Field Manual:

Poultry Production
 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
2. WHAT IS POULTRY PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT? ............................... 1
2.1 Opportunities for Farmers & Communities ........................................................ 1
2.2 Terminology ......................................................................................................... 2
3. POULTRY BROODING PRACTICES .......................................................... 3
3.1 Preparing the Brooding Area ............................................................................. 3
3.2 Transporting Chicks ............................................................................................. 4
3.3 Litter ...................................................................................................................... 4
3.3.1 Temperature Maintenance........................................................................... 4
3.3.2 Preventing Drafts ............................................................................................ 5
3.3.3 Food & Water .................................................................................................. 5
4. POULTRY HOUSING ................................................................................ 5
4.1 Housing Types ...................................................................................................... 6
4.1.1. Small Scale Semi-Scavenging System Using Indigenous Birds .................. 6
4.1.2 Small-Scale Commercial Farms Using Improved Breeds ........................... 6
4.1.3 Medium- & Large-Scale Production............................................................. 6
4.2 Proper Management........................................................................................... 6
4.3 Ventilation Management ................................................................................... 7
4.4 Housing Hygiene ................................................................................................. 7
5. POULTRY FEEDING & NUTRITION ............................................................ 8
5.1 Nutrition ................................................................................................................ 8
5.1.1 Carbohydrates ............................................................................................... 8
5.1.2 Proteins ............................................................................................................ 8
5.1.3 Sources of Energy & Protein .......................................................................... 8
5.1.4 Vitamins ........................................................................................................... 8
5.1.5 Minerals ............................................................................................................ 8
5.1.6 Water ............................................................................................................... 9
5.2 Factors Affecting Food Intake ............................................................................ 9
5.2.1 Body Weight .................................................................................................... 9
5.2.2 Growth Rate .................................................................................................... 9
 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

5.2.3 Egg Production ............................................................................................... 9

5.2.4 Feed Quality.................................................................................................... 9
5.2.5 Environmental Factors ................................................................................... 9
5.2.6 Feed Composition .......................................................................................... 9
6. LAYER PRODUCTION PRACTICES......................................................... 10
6.1 Five Stages of Layer Development .................................................................. 10
6.1.1 Moulting ......................................................................................................... 10
6.1.2 Housing & Equipment .................................................................................. 10
6.1.3 Feeding .......................................................................................................... 11
6.1.4 Water ............................................................................................................. 12
6.1.5 Lighting .......................................................................................................... 12
6.1.6 Health Controls ............................................................................................. 12
6.1.7 Farm Management ...................................................................................... 12
6.1.8 Collection & Care of Eggs ........................................................................... 13
7. DISEASE PREVENTION & MANAGEMENT ............................................. 13
7.1 Newcastle Disease: Quick Facts ..................................................................... 13
7.2 Transmission ....................................................................................................... 14
7.3 Prevention & Control ......................................................................................... 15
7.4 Vaccinations...................................................................................................... 15
7.5 Biosecurity .......................................................................................................... 15
8. COMMERCIALIZATION OF POULTRY FARMING USING DIFFERENT
MODELS .................................................................................................... 16
8.1 Semi-Scavenging Model .................................................................................. 16
8.2 Vertically Integrated Model ............................................................................. 17
8.3 Producing & Selling Poultry Manure & Litter .................................................... 18
8.3.1 Selecting Fertilizer ......................................................................................... 19
8.3.2 Composition of Manure & Litter .................................................................. 19
8.3.3 Application of Manure & Litter ................................................................... 20
8.3.4 Requirements for Using Manure & Litter ..................................................... 21
8.4 Creating Market & Other Linkages .................................................................. 21
REFERENCES.............................................................................................. 22
 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

1. INTRODUCTION
Fintrac’s 30 years of experience shows that
poultry farmers succeed when they apply
good management practices and use market
information in their production planning. It
is a field agent’s job to support farmers in
their decision making towards achieving
high yielding poultry operations.
This field manual summarizes the practical
knowledge – focused on good poultry
management practices – that Fintrac field
agents use for growing high quality crops in
smallholder farmer settings. It is a resource
used during Fintrac’s boot camp for poultry
field agents, and a reference for their
ongoing work with smallholder farmers.

2. WHAT IS POULTRY
PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT?
Poultry offers a healthy protein source for
improving nutrition in developing countries,
as well as livelihoods opportunities for small
scale producers. Over the past decade, with
local and global demand for poultry meat
rising, so has the need for higher production
rates. Regulatory and food safety
requirements are also changing as production
and trade of poultry intensifies. These changes
provide challenges and opportunities for
developing countries.
To benefit from these opportunities and
overcome the challenges, poultry farmers
must use good practices in poultry
production management. Unfortunately, due Smallholder poultry farm in Honduras with strong
to a wide array of constrains – such as access management practices in place, leading to high-quality
to knowledge, funds to invest into poultry eggs.
businesses, and others – farmers often fail to
fully benefit from their poultry enterprises.

2.1 Opportunities for Farmers & Communities

The opportunities for the role of poultry in building steady income sources for farmers that also bring
benefits to their communities abound:
¨ Poultry production uses less water than more intensive livestock production, which saves costs. At
the same time, chickens produce less greenhouse gas emissions as compared to large animals such as
cows and pigs.

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 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

¨ Poultry is relatively cheap to produce because of a high feed to meat conversation ratio (1kg of
broiler1 meat requires about 1.7 kg of feed to produce); it also requires less feed to produce a good
quantity eggs2 and meat.
¨ Poultry production creates job opportunities. Enterprising producers can achieve a good rate of
return on starting a poultry farm. Farmers can also integrate poultry farming into their regular
farming production practices to supplement their income.
¨ Poultry production provides the best and cheapest source of high-quality food sourced protein. It
has the essential minerals, vitamins, and amino acids needed by humans, which rice and other cereal
grains lack. Poultry meat and eggs are widely available, inexpensive nutrient sources, and the meat of
a chicken can feed an average family.
All of these opportunities add up to poultry being an important component of agriculture development. It is
good for farmers, good for consumers, and beneficial to a country’s overall economic development. It is
therefore a topic that any field technician working with smallholder farmers needs to become an expert in
for advising clients.

