Gas Compressor

Definitions:

Air Consisting principally of a mechanical mixture of 23.2% (by weight) of O2, 65.6% of N2 and 1.3% of Ar.

Free Air At atmospheric Condition at the point where compressor is installed.

Compressed Air Air is focused into smaller space than it originally occupied. Or is that which exist under the

conditions of temperature and pressure at the compressor intake.

Compressor A machine (Driven by ant prime mover) which compresses air into the receiver to be used at a

greater/ less distance. It is a machine, which is used to increase a pressure of a gas by decreasing its volume.

Prime Mover An apparatus / mechanism where by motion and force are receive directly from one natural source of

energy and transmitted into some form of motions by means of which the power maybe conveniently applied.

Uses of Compressor

1. Operation of small engine and pneumatic tools.

2. Used for pneumatic controls.

3. Operation of air hoists.

4. Inflation of tires.

5. Used for paint spraying.

6. Air lifting of liquids.

7. Liquefaction of air as a means of separating its component gases.

8. Used for industrial cleaning.

9. It is used as a major factor in the performance of Internal Combustion Engines and gas turbines.

10. Manufacture of industrial products

11. Used in the transmission of natural gas in the pipelines.

12. Supplying air in mine tunnels.

Compressor Classification

1) Positive Displacement

a) Reciprocating Type

b) Compression Blower

c) Non compression Blower

2) Non-Positive / Dynamic Compressor

a) Radial-flow Centrifugal Blowers

b) Axial-Flow type

c) Mixed-flow Compressor
 Note: For Delivering air at low pressures, less than 15 in H 2O, fans are generally used. Above the level various types of

compressors and blowers are employed.

Other Types of Compressors are:

1. Rotary Type is used where small supply or lower capacity of air or gas is needed at relatively medium

pressure.

Types of Rotary Compressor

a. Vane (Sliding Blade) Compressor

b. Screw Compressor

2. Centrifugal Compressor low pressure, high capacity compressor are high-speed machines (3,000 to 40, 000 rpm) and

they are frequently driven by turbines which has smaller characteristics.

Assignment No 1.

1. Draw and identify the different parts of each of the following types of compressor:

1.1 Reciprocating Compressor

1.2 Rotary Compressor

1.3 Axial Flow Compressor

 1.4 Vapor Jet Compressor

2. Give the function of the different parts of a reciprocating and centrifugal compressor.

2.1 Reciprocating Compressor

Pressure Gauge - To determine how much pressure by the compressor .

Air Filter - The area that filters the air coming from the surrounding.

Suction Valve - It sucks the air from the surroundings.

Free Air Unloader - A hole that allows the air to enter.

Discharge Valve - It discharge the air from the suction valve

Air Receiver - It receives air then the air will go to the discharge

suction valve.

Water Drain Cock - It is where water is to be drained or remove

Drive Motor - The machine that operates the compressor.

Automatic Pressure Switch - The switch to the pressure gauge.

2.2 Centrifugal Compressor

Housing - a protective cover designed to contain or support a mechanical component.

Impeller Rim - An edge around something, especially when circular

Impeller - Rotating part of a centrifugal compressor which increases the pressure of refrigerant vapor from

the cooler pressure to the condenser pressure.

Diffuser - Part of a centrifugal compressor that transforms the high velocity, low pressure gas exiting the

impeller into higher pressure, low velocity gas discharged into the condenser.
 Economizer - In a chiller with a two-stage centrifugal compressor, the discharge from the first stage impeller

and the inlet to the second stage impeller are at a pressure level approximately half way between

the cooler pressure and condenser pressure. With this arrangement, an economizer may be

used. This is a shell within which refrigerant liquid from the condenser drops down to the

interstage pressure, flashing off some of the refrigerant which is drawn directly into the second

stage impeller. This reduces the amount of refrigerant which has to be compressed by the first

stage impeller, improving the refrigeration cycle efficiency. A similar arrangement may be used

with a screw compressor when the compressor is equipped with an intermediate inlet port.

Inlet Guide Vanes - Movable blades at the inlet of a centrifugal compressor which are used to control the

capacity of the compressor. The guide vanes also provide rotation to the refrigerant vapor

entering the compressor, which improves the efficiency of the compressor.

Thrust Bearing - A bearing which absorbs the axial forces produced in a centrifugal compressor by the refrigerant

pressure differential across the impeller.

