grazing when it is available and

Jeff Vanuga, NRCS

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 10

Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 11

Common Styles of Milking Parlors

Side Opening (Tandem) Herringbone (Fishbone) Parallel (Side by Side)

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 12

There are several other identification types

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 13

Jeff Hall, UC Davis WIFSS

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 14

Life Cycle of Dairy Cattle

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 15

Figure 2 - Movement of Cattle in the Dairy and Beef Industry

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 16

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 17

Males: Bull Calves Steers and Bulls (Figure 2)

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 18

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 19

Movement of Calves Through Veal Industry

Figure 2 - Movement of Cattle in the Dairy and Beef Industry

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 20

Mike Payne, DVM, PhD Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD

Publication Design Graphic Design

Amanda Arens, DVM, MPVM, PhD Jeff Hall

Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank: http://www.farad.org/regulatory/useclass_cattle.asp

A guide to colostrum and colostrum management for dairy calves.

Dairy Cattle and Veal Production • Page 21

The Beef Cattle Industry is not a single entity.

individuals. Throughout the country, beef

Beef Cattle Production • Page 22

Backgrounder Operation (also referred to Cattle Grazing in Backgrounder Operation