2.2 Terminology
¨ Backyard producer is a small-scale producer raising a few chickens either for meat, eggs, or both.
¨ Brood is a family of young animals, especially a bird, produced at one hatching.
¨ Broilers are poultry reared for their meat. These include indigenous breeds, which are usually dual
purpose used for both meat and eggs and improved breeds. At the backyard level producers typically
use Sasso for dual purpose and Bovans Brown for egg laying — females as layers and then meat and
males as meat. There are also special breeds that are optimum meat producers.
¨ Chicken manure is the feces of chicken used as an organic fertilizer, especially for soil that is low
in Nitrogen. Of all animal manures, it has the highest amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium.
¨ Crude protein is the total amount of protein in feed calculated from the nitrogen content of that
food. The total nitrogen is determined by multiplying by a factor of 6.25 for most feeds to estimate
the protein equivalence in that feed.
¨ Culling involves the removal of less desirable animals from the herd to maximize the available
resources, such as food and housing, and minimize the disease risk.
¨ Day old chicks (DOC) are newborn baby usually of improved, imported breeds or raised locally
from fertile eggs of improved breeds.
¨ Feed conversion ratio (FCR) refers to a measure of how efficiently an animal converts the feed
they ingest to body mass (weight). It is measured in kg of feed consumed to kg of weight gained.
¨ Feed ration includes the addition of different types of feed containing enough energy, protein, and
minerals to meet minimum daily health and nutrition requirements.
¨ Fertilizer-organic is made from plant or animal waste, such as manure or compost.
¨ Fertilizer-inorganic (synthetic) is manufactured artificially and contains minerals or synthetic
chemicals.
¨ A hen is a female bird of the domestic fowl.
¨ Improved breeds are bred with certain improved characteristics and are high-yielding.

1
Broilers are specific breeds of poultry that are reared for the production of chicken meat.
2
Layers are specific breeds of poultry that are reared for the production of eggs.

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 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

¨ Indigenous breeds are lower yielding than improved breeds. Most small-scale producers use
indigenous breeds.
¨ Layers are poultry reared for egg laying. Improved breeds include Lohman (brown or white) and
Bovans (brown/white).
¨ Moulting is the process of layers losing their feathers and stop laying. During this period, they
should be fed a high protein diet. This is a normal process that happens to all poultry.
¨ Poultry litter is organic waste produced from chickens like manure, spilled feed, feathers, and
bedding materials. This material is enriched with plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium.
¨ Production systems are how poultry are kept and raised. Extensive (free range) and intensive
(zero grazing) are the main systems. All commercial broiler or layer production systems are
intensive.
¨ Pullet is a young hen, less than one-year old, that start laying eggs between 16-24 weeks old.
¨ Total daily nutrients are the nutrient requirements to allow for growth and maintenance of
poultry. Broilers total daily nutrient requirement differs from layers; day-old chick requirements
different from two-week-old chicks.
¨ Vaccination is the process of administering either live or dead virus into the healthy chicken in the
form of a vaccine to protect the chicken from infection.

3. POULTRY BROODING PRACTICES

Brooding refers to the period just after the hatching of baby chicks when they are at their most fragile. Good
brood management ensures good bird health, reduces chick mortality, and lowers costs.
Brooding should begin from the minute the farmer picks up the day old chicks. It is necessary to use heat and
proper ventilation to maintain an optimal environment to keep the chicks’ body temperature constant until
they become fully feathered and able to regulate their own body temperature.

3.1 Preparing the Brooding Area

There are several steps required to make the brooding area ready for a new set of chicks. If the area is not
prepared properly the chicks may become too cold or too hot. This reduces their productive capacity later
on. Important steps include:
¨ Removing any old, wet, or caked
litter from the brooding area.
¨ Disinfecting and cleaning the entire
area including feeders and waterers
at least two weeks before baby
chicks arrive to prevent disease
transmission.
¨ Securing the area against rodents,
and if mesh or wire is used they
should be cleaned as well and any
accumulated dust removed.
¨ Spraying for mites, lice, spiders, or
other such pests.
Infra-red lamps provide heat and light, which allow the
¨ Checking that brooding bulbs are chicks to easily find their food and water. The
working properly so the brooding distribution of the chicks indicates this a correct set-up.

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area can be heated before baby chicks arrive.

¨ Preventing drafts from entering brooding area by adding curtains around the brooding area.
¨ Arranging feed and water trays evenly around the brooding area to deter huddling.
¨ Adding 4-5 inches of clean, dry litter at least two days before the baby chicks arrive.

3.2 Transporting Chicks

There are many criteria for safely transporting chicks to reduce mortality, and thus save the initial
investment. It is important to check that the below criteria are met before, during, and after transporting
chicks.

¨ Transporting chicks from the secure

brooding area to the farm should take
place when the outside temperature is at
its lowest (early morning is best).
¨ The vehicle for transporting the chicks
must be well-ventilated and it must
remain cool so chicks are not heat
stressed while travelling to the farm.
¨ Never transport baby chicks in the trunk
of any vehicle -- the closed space is
poorly ventilated.
¨ As soon as the chicks arrive on the farm,
place them individually into the brooding
area, being careful not to drop them,
which may result in injury. Transporting chicks in well-ventilated, safe structures
¨ Provide clean, fresh water immediately to ensures their health.
the chicks for up to two hours before introducing any feed.

3.3 Litter
Litter refers to any material used to absorb the moisture from the chicks. It also makes make cleaning
simpler, thus optimizing chick health. Types of litter include: wood that has been shredded finely (shavings);
shredded paper; and peanut, rice, or straw hulls. Litters vary based on the country where the chickens are
reared. Materials such as cardboard, plastic or other smooth surfaces are unsuitable as litter and also cause
leg problems later on.
The important thing to remember is that it should be lightweight; easy to add to the floor of the coop; easy
to remove; should not hold moisture; and should be cheap. Sawdust is frequently used in some countries but
it has a lot of dust. This can lead to respiratory and other health problems in the flock.
Litter should be removed every week and the coop cleaned regularly. Another way is using the deep litter
method where the old litter is turned to the bottom of the heap and new straw is added every day.
3.3.1 Temperature Maintenance
The temperature at which chicks are maintained during the brooding period is probably the single most
important determinant of whether the birds survive and if they do, how well they thrive. Chicks that have just
hatched are unable to effectively regulate their body temperature.
Brooding bulbs, gas-operated brooders, coal stoves or lamps should be turned on for 4-6 hours before chicks
arrive at the farm to allow sufficient time for the brooding area to reach an ambient temperature of between
31-33oC.