Performance of Compressor: Concepts and Definitions

Capacity of gas compressor - is the quantity of air delivered by a compressor.

Piston Displacement (VD) -is the volume in m3/s the volume displaced by a piston as it moves from top dead center (TDC)

to bottom dead center (BDC). It is the product of the piston area (m2) and the piston stroke (m).


VD = D2LN ; m3
4
Where: D = Diameter of the bore (m)

L = Length of Stroke (m)

N = No. of rev / sec (rev/sec)

Note: For free air (air at normal atmosphere condition in a particular geographic location)

That is,

Pa Va P1 V1
=
Ta T1
Where: Pa, Va, Ta, Standard Atmospheric Condition

P1 V1

T1

Actual / Given Conditions

VD if given the number of cylinder and the number of piston action

 D2 ]
VD = [ L x N x # of cylinder x # of piston action
4
Volumetric Efficiency (ev)- is the ratio of the actual gas drawn –in at intake condition to the displacement to the

displacement volume (piston displacement)

1/n
V1 P2
ev = , ev = 1 + C - C [ ]
VD P1

Where: C = Clearance ; Vc – Clearance Volume

VC
VD

C=;

Capacity of Compressor (V1’) -actual volume of gas delivered and measured at intake pressure and temperature.

m'RT Where: m1 ' = m1ev

V1 ' = ; and
P1 1+c

V1' = V1ev
1+c

Compressor Work (W) -are the work for polytropic compression, isentropic compression and isothermal compression of

a compressor.

a. Work for Polytropic Compression

n-1 n-1

n n
nP1V1' P2 nmRT1 P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ] or W= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1 n-1 P1
b. Work for Isentropic Compression

k-1 n-1

k n
kP1V1' P2 km'RT1 P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ] or W= [ ( ) -1 ]
k-1 P1 k-1 P1
c. Work for Isothermal Compression

P1 P1
W= P1V1'ln ( ) or W= m'RT1ln ( )
P2 P2
Adiabatic Compression

A reduction in volume of a substance without heat flow in or out

 k-1 n-1

k n
kP1V1' P2 km'RT1 P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ] or W= [ ( ) -1 ]
1-k P1 1-k P1

Polytropic Compression

n-1 n-1

n n
nP1V1' P2 nmRT1 P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ] or W= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1 n-1 P1

Isothermal Compression

P1 P1
W= P1V1'ln ( ) or W= m'RT1ln ( )
P2 P2
Actual Volumetric Efficiency

-Usually less than the clearance volumetric efficiency because of the numbers of factors such as pressure drop at

the valves, heat transfer between surrounding and device and the presence of residual gas in the cylinder at the end of the

delivery stroke.

P2 P1 Tatm
ev' = 1+C - C ( ) ] X X
P1 Patm T1

Mechanical Efficiency

-The ratio of the indicated work of the compressor to the brake work of compressor

W ind
em =
Wb

Performance of single – stage reciprocating compressor

Reciprocating Compressor built in size as large as 10,000 ft3/min, piston displacement with pressure range up to

1,000 atm and vacuum down to 0.05 inch Hg absolute in Reciprocating Compressor, the compression of gas is

accomplished through the back and forth movement of the piston / plunger inside the cylinder. These compressors could be

a single stage or a multi-stage compressor.

a. Reciprocating Compressor (Single Stage) with clearance

Analysis: The idealized picture of the variation of P-V Plane in the cylinder start

at:

Process 4-1: Represents the intake and is called the suction pipe.

Process 1-2: Represents all valves closed and there is some kind of thermodynamics compression process (S=C).

Process 2-3: Is the discharge, the piston pushing the gas from the cylinder through the open discharge.
Process 3-4: Is an expansion of the gas left in the cylinder’s clearance space. A clearance between the piston and the

cylinder head at the end position is a necessity. Notice that the greater the clearance volume V3, the less gas drawn at V1.

b. For ideal single stage reciprocating compressor without clearance.

Consider the PV shown below:

The figure shows a conventional indicator card without clearance. As the piston starts the stroke 4-1 the inlet valve opens

and gas is drawn into the cylinder along line 4-1. At point1, the piston starts the return stokes. All valves being closed, and

gas is compressed along the curve 1-2 at the point 2, gas is delivered to the receiver.

Where: n = Any polytropic exponent

n = 1 (Isothermal Process)

n = k (Isentropic Process)

k = 1.4 (for air)

V1’ = Volume of gas drawn in corresponding mass, m’.

m’ = Mass of air / gas drawn in and delivered

T’ = Absolute temperature at suction line

V1 = Volume of drawn into the cylinder

P1 = Absolute suction pressure at the suction line

T2 = Absolute temperature at discharge line

V2 = Volume of gas delivered

P2 = Absolute suction pressure at discharge side

1. Mechanical Efficiency (em)

Compressor Efficiency – ratio of indicated work, W1 of compressor to the brake work, Wb of compressor.

W1
em = X 100%
Wb
2. Compression Efficiency (ec) – is the ratio of ideal work W ideal to the indicated work, Wi of the compressor.

W IDEAL
Note: The ideal work depends on the compression process I.e.
ec = X 100%
Adiabatic (Isentropic), Isothermal and Polytropic
Wi
3. Overall Efficiency (eo) – is the product of the mechanical efficiency of the compressor and the compression

efficiency.

em
eo = X 100%
ec
4. Piston Speed (V) – is the total distance a piston travel in a given time. It is dependent on the length of stroke and

the angular speed.

V = 2LN

5. Ideal Indicated Power (Pi) is the product of indicated mean, effective pressure and displacement volume.

Pi = Pmi X VD

Pmi = Mean Effective Pressure

6. Adiabatic Compressor Efficiency (ec Adiabatic) – The ratio of the isentropic work to the actual fluid work (or

indicated work of compressor).

W isen
ec Adiabatic = X 100%
Wi

W isen = Isentropic Work

7. Isothermal Compressor Efficiency (ec Isothermal ) – is the ratio of isothermal work, Wisot. To the indicated work of

compressor, Wi.

W isot
ec Isothermal = X 100%
Wi
8. Polytropic Compressor Efficiency (ec POLYTROPIC ) – is the ratio of polytropic work, W POLY to the indicated work of

compressor, Wi.

W poly
ec Polytropic = X 100%
Wi
9. If the compressor is driven by a steam engine, Internal Combustion Engine the Mechanical Efficiency compressor

system is,

Indicated work of Compressor, Wi

ecm = x 100%
Indicated work of the driving engine, Wdc

Wi
or ecm = x 100%
Wdc
10. Overall Efficiency (eo) – is the product of mechanical efficiency em and compression efficiency, ec.

em
eo = x 100%
ec
11. Definition

a. Indicated Work (Wi) is the work done in the cylinder.

b. Brake Work / Shaft Work (Wb) is the work delivered at the shaft

c. Adiabatic Compression Efficiency (ec ADIABATIC ) is the compression efficiency used compression

efficiency, therefore would mean adiabatic compression efficiency.

12. Piston Displacement for a double acting, single stage compressor

12.1 If piston rod is neglected

D2 D2LN
VD = [ ] LN2=
4 2
12.2 If piston rod is considered

D2 
VD = [ ] LN+ [ ( D2 - d 2 ) ]
4 4
Sample Problem:

A single stage compressor operates at 160 rpm with an intake press of air at 98 kPa and 28 OC and discharge the

air at 380 kPa to an air tank. The bore and stroke are 356 mm and 382 mm respectively with 6% clearance. If the

surrounding air is at 99 kPa, 19 OC whle the compression and expansion process are PV1.3 = c. Compute:

a. The free air capacity in m3/s and draw the PV diagram.

b. Work, W for Polytropic Compression

c. Work, W for Isentropic Compression, assuming k = 1.4

d. Work, W for Isothermal Compression, assuming n=1

e. Piston Speed
Given: Single Stage Compression

N = 160 rpm = 2.6667 rps

P1 = 98 kPa

T1 = 28OC + 273 = 301 K

P2 = 380 kPa

D = 356 mm = 0.356m

L = 382 mm = 0.382m

C = 6% = 0.06

Pa = 99 kPa ; PV 1.3 = C

Ta = 19 OC + 273 = 293 K

Required: a. Va in m3/s

b. W for Polytropic Compression, n = 1.3

c. W for Isentropic Compression, n = 1.4

d. W for Isothermal Compression, n = 1

Solution:

a. V1’ = eV (VD)

Pa Va P1 V1 Pa Va P1 V1 '
= or =
Ta T1 Ta T1
For eV
1/n
P2
ev = 1 + C - C
[ P1 ]
1/1.3
380 kPa
ev = 1 + 6% - 6%
[ 98 kPa ]
ev = 0.8898
For VD


VD = D2 X L X N
4
VD = 
(0.356m)2 X 0.382m X 2.6667 rps
4

VD = 0.1014 m3/s

V1' = (0.8898)(0.1014 m3/s)

V1' = 0.0902 m3/s = V1

99 kPa (Va) 99 kPa (0.0902 m3/s)

=
292 K 301 K

Va = 0.0866 m3/s

b. W for Polytropic compression PV 1.3 = C

n-1

n
nP1V1' P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1

1.3-1

W= (1.3)(98 kPa)(0.0902 m3/s) 380 kPa 1.3.