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 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

When the chicks arrive at the farm, disperse

them evenly throughout the brooding area but
still close to the brooding lamps. Make sure that
they are away from any drafts to avoid changes
in body temperature.
It is easy to tell if the birds are too hot or too
cold.
¨ If they are huddled around close
together, it is either too cold or too
drafty.
¨ If they have moved far away from the
brooding bulbs it means they are too
hot. Feeders and waterers need to be the right size and
¨ A good sign is when they are evenly use the correct feed and nutrients for specific periods
dispersed throughout the brooding area. of a chicken’s life. Also note the use of wood shavings
to keep chicks separated from their waste.
The temperature should be checked during the
entire brooding process to prevent the brooding area from overheating. Maintain an even temperature
during the first week while the chicks acclimatize, then reduce by 3oC each week to 21oC by week three
when it is no longer necessary to provide heat.
3.3.2 Preventing Drafts
Specialized curtains regulate temperature and prevent drafts. If the coop becomes too hot, the curtains can
be lifted to reduce temperature and humidity.
Another way to improve ventilation is by the use of fans. Circulating air, in addition to cooling, also removes
moisture, odors, and gases that can be harmful. It also improves the amount of oxygen available to the chicks.
Temperature can be lowered by reducing the length of time that the brooding bulbs stay on or by keeping
the curtains lifted. Once the first week has passed, the temperature of the coop can be reduced from 31-
33oC to between 28-30oC.
3.3.3 Food & Water
The normal brooding period lasts approximately 12 days to four weeks. This period depends on the weather
and housing type. It is important to check the feeders and waterers daily to make sure they do not have any
dirty litter, which could spread disease. Remove the feeders and water toughs used during the first week of
brooding and replace them with larger equipment.
When chicks first arrive to their brooding house, add one teaspoon of glucose into a gallon of drinking water
for 24 hours. At the same time, add a vitamin/mineral supplement at the rate of one teaspoon/gallon of
water, and allow the chicks to feed on this for 6-8 hours. Double check the time intervals with your poultry-
specific breed manuals to correctly advise farmers.
After the brooding period, reduce the level of the feed in the feeders to prevent waste.

4. POULTRY HOUSING
Poultry housing serves several important functions for producing healthy products. They include:
¨ Protecting birds from predators, thieves, and adverse weather conditions.
¨ Allowing farmers to manage bird health and easily administer vaccines.
¨ Protecting newly hatched birds with the correct thermal requirements

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4.1 Housing Types

The housing type depends on the climate and

the bird. In temperate climates, day-old chicks
need to be warm because they are unable to
regulate their body temperate. In tropical
climates, day-old chicks need to be cool to
prevent overheating, dehydration, and death.
The best housing type also provides proper
ventilation for animal health and environmental
safety. Below are the different types of housing
for different types of birds.
4.1.1. Small Scale Semi-Scavenging System
Using Indigenous Birds
In Ethiopia, this housing is constructed of local
¨ Structures consist of locally available materials and birds of the same age are housed
materials (wood, leaves and other local together.
tree materials).
¨ Birds spend the evening in the shelter and forage during the day.
¨ Minimal protection from climate and predators.
4.1.2 Small-Scale Commercial Farms Using Improved Breeds
¨ Build housing with local available materials (wood, bamboo, mud, bricks, etc.) Sturdy to protect birds
from predators.
¨ Houses similar aged birds, (approx. 50-100).
¨ The structure keeps the birds confined in one location since improved breeds are more susceptible
to temperature variations.
¨ Birds rely on natural airflow for ventilation and temperature regulation.
4.1.3 Medium- & Large-Scale Production

¨ Perches: They assist in leg and

flight muscle development; alleviate
stress because they can roost alone;
decrease pests and disease spread.
A one-meter perch may roost five
adult birds. The size of the round
sticks should accommodate the
birds’ feet to prevent them from
falling.
¨ Nests: They provide a safe location
for hens to lay their eggs because
the eggs are above ground and
located in the house. Nests also
make it simpler to collect eggs. In Ethiopia, this housing is constructed of local materials
and birds of the same age are housed together.
4.2 Proper Management
¨ Include one nest for every five laying hens.
¨ Have individual nests for brooding hens.

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 Fintrac U | Field Manual: Poultry Production

¨ Include individual laying nests in tropical climates since communal nests can become too hot for the
hens.
¨ Build one nest box at 30 x 30 x 30 x cm. Locally available materials can be used (straw baskets, clay
pots or calabashes).
¨ Ensure nesting material is changed weekly.

Medium Scale Large Scale

Requires a smaller financial investment and few Expensive to construct and requires large financial
building materials such as tin for roofing and investment and a high turnover of birds to be
lumber to support the structure. economically viable
Rely on natural airflow for ventilation and Utilize controlled environment systems for bird’s
temperature regulation. Heat lamps help chicks thermal regulation. This includes automatic fans
maintain body temperature. and cooling and/or heating systems
Broilers are in a free-range system while layers Broilers are in a free-range system while cages are
may be free range or in cages. needed for layers.
Medium scale houses contains mesh wire walls to Commercial scale houses always have solid walls.
allow for airflow.

4.3 Ventilation Management

Ventilation is necessary for the flow of oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste gases, and dust. Insufficient ventilation
can have harmful effects on bird and farmer health. It is best practice to build houses with high roofs for
ample wind exposure with sidewalls facing north-south to prevent overheating. The types of ventilation
include:

¨ Small- and medium-scale farms use natural

airflow for ventilation while large-scale farms
use fans and automated systems to regulate
air flow.
¨ Large-scale farms utilize negative pressure
systems or tunnel ventilation.
¨ Negative pressure systems use an exhaust fan
to create a partial vacuum and distribute cool
air evenly throughout the house
¨ Tunnel ventilation is the best option for
housing in tropical climates. It includes using
large fans at one end of the building to draw
air across the length of the house. Air
openings and inlets are minimized with A clear plastic sheet prevents drafts.
evaporation cooling pads.

4.4 Housing Hygiene

Keeping the house clean is a critical biosecurity measure to the birds’ health. Feeders and water stations
must be cleaned daily and litter replaced weekly. Bird dropping should be cleaned regularly to keep litter dry,
and ash can be added to help prevent parasites. The entire chicken coop must be disinfected between each
batch of chickens and after any disease outbreak.

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5. POULTRY FEEDING & NUTRITION

Proper nutrition is important for poultry health and productivity. It is good to provide supplementary feeding
to increase body mass for meat production and egg laying production (especially for scavengers). Poor
nutrition will lead to flock mortality and loss of investment.

5.1 Nutrition
Chickens require energy (or carbohydrates), protein, vitamins, minerals, and water. They get these nutrients
through feed.
5.1.1 Carbohydrates
¨ Carbohydrates or energy are the main components of a chicken’s diet and are essential to their
health.
¨ Chickens will consume the correct amount of feed needed to meet their energy requirements, so
free access to feed is recommended.
¨ To change their energy intake, the concentration of feed should be altered, not the quantity. Average
requirements are:
o Chicks: 2800 kcal/kg of feed
o Layers: 2,750 kcal/kg of feed
o Broilers: 3,000 kcal/kg of feed
5.1.2 Proteins
¨ Chickens need protein to build muscle and carry out bodily functions.
¨ Proteins are made of amino acids and the body does not produce enough of them. Called essential
amino acids, they need to be included in the feed.
¨ Protein is measured as crude protein and percentages of lysine and methionine are used as indicators
for all essential amino acids.
¨ To ensure their protein intake, use the following average quantities:
o Chicks: 20% crude protein
o Layers: 17% crude protein
o Broilers: 21% crude protein
5.1.3 Sources of Energy & Protein
¨ Poultry feed is generally derived from maize, wheat bran, soy cake, fish meal and sea shells.
¨ The type of feed used will depending on the scale of the farm, financial resources, and types of feed
locally available.
5.1.4 Vitamins
¨ Vitamin deficiency can lead to disease and decreased productivity.
¨ Bugs, insects, and green plants have vitamins that commercial feed lacks. Poultry fed with the latter
need vitamin supplementation as follows:
o Choline
o Vitamin A
o Vitamin B (Niacin, Riboflavin and Pantothenic acid)
o Vitamin D3
5.1.5 Minerals
Calcium and phosphorus are of particular importance because they are necessary for bone growth and egg
shell formation. Correct amounts in feed are important since these two minerals interact with one another