[ ( ) -1 ]
1.3 - 1 98 kPa
W = 14.06 kJ/s

c. W for Isentropic Compression, assuming k = 1.4

k-1

k
kP1V1' P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ]
k-1 P1

1.4-1

W= (1.4)(98 kPa)(0.0902 m /s) 3

380 kPa 1.4

[ ( ) -1 ]
1.4-1 98 kPa
W = 14.63 kJ/s
d. W for Isothermal Compression, assuming n = 1

P1
W= P1V1'ln ( )
P2
98 kPa
W= 98 kPa (0.0902 m3/s) ln ( )
380 kPa
W = -11.98 kJ/s

e. Piston Speed, V

V = 2LN

V = 2 (0.382 m) (2.6667 rev/s)

V= 2.04 m/s

Assignment Page 234 Problem 6 and 7

6. A two stage compressor receives 0.20 kg/s of Helium at 135 kPa and 270C, and delivers it at 7000 kPa. The

Compression is polytropic with n=1.5. The intercooler is ideal. Determine the following:

a. Power required

b. Intercooler Pressure

c. Maximum Temperature

d. Temperature for one stage of compression

e. Heat transferred in the intercooler.

Note: For Helium gas R= 2.077 kJ/kg-K and k = 1.666

2 Stage Compressor

m = 0.20 kg/s Helium Gas

P1 = PS = 135 kPaa R = 2.077 kJ / kg - K

P4 = Pd = 7000 kPaa k = 1.666

T1 = 27oC + 273 = 300K

n = 1.5

Solution:

a.) For Wc

n-1

n
2nP1V1' P2
Wc= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1
For V1’

P1V1 = mRT1

mRT1
V1 ' =
P1

V1 ' = (0.20 kg/s)(2.077 kJ/kg-K)(300 K)

135 kPaa

V1' = 0.9231111 m3/s

For Wc

1.5-1

1.5
2(1.5)(135 kPaa)(0.9231111 m3/s) 972.11 kPa
Wc= [ ( ) -1 ]
1.5-1 135 kPa

Wc= -696.17 kW

B. P2 = P sP d

P2 = 135 kPa (7000 kPaa)

P2 = 972.11 kPaa

C. For T2

n-1
T2 P2 n
= [ ]
T1 P1

n-1
P2 n
T2 = [ ] T1
P1
1.5-1
972.11 kPaa 1.5
T2 = [ ] 300 K
135 kPaa

T2 = 579.32 K

D. For T3

n-1

n
Px
T3 = Tx [ ]
P1

1.5-1
 1.5
972.11 kPaa
T3 = 579.32 K [ ]
135 kPaa

T3 = 1118.62 K

E. QR = mCp (T3 – T2)

QR = 0.20 kg/s (5.196) (300 K – 579.32 K)

QR = -290.27 kW

To handle air adiabatically from 101.325 kPa and 300 K to 305 kPaa. The power required for the compressor is 2550 hP. The

inlet velocity is 21 m/s and the discharge velocity of air is 85 m/s.

a. If the process is isentropic, find the volume or air handled in lps measured at inlet conditions.

b. If the compression is irreversible adiabatic to temperature 157.5 oC, with the capacity obtained in item a,

find power input.

Given:

P1 = 101.325 kPaa W = 2550 hP

T1 = 300 K VS = 21 m/s

P2 = 305 kPaa Vd = 85 m/s

Solution:

0.746 kW
W= 2550 hP X =1902.3 kW
1hP

k-1

k
W= kP1V1' [ ( P2 ) -1 ]
 k-1 P1

a.