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and can affect the absorption of each other. Egg production necessitates double the amount of calcium.
Adding bone meal or limestone flour to feed allows chickens to meet their calcium and phosphorus
requirements. Important minerals include calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iron, iodine, copper, and manganese.
5.1.6 Water
Chickens should always have access to clean water – it is essential for them to digest food; remove toxins
from the body; control their body temperature in hot weather; grow; produce eggs, and for their overall
growth and development. Eggs consist of about 65% water and dehydrated birds will have decreased egg
production. Chickens can live longer without food than without water. Lack of consistent water supply
hinders growth, causes low egg production, and early moulting of layers.

5.2 Factors Affecting Food Intake

Feed intake depends on the age of the birds, housing system, type of chicken (broilers or layers), the
environment where the birds are kept, and the nutrient content of the diet (particularly energy content). For
example, if birds are kept in a hot environment, feed consumption is usually lower than the required amount.
When the energy content of the diet is higher than the recommended level, feed consumption will be lower
than the required amount. Therefore, farmers must consider all the above factors when formulating a ration
to particular age groups or types of birds. It is important that field agents remind farmers to follow the
production manual and feed manufacturer instructions about feeding. There are different standards of feeding
for each types of birds at their particular age.
5.2.1 Body Weight
Chickens require 70 grams per day for 2 kg of body weight. Add I gram for every 50 grams above 2 kg and
subtract 1 gram of feed for every 50 grams below 2 kg. This is a normal feeding requirement.
5.2.2 Growth Rate
Growing chickens will require 1.5 grams of feed in addition to normal feeding requirements. Broiler varieties
require different feeding schedules as compared to egg laying varieties, particularly depending on their
consumption levels.
5.2.3 Egg Production
Increased egg production requires an increase in the amount of feed and calcium. For every 1 gram of egg
produced, add an additional 1 gram of feed.
5.2.4 Feed Quality
The amount of feed required will depend on the feed quality. Chickens will need less feed with higher
carbohydrate or energy concentrations.
5.2.5 Environmental Factors
Free-range or cage-free chickens will require more feed than caged birds. Temperature can also affect feed
intake with warmer weather reducing feed intake and cold weather promoting feed consumption.
5.2.6 Feed Composition
In poultry farming, feed constitutes 60-70% of the production cost. It is thus important to understand the
chickens’ requirements against the composition of the feed. Farmers benefit by purchasing the precise
compositions to maximize investment. Chickens will consume the amount necessary to meet their energy
needs; therefore, to increase their energy consumption, farmers must update feed composition.

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6. LAYER PRODUCTION PRACTICES

The productivity of laying birds depends on many factors, but the genetic background of the birds, their
feeding regimen, health care, rearing situation, and housing system all play a major role. Among all the factors
that contribute for better performance, the standard of farm management and the interactions between
different breeds and their environment are significant. Farmers must consider all the factors mentioned above
when planning to have better laying birds. The management starts at day one of the chicks’ life.

6.1 Five Stages of Layer Development

Stage Information Age
This is the early growing period of chicks. Feed should be appropriate
Brooding composition and chick’s thermal requirements should be monitored to 1 – 6 weeks
keep the chicks warm at about 35°C.
During the growing period, birds are transferred to larger pens. Feed
Growing 6 – 12 weeks
requirements are adjusted and certain vaccines are administered.
Young hens will require more feed, water and space as they mature.
Pullet Weighing hens will tell the farmer if the feed ration is correct. Layers 12 – 20 weeks
should be transferred to egg laying housing at 18 weeks.
Egg production begins in this stage. Cull any sick or unproductive birds.
Laying 20 – 120 weeks
Birds have an average 2 years of egg production.
Replacement
New chicks arrive around week 80 and hens are culled at 120 weeks. 80 weeks
Process

6.1.1 Moulting
Moulting is a natural process by which chickens shed and renew their feathers. During moulting, the
reproductive system of the chickens is at rest and the body is able to build up reserves of nutrients. Moulting
occurs after the completion of a laying cycle or if there is a reduction of day length and a reduced feeding
time and loss of bodyweight. Moulting can also be induced by stress or physical exhaustion. Pullets will
undergo one complete molt and three partial molts while layer hens will have one molt per year.
6.1.2 Housing & Equipment
Llayer hens need to be housed one week before egg production begins. This will ensure that by the time egg
production starts, the chickens would have overcome any disturbances or stress from moving to a new
location. Layers should be housed in a quiet location as noise can affect egg production. Laying boxes should
be provided at the rate of five hens per nest and placed in the middle of the coop, as shown below.

Laying boxes should be provided at the rate of five hens per nest and placed in the middle of the coop.

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Layer farms should have the necessary equipment and adhere to spacing requirements for optimum
production.
Standards for Production
Standard for 1000 pullets At 18 weeks
Floor space 143 m² (1:1.5sq.ft.)
Ventilation capacity 10,000m³/h
Feeders
- Circular feeders simultaneous feeding 40 (25 hens /feeder)
Drinkers 10 (1:100 birds)
- Big (Plasson) 10 m
- Linear 100
- Nipple
- Volume at 30 C 570 L (150 gal.)
Lighting equipment 1 60w bulb / 125 birds
200 nest boxes
Nests 5 hens / nest box

6.1.3 Feeding
Feed needs to be supplied regularly as birds finish their daily allowance. Generally, the rule is to fill the feeder
to 2/3 of the volume capacity so that the feed can be frequently mixed. This way over-packing of food into
the feeder is avoided. Ensure feed contains adequate protein content and calcium and phosphorus since these
are essential for egg development.
Nutritional Requirements
Chicks Growers (pullets) Layers
Nutrients in Feed
(0-8 weeks) (6-20 weeks) (adult birds)
Energy (kcal/kg) 2800 2750 2750
Crude protein % 20 16 17
Crude fiber % 3–4 3–7 3–8
Crude fat % 3–5 2.5 – 4 3–8
Most important
amino acids: 1.0 0.8 0.7
Lysine %
Methionine % 0.4 0.35 0.35
Minerals:
1.0 0.8 3-3.5
Calcium (Ca) %
Phosphorous (P) % 0.9 0.7 0.9
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) % 0.4 0.3 0.3
Manganese (Mn) (mg/kg) 50 50 50
Zinc (Zn) (mg/kg) 40 40 40
Vitamins:
1300 1000 1000
Choline (mg/kg)
Niacin (mg/kg) 28 25 25
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 10 10 10
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 4 4 4
Vitamin A (IU*/kg) 1320 1250 1250
Vitamin D3 (IU*/kg) 400 250 350
* International units per kg feed

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6.1.4 Water
Chickens must be supplied with good quality drinking water at all times. Periodic checks of water quality
should be made. Drinkers must be cleaned every day and water depth should be sufficient to drink without
splashing (15mm). Water consumption increases with temperatures above 20ºC. Consumption will also vary
with the temperature of the water. Water consumption can be measured with a meter, and water intake
temperature should be monitored daily. Non-potable water should be treated with bleach (1 cup/1000
gallons).
6.1.5 Lighting
Poultry require a certain amount of light per day depending on their age and timing. The general rule of
thumb is to increase light during rearing period and do not reduce during laying period. However, it is always
better to follow each management guideline for lighting schedule.
A light timer switch will consistently turn lights on and off automatically. A grade pullets are grown on a
specific lighting program, and should receive 14 to 16 hours of light (12 hours daylight + 2-4 hours of artificial
light). Install one 60-watt light bulb for every 9 square meters and hang the light about 2.1 meters above the
bird. If smaller wattage light bulbs are used, than more lights will be needed and should be placed closer to
each other.
The lighting program must be maintained to ensure optimum performance. A decrease in day length or light
can decrease production. Artificial light can be reduced as the hours of sunlight increase. It important that
layers receive a total of 16 hours of light. Under no circumstances should you expose your chickens to more
than 16 hours of light.
6.1.6 Health Controls
Farmers should follow veterinarian instructions for vaccinations, antibiotics, and dewormers. It is the farmer’s
responsibility to facilitate appointments with the veterinarian, keep a detailed record of visits and the flock’s
health and inspect chickens for signs of lice or mite infestation. Additionally, chicks should be kept separate
from older birds as the risk of older birds infecting younger birds is high. Important health controls include
providing the correct vaccine regime for poultry. There is always a big variation in vaccination schedules
between manufacturers, and vaccination types need to be based on what diseases are prevalent in the area.
Therefore, there is no one vaccination schedule even for Newcastle Disease (Section 7.1).
Proper bio-security measures implemented in the management of the flock’s health include:
¨ Place one pair of water boots within reach of entry door. Change shoe on entry and exit from the
fowl house.
¨ Isolate flock from personnel and visitors.
¨ Control delivery vehicles and personnel.
¨ Proper cleaning and disinfection between flocks.
¨ Taking a hygienic break of 3-4 weeks in between removal and replacement.
¨ Proper perimeter fencing to keep out stray animals.
¨ Reinforce all access points to protect the chicken house from wild birds.
¨ All personnel wearing clean clothing on a daily basis.
¨ Proper incineration of dead birds.
6.1.7 Farm Management
A good record system will enable the farmer to know the financial position of the layer farm and protect his
or her investment by making sound business decisions. Check and record of the following:
¨ Number of pullets housed
¨ Amount of feed consumed and cost of feed and overall cost/pullet

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¨ Hatch date
¨ Body weight (make sure pullets are at the adequate body weight when brought into egg production)
¨ Lighting program schedule
¨ House temperatures
¨ Disease history
¨ Vaccination and medication dates and schedules
¨ Mortality
¨ Sales report (eggs, birds etc.)
¨ Egg production
6.1.8 Collection & Care of Eggs
¨ Eggs should be collected frequently to prevent breakage and bacterial contamination. At least twice
per day should be adequate. Stirring the birds during the collection assists with heat loss and
stimulates drinking and eating.
¨ Hands should be washed before collecting the eggs. Collect all nest eggs before picking up the floor
eggs, as they are more easily contaminated.
¨ Do not pick up dead or sick birds at the same time as the collection of the eggs.
¨ Eggs should be collected and placed in a cool and/or shaded place or room.
¨ Eggs should be sanitized as quickly as possible after each collection to prevent bacterial build up.
¨ Eggs should be graded before storing in flats. This minimizes breakages and facilitates packing for
commercial sales.
¨ Eggs should be stored with the large end up in an egg room at 160-180°C and at a relative humidity
of 75 – 80%.
¨ The egg room should be disinfected regularly.
¨ Sudden changes in temperature and humidity may cause the eggs to sweat and spoil.

7. DISEASE PREVENTION & MANAGEMENT

One constant challenge in poultry production is diseases. They affect poultry productivity and
commercialization. Among the many poultry diseases, the two most serious are Newcastle Disease (ND) and
Avian Influenza. However, Newcastle Disease is the most contagious viral poultry disease that affects all ages
of birds and species of poultry. It occurs in most parts of the world (though the strain varies among
locations) and can have serious economic consequences for smallholder farmers. Therefore, it is the focus of
this section.
Prevention and control of ND is possible through coordinated and complementary biosecurity measures and
vaccination.

7.1 Newcastle Disease: Quick Facts

¨ The average incubation period of the disease is usually 5-6 days.
¨ Based on its virulence, the virus is a Velogenic (highly lethal type), Mesogenic (moderately lethal) or
Lentogenic (mild effect).
¨ Etiology is the Paramyxoviridae virus.
¨ ND occurs in most parts of the world including the Americas, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe.
¨ The morbidity rate can reach 100% and mortality may be up to 90%.

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¨ Repeated testing and confirmation for trade purpose is required.

¨ Endemic and virulent form affects the quality and quantity of available protein supply from poultry.
¨ It has a significant effect on human health.
¨ It exposes the birds to secondary infections that increase losses.
¨ It creates carriers for future transmissions of the disease.