1.4-1

1.4
1.4(101.325 kPa)(V1') 305 kPa
1902.3 kJ/s = [ ( ) -1 ]
1.4-1 101.325 kPa

V1' = 14.21 m3/s X 1000L

1 m3
V1’ = 14210 L/s

b. If T2 = 157.5 oC + 273 = 430.5 K

k-1

k
T2' P2 '

T1 = ( P1 )
 1.4-1

1.4
450.5 K P2 '
300 K = ( 101.325 kPa )

P2’ = 358.67 kPa

k-1

k
kP1V1' P2 '
W= [ ( ) -1 ]
1-k P1

1.4-1

W= 1.4 (101.325 kN/m2)(14.21 m3/s) 358.47 kPa 1.4

[ ( ) -1 ]
1-1.4 101.325 kPa
W = -2191.99 kW

Multi-Staging Compression:

Multi Staging -is simply the compression of the gas into two / more cylinders in place of a single-stage

compressor. It is used in reciprocating compressor in order to:

1. Save power.

2. Limit the gas discharge temperature, and

3. Limit the pressure differential for cylinder

A. Two – Stage Compressor

A.1 Compressor Work

For Ideal Condition: WLP = WHP

n-1 n-1

n 2n
2nP1V1' Px 2nP1V1' P4
W= [ ( ) -1 ] W= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1 or n-1 P1

A.2 Intercooler Pressure, Px:

Px = P 1 P4

A.3 Heat Rejected in the intercooler, Q

 Q = mCp [ Tx – T1 ] or Q = mCp [ T2 – T3 ]

A.4 Heat Absorbed by Cooling H2O, Q:

Q = mwCpw [ Tw ]

Where: LP = Low pressure stage of compressor in Pa

HP = High pressure stage of compressor in Pa

IP = Intermediate pressure in Pa

Px = Intercooler pressure in Pa

Tx = Intercooler temperature in K

m = mass

Cp = Specific Heat

mw = mass of H2O

n-1

Px n
Tx = T1 [ ]
P1

Cp = 1.0 kJ/kg – K

P2 = P 3 = P x and T1 = T 3
B. Three-Stage Compressor

B.1 Compressor Work

n-1 n-1
3nP1V1' Px n 3nP1V1' P6 n
W= [ ( ) -1 ] or W= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1 n-1 P1

B.2 Intercooler Pressure Px + Py

3 3

Px = (P1)2 P6 Px = P1 (P6)2

B.3 For Ideal Conditions

PX PY P6
= =
P1 PX PY
B.4 Heat Rejected in the Intercoolers, Q:

Q= mCp [ T2 – T3 ] + mCp [ T4 – T5 ]

Since T5 = T 3 = T 1 ; T4 = T2 =TX

Then,
Q = 2mCp [ T2 – T3 ] or Q = 2mCp [ Tx – T1 ]
C. General Formula for Multi Staging

C.1 For S- no. of stages, the compressor work

n-1 n-1
SnP1V1' Px n SnP1V1' Pf sn
W= [ ( ) -1 ] or W= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1 n-1 Ps

C.2 Intercooler Pressure, Px

Px = (P1)2-1 Pf

P1 = PS = Initial / Suction Pressure, Pa

Pf = Final / Discharge Pressure, Pa

Sample Problem 1:
kg
A two stage compressor receives 0.20 /s of helium at 735 kPa at 27oC and delivers it at 7000 kPaa. Compression is

polytropic with n = 1.5. Theintercooler is ideal. Determine the following:

a. Power Required

b. Intercooler Pressure

c. Maximum Temperature

d. Temperature for one stage of compression

Given:

2 Stage Compressor

m = 0.20 kg/s Helium Gas

P1 = PS = 135 kPaa R = 2.077 kJ / kg - K

P4 = Pd = 7000 kPaa k = 1.666

T1 = 27oC + 273 = 300K

n = 1.5

Solution:

a.) For Wc

n-1

n
2nP1V1' P2
W c= [ ( ) -1 ]
n-1 P1
For V1’

P1V1 = mRT1

mRT1
V1 ' =
P1

V1 ' = (0.20 kg/s)(2.077 kJ/kg-K)(300 K)

135 kPaa

V1' = 0.9231111 m3/s

For Wc

1.5-1

1.5
2(1.5)(135 kPaa)(0.9231111 m3/s) 972.11 kPa
Wc= [ ( ) -1 ]
1.5-1 135 kPa

Wc= -696.17 kW

B. P2 = P sP d

P2 = 135 kPa (7000 kPaa)