7.2 Transmission
The transmission of ND to humans is
from handling the live animals, not from
handling or consuming products.
Therefore, lab workers and vaccination
crews are at the highest risk. There is
no concern for human-to-human spread.
The symptoms include mild
conjunctivitis (eye infections); reddening
of eye; and excessive tearing and edema
lids.
Transmission occurs from the chickens
shedding the virus in their body
secretions (e.g. from their eyes), in their
feces, and in their eggs. The clinical signs
that poultry show when they are
infected include:
¨ Sudden death, high morbidity &
mortality
¨ Anorexia, depression
¨ Wings have dropped as if they
are wearing a heavy coat
¨ Lack of coordination
¨ Paralysis & muscle tremors
¨ Misshapen eggs, drop/stop in egg production
¨ Swollen head
¨ Greenish watery diarrhea
¨ Fever and respiratory issues
Postmortem findings can help understand the common causes of mortality from ND. They include:
¨ Hemorrhage in the proventriculus
¨ Enlarged and hemorrhagic caecal tonsils
¨ Hemorrhagic lesions in the intestinal wall
¨ Spleen shows necrosis
¨ Congested trachea
¨ Inflammation of air sacs (airsacculitis)
¨ Edema of head, especially around eyes

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7.3 Prevention & Control

There is no treatment of ND, but prevention with vaccination and proper management practices, and control
through biosecurity measures (Section 7.5) are vital for farmers to successfully benefit from poultry
production. The experience in some parts of the world indicate the use of Thermostable Newcastle Disease
Vaccine (I2) is the most effective vaccine for smallholder farmers. Generally speaking, major areas of
prevention and control include:
¨ Inspecting the farm on a daily basis.
¨ Culling infected and suspected birds
¨ Controlling and decontaminating the infected area(s).
¨ Monitoring human, anima, and material movement.
¨ Building public awareness and teaching signs of early detection.
¨ Tracing and surveillance.
¨ Preventing the virus from entering the country, area and farm.
¨ Ensuring proper waste disposal and vaccine handling.

7.4 Vaccinations
New vaccines and control measures are available, and should always be reinforced by good management
practices. It is important to vaccinate healthy birds as part of poultry farming practices. The important points
to remember include:
¨ Vaccines are available in live, killed and inactivated, thermo-tolerate forms, and found in combined
forms.
¨ Vaccines are used differently depending on age and species of birds, environmental conditions,
immunity status, and nature of the vaccine.
¨ Methods of application varies, including though drinking water (Lasota type), via ocular and nose
routes (Hitchener B1), combined vaccines provided at hatchery for life-long immunity, and
injectables.
¨ Antibiotic treatment is available and helpful for secondary bacterial infections (e.g. E. coli) to reduce
flock losses.
¨ Skilled providers need to vaccinate flocks from reliable sources and using the instructions and
recommendations from the vaccine company.
¨ In most of the cases, use thermostable I2 ND vaccine in the rural areas.
¨ Vaccinations require proper cold storage and should not be in direct sunlight. Vaccine handling and
management rules should be applied on cold chain management, dose and after use vaccine handling.
¨ Finally, it is very important that poultry farmers always properly record all vaccination and disease
cases.

7.5 Biosecurity
There are three main components of poultry biosecurity: isolation; traffic control; and sanitation. The goal of
these activities is to prevent the introduction and/or spread of ND and other diseases. Biosecurity is a basic
management practice that need to be understood and followed.
Isolate poultry in the following ways:
¨ Healthy chickens from diseased ones
¨ Different ages
¨ Different breeds

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¨ Different species
¨ Different products, e.g. feed residue
Control traffic in the following ways:
¨ Viruses are carried via shoes, tools, vehicles, etc; controlling traffic limits potential burden to poultry.
¨ Use one set of clean clothes and tools for your poultry areas.
¨ Always use boot dips before entering the house.
Use proper sanitation methods in the following ways:
¨ Clean out all housing by removing the chickens when cleaning and sanitizing the farm.
¨ When housing is cleaned, seal and secure all manure in bags; park hauling vehicles as close to housing
as possible; avoid manure spillage and sweep any spillage into a bag; add all feed that is left in the
house and add it to the manure bag; seal the bag and place in hauling vehicle.
¨ Soak all equipment in HI 7 for 24 hours, and clean thoroughly.
¨ Clean the inside and outside walls of the house with a disinfectant and soap combination, adding H1
7 disinfectant to the rinsing water.
¨ Carefully inspect the house and complete all maintenance - fill all gaps in cement floors and walls and
repair any broken equipment.
¨ Sprinkle lime on all pathways to and from the house.
¨ Always use foot dips to sanitize the bottom of shoes prior to entering and exiting the house.

8. COMMERCIALIZATION OF POULTRY FARMING USING

DIFFERENT MODELS
Starting with basic poultry production practices is always a pivotal step in gaining benefits from poultry.
Commercializing poultry production is another crucial component for farmers. It helps move farmers away
from village poultry production – whereby farmers raise indigenous chickens in extensive systems as
scavengers with housing, if provided, that lacks basic biosecurity measures – and into more intensive poultry
production. The latter ultimately breeds stronger animals and higher quality products, and reduces chicken
mortality rates.
Two successful models include semi-scavenging and vertical integrated production. They each support village
producers using extensive systems to move into higher value production when coupled with diversification.
Additionally, farmers, depending on the size of their flocks, can introduce other products from their poultry
farm such as chicken manure for crops production.

8.1 Semi-Scavenging Model

A semi-scavenging model significantly reduces chicken mortality, improves bird performance and
management, and reduces health hazards to human and birds due to fecal contamination. With the
improvements, smallholder poultry producers increase their income. Notably, farmers receiving technical
assistance to implement the semi-scavenging production model reduce the mortality rates among their
chickens from 40 to 5%. Other significant improvements include:
¨ The physical condition of the birds significantly improved as compared locked down groups.
¨ Productivity of the birds increased significantly as compared to extensively kept layers.
¨ The average egg production of the birds increased by 45%.
¨ The income of the farmers improved by 35%.

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This semi-scavenging production model uses

laying birds called Sasso, a dual-purpose
breed distributed from day old chick (DOC)
producing companies and kept by rural
farmers for both meat and egg purposes. As
part of the semi-scavenging production
model, instead of a 100% concentrate diet,
farmers feed their birds and supplement
their diet with green forage. The chickens
flock under cowpea shrubs, using them as
shelter and as food. As such, farmers save
money because they can purchase less feed.
Additionally, the cowpea leaves help the
laying birds to lay deep yolk colored eggs,
which fetch better market prices and Semi-scavenging poultry farm in Hawassa, Ethiopia.
improve the body condition and overall
health.
To be effective, the semi-scavenging model requires the following:
¨ After the farmer fences their birds in a closed area, they need to supplement the birds with proper
feeding. In the case of Sasso, this includes providing the birds access to forage plants like cowpea,
alfalfa, cabbages, and sasbania. Hydroponically-grown leaves are preferred by the birds and provide
the same vitamin and protein content.
¨ Frequent watering, health care, and proper feeding and management will guarantee the farmers
better profits under this production model. These all should also be recorded and documented.

8.2 Vertically Integrated Model

This model reduces over-dependence on

expensive outside resources, creates local jobs,
reduces risks and market uncertainties, and
supports the integration of improved
technologies. Vertical integration is a farm that
controls its entire production process from
production to marketing. This creates conditions
for farmers to achieve larger production and
minimal costs. They also achieve more control
over their supply chain for steadier sales.
These benefits can be helpful to farmers for
selling their products directly to vertically
integrating firms with some amount of certainty
and regularity. However, some disadvantages to
small and medium farmers include fewer
competing firms to sell their products, limiting
their potential markets. Additional disadvantages A vertically-integrated model supports larger
include: production capacity.
¨ Limited capacity to supply all technologies and embedded services.
¨ Limited control on the quality of technologies and embedded services.
¨ Limited flexibility to price changes.
¨ Incomplete package delivery (DOCs, feed, vaccines etc.) to pullet growers.

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Examples of typical vertically integrated layer farms:

¨ Feed mills produce compound feed for their own use and mother units, small and medium
commercial poultry farms and GOs etc.
¨ Parent stock produces fertile eggs mainly for its own hatchery.
¨ Hatchery produces day old chicks for mother units, GOs (Government Organizations), small and
medium poultry producers.
¨ Grow-out units brood, rear and distribute pullets and cockerels to GOs, NGOs, Small and medium
poultry producers.
¨ Health service delivery unit serves the parent stock, hatchery and grow out units through
vaccination and treatment.
¨ Foreign breeder company supplies breeder day old chicks (DOCs).
¨ Domestic and foreign company link for vaccines and feed additives supply.
¨ Domestic feed raw materials supply linkage are usually market agents that collect feed raw
materials from producer farmers and deliver to feed mill unit.
¨ Marketing and finance unit links the downstream and upstream market linkages.

8.3 Producing & Selling Poultry Manure & Litter

Producing and selling poultry manure and poultry litter can bring in additional income that also benefits crop
production. There are many different uses of poultry manure and litter, including as organic fertilizer, feed for
livestock, and biogas production. Building in a complementary poultry manure and litter activity can therefore
support individual farmers to earn additional income, access and use poultry manure on their own farms for
increased productivity, and support other farmers to benefit from poultry manure as well. To build such an
activity, the benefits and value of these materials need to be conferred directly to farmers, and farmers must
learn to properly develop and use the products.
For example, when poultry manure replaces inorganic fertilizer on corn and soybean fields, it increases yield
by 6 and 14%, respectively. The increase in yield is attributed to improved soil biological and physical
characteristics and increased water-holding capacity. It is a slow releasing fertilizer; cost effective; improves
soil structure and aeration; increases soil microorganism activity; can improve the makeup of sandy or clay
soils.
The different types of poultry manure include deep litter manure, broiler manure, cage manure, and high-rise
manure. On the average, poultry manure contains about 76% moisture, 3-5% nitrogen, 1.5-3.5%
phosphorous, and 1.5-3.0% potassium. It contains a considerable amount of micronutrients as well. The
fertilizer value of 1 ton of dried poultry manure is equivalent to 100 kg urea, 150 kg super phosphate, 50 kg
potash, 125 kg calcium carbonate, 30 kg sulphur, 12 kg of sodium chloride, and 10 kg magnesium sulfate. Bulk
poultry litter can be the basis of very productive and valuable pasture and agricultural production when used
wisely. However, it also poses risk to human and animal health; it can cause dust and pollute water if it is not
stored, spread, and managed in an appropriate manner.
Compared to manure from other animals, poultry manure has a greater concentration of the nutrients
required for plant growth. It is a rich organic manure – after all, it has two to three times as much nitrogen,
three to five times as much phosphorus, and about the same amount of potassium as other farm manures.
Instead of waste, it is a high-quality product that can be an important part of commercial poultry farming for
all farmers.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Organic Poultry Manure and Inorganic Fertilizers

Organic Poultry Manure Fertilizer Inorganic Fertilizer
Immediately available to plants, but they are subject
Continues to improve the soil long after the plants
to leaching They have short lasting impact (highly
have taken the nutrients they need (3-4 years)
soluble)
Can burn plants if fresh manure and litter are directly Heavy applications can burn plants and build up toxic
applied to plants salt concentration
High variability in nutrient composition from one
Applying inorganic fertilizer is simple, the contents
litter to the other, necessitating knowledge for
are fixed and known
application
Requires soil testing and litter nutrient testing before Requires soil testing before the application (no
application nutrient composition blanket recommendation)
Natural by-product not requiring foreign currency Needs foreign currency and usually expensive and
and chemicals for decomposition requires special skill for production
Diluted source of nutrients as compared to inorganic Dense nutrients, which is available immediately to
fertilizer plants
The material is toxic to animals if the animals
Potent use in fattening feed – with risks
consume directly
Contains a nutrient supply, and improves soil
It only contributes to nutrient supply to the plant and
condition and moisture holding capacity for the
most do not contain micronutrients
growth of soil microbes
Cost of production of manure compost is in labor Very expensive to smallholder farmers and not easily
demand for handling and transportation accessible either
Microorganisms can breakdown contaminants in soil
Not supporting microbiological life in soil
and increase Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Can be a source of plant and animal pathogens and Does not introduce plant and animal disease and
weed seeds weed seeds
Highly variable and takes longer time to release all Delivers nutrients in appropriate amounts and
the nutrients proportions immediately

8.3.1 Selecting Fertilizer

The choice of fertilizer depends on many factors but the nutrient price per unit volume and application costs
matters most. This is a mindset shift for most smallholder farmers toward a commercial orientation. The
factors that must be considered includes:
¨ Availability and accessibility of the materials.
¨ Providing the right amount at the right time of N, P and K for your crops.
¨ Choice on whether to build soil organic matter or not.
¨ Understanding the nutrient content and price of chemical fertilizers compared to organic fertilizer.
8.3.2 Composition of Manure & Litter
¨ The composition of chicken manure and litter vary according to age of the chicken, moisture content
and age of the material, feed types, kind and amount of litter materials, storage and handling
practices.

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¨ Nitrogen in chicken manure and litter occurs as ammonia and uric acid. The uric acid converts to
urea, and the urea rapidly decomposes to ammonia gas, which causes the strong offensive odor often
associated with chicken manure.
¨ About 60% of the nitrogen becomes available during the first six weeks in the soil; the remaining
nitrogen is converted very slowly and may not be available until the next cropping season.
¨ Phosphorus is primarily organic and becomes available as the manure decomposes, but all may not
be available until the next cropping season.
¨ Potassium is present in the inorganic form and readily available to plants. However, care should be
taken to avoid loss by leaching.
Nutrient Composition of Different Animal Manures
Animal manure types
Parameter
Dairy cow Goat Poultry
Organic Carbon % 20.94 14.99 14.97
Total N % 1.449 1.645 1.844
Total P % 0.119 0.208 0.526
C:N ratio 14:01 9:01 8:01
C:P ratio 176:01 72:01 28:01
A. P. Maerere et al. 2001
8.3.3 Application of Manure & Litter
¨ Chicken manure must be applied with care as it may burn plants if used in large amounts, if it placed
too close to plants, or if planting follows too soon after application. It should be mixed with the soil
at least one week before planting when applied at the rate of 5 tons per acre (23 pounds per 100
square feet) or less and 2 weeks for greater amounts.
¨ Generally, 3 to 10 tons of manure per acre of garden area is recommended. For small areas, 14 to
46 pounds of manure per 100 square feet soil is suggested. For individual crops, such as tomatoes
and papaya, apply one heaping shovel manure per plant. For trees and shrubs, apply 5 pounds of
manure for each one inch in diameter of the plant.
¨ Application of poultry manure and litter depends on their nutrient content and soil nutrient
requirements. Typically, poultry litter is spread at a rate of approximately 15m3 /Ha, which would
supply 230kg N, 63 kg P and 88 Kg K. This equivalent to 500 kg urea, 716 kg superphosphate and
176 kg muriate of potash.
¨ In general, commercially available manure is air dried, pulverized, and packed in plastic bags of varying
sizes. The manure may be scattered on the surface of the soil and worked in with a rotary tiller,
plow, spading fork, shovel, or similar tool.
¨ Manure handling systems operate in a common sequence: collection, transfer, storage, transport and
distribution to the soil. The selected system must be based on economics, engineering, public
reaction and regulation, as well as numerous factors related to agriculture.
¨ In most developing countries, broadcasting is the most common practice in applying poultry manure
applications. However, spreading should be followed by incorporation to the soil to avoid runoff.
¨ Poultry litter can be applied and incorporated into the soil using oxen ploughing or tractor mounted
machinery.
¨ Manures and litters can be applied through either broadcasting or broadcasting with incorporation.
¨ Broadcasting is easy, cheap and can be done any season. But nitrogen loss is very high and it has also
other side effects like odor, possible pathogen development, and environmental pollution.
¨ Broadcasting with incorporation to the soil greatly reduces ammonia gas losses and it also promotes
conversion of organic nitrogen into inorganic nitrogen by the process called mineralization.

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8.3.4 Requirements for Using Manure & Litter

¨ Fresh poultry manure is difficult to handle because of its high water content and cannot be applied
directly to crops due to caustic effects on foliage. Nitrogen is available to plants quickly and if care is
not taken, burning may occur. Nutrient losses occur and handling cost increases if poultry manure is
stored. Hence, immediate processing of poultry manure is suggested to prevent rapid
decomposition.
¨ For successful utilization of poultry fertilizer, the following preconditions are required:
o Obtaining a soil test for targeted fields.
o Calculating crop nutrient requirements.
o Obtaining manure nutrient analysis.
o Ensuring proper application rates.

Requirements for Using Chicken Manure/Litter

Analysis (% on DM bases) Straw Saw dust Wood shavings
Moisture (%) 20 25 26
Total N 4 3.8 3.9
Total P 1.1 1.2 1.3
K 2.2 1.8 1.9
S 0.63 0.5 0.5
A. P. Maerere et al. 2001

8.4 Creating Market & Other Linkages

Establishing a market information system and policy framework plays a significant role in the lives of the rural
farmers in the sense that the farmers will produce for the market instead for producing simply to sell. In
addition to these, facilitation for credit from microfinance institutions will empower farmers to invest further
on their businesses. The specific activities of field experts and agents for supporting farmers to achieve
commercial success are based in supporting farmers to not only apply the management practices, but also in
supporting them to gain confidence in their business decision making. It also includes connecting them to
markets in a variety of ways, including:
¨ Forming poultry producer cooperatives to have strong voices, marketing linkages and economic
power.
¨ Facilitating credit for further investment and expansions.
¨ Linking small and medium farmers into contract farming with appropriate enforcement arrangements.
¨ Developing market information systems that support farmers to make informed growing decisions.
¨ Supporting enabling environment reforms that lead to strong regulatory framework (such as those
that standardize minimum quality thresholds for technologies and services).
¨ Supporting enabling environment reforms that lead to rural infrastructure development.
¨ Linking small and medium poultry producers with other vaccines, feed, and equipment suppliers and
agrodealers.
¨ Recording financial transactions and conducting cost benefit analysis.

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REFERENCES
A.P. Maerere et al., 2001. Comparative effectiveness of animal manures on soil chemical properties, yield and
root growth of Amaranthus.
CSA (Central Statistical Agency), 2017/18. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Central Statistical
Agency. Agricultural Sample Survey
Duguise, M.V., Artero, V.T., and Barcinas, J.D.T. (2016) Poultry Production Guide for a 500 Layer Operation.
Retrieved from
ENTAG (Ethiopia-Netherlands Trade for Agricultural Growth), 2020. Business opportunity report: Invest in
the Ethiopian poultry sector.
FAO (United Nation, Food and Agriculture Organization), 2010. Smallholder Poultry Production-livelihoods,
food security and socio-cultural significance
Poultry waste management in developing countries. FAO (United Nation, Food and Agriculture
Organization), poultry development review.
Glatz, P., Pym, R. (2013) Poultry Housing and Management in Developing Countries. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3531e/i3531e04.pdf
ILO, 2015. A rough guide to value chain development. How to create employment and improve working
conditions in targeted sectors.
M.J. PRBU, 2009. Benefits from poultry manure-no chicken feed.
N. van Eekeren, A. Maas, H.W. Saatkamp, M. Verschuur. (2006). Small Scale Chicken Production. Retrieved
from https://publications.cta.int/media/publications/downloads/1343_PDF_1.pdf?
The Poultry Site (2004). Moulting – a natural process. Retrieved from
http://www.thepoultrysite.com/articles/217/moulting-a-natural-process/
Riise, J.C., Permin, A., McAinsh, C.V., Frederiksen, L. (2004) Keeping Village Poultry: A technical manual on
small-scale poultry production. Retrieved from http://www.poultryproject.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/07/keeping-village-poultry-eng_version.pdf
Schmidt, Amy Millmier, 2014. Manure vs. commercial fertilizer: can soil and crops tell the difference?
Stewart-Brown, B. (n.d.) Management of Laying Chickens. Retrieved from
https://www.msdvetmanual.com/poultry/nutrition-and-management-poultry/management-of-laying-chickens
Wagner, J., Stanton, T.L. (2012) Formulating Rations with the Pearson Square. Retrieved from
http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/agriculture/formulating-rations-with-the-pearson-square-1-618/
S. Subedi and D. Dhakal, 2015. Economics of poultry manure as an alternative to chemical fertilizer for
agricultural production in Nepal. J. Inst. Agric. Anim. Sci. 33-34:259-268.
S.G. Wiedemann, 2015. Land Application of chicken litter: A guide to users.
Natash et al., 2019. Long term impact of poultry manure on crop yield soil and water quality and crop
revenue.
Jyotiprabha et al., 2015. Efficient utilization of poultry by-products for economic sustainability.
Best practice guidelines for using poultry litter on pastures, 2011. www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/publications
Casey W. Ritz and William C. Merka, 2013. Maximizing poultry manure use through nutrient management
planning. UGA Extension.

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