P2 = 972.11 kPaa

C. For T2

n-1
T2 P2 n
= [ ]
T1 P1

n-1
P2 n
T2 = [ ] T1
P1
1.5-1
972.11 kPaa 1.5
T2 = [ ] 300 K
135 kPaa

T2 = 579.32 K

D. For T3

n-1

n
Px
T3 = Tx [ ]
P1

1.5-1
 1.5
972.11 kPaa
T3 = 579.32 K [ ]
135 kPaa

T3 = 1118.62 K

E. QR = mCp (T3 – T2)

QR = 0.20 kg/s (5.196) (300 K – 579.32 K)

QR = -290.27 kW

Sample Problem 2:

To handle air adiabatically from 101.325 kPa and 300 K to 305 kpaa. The power required for the compressor is 2550 hP.

The inlet velocity is 21 m/s and the discharge velocity of air is 85 m/s.

a. If the process is isentropic, find the volume or air handled in lps measured at inlet conditions.

b. If the compression is irreversible adiabatic to temperature 157.5 oC, with the capacity obtained in item a,

find power input.

Given:

P1 = 101.325 kPaa W = 2550 hP

T1 = 300 K VS = 21 m/s

P2 = 305 kPaa Vd = 85 m/s

Solution:

0.746 kW
W= 2550 hP X =1902.3 kW
1hP
 k-1

k
kP1V1' P2
W= [ ( ) -1 ]
k-1 P1

a.

1.4-1

1.4
1.4(101.325 kPa)(V1') 305 kPa
1902.3 kJ/s = [ ( ) -1 ]
1.4-1 101.325 kPa

V1' = 14.21 m3/s X 1000L

1 m3
V1’ = 14210 L/s

b. If T2 = 157.5 oC + 273 = 430.5 K

k-1

k
T2' P2 '

T1 = ( P1 )
 1.4-1

1.4
450.5 K P2 '
300 K = ( 101.325 kPa )

P2’ = 358.67 kPa

k-1

k
kP1V1' P2 '
W= [ ( ) -1 ]
1-k P1

1.4-1

W= 1.4 (101.325 kN/m2)(14.21 m3/s) 358.47 kPa 1.4

[ ( ) -1 ]
1-1.4 101.325 kPa
W = -2191.99 kW

Assignment:

1. What is a Cooling Tower? Give 5 uses of Cooling Tower.

Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. Cooling towers

may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air

temperature or rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.

Uses

1. HVAC

2. Used in Power Plants

3. Used in Petroleum Refineries

4. Used in Petrochemical Plants

5. Natural Gas

2. What are the Different types of Cooling Tower? Describe each.

Cooling towers are designed and manufactured in several types:

1. Atmospheric - The atmospheric cooling towers utilize no mechanical fan to create air flow through the

tower, its air is derived from a natural induction flow provided by a pressure spray.

2. Mechanical Draft

a. Forced Draft -The forced draft tower has the fan, basin, and piping located within the tower structure.

In this model, the fan is located at the base. There are no louvered exterior walls. Instead, the structural steel or

wood framing is covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized steel, or asbestos cement boards. During
operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through the packing and then vertically against the

downward flow of the water that occurs on either side of the fan. The drift eliminators located at the top of the tower

remove water entrained in the air. Vibration and noise are minimal since the rotating equipment is built on a solid

foundation. The fans handle mostly dry air, greatly reducing erosion and water condensation problems.

b. Induced Draft - The induced draft has one or more fans, located at the top of the tower, that

draw air upwards against the downward flow of water passing around the wooden decking or packing. Since the

airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in contact with the driest air while the warmest

water at the top is in contact with the moist air, resulting in increased heat transfer efficiency.

3. Hybrid Draft - They are equipped with mechanical draft fans to augment airflow. Consequently, they are also

referred to us fan-assisted natural draft towers. The intent of their design is to minimize the horsepower required for

the air movement, but to do so with the least possible stack cost impact. Properly designed the fans may need to be

operated only during periods of high ambient and peak loads.

4. Characterized by air flow

4.1. Counterflow - In the counterflow towers, the air moves vertically upward through the fill,

counter to the downward fall of water.

4.2. Crossflow - The crossflow towers have a fill configuration throught, which the air flows horizontally,

across the downward fall of water. Water to be cooled is delivered to hot water inlet basins located atop the fill

areas, and is distributed to the fill by gravity throught metering orifices in the floor of those basins.

4.2.1 Double Flow - In this kind of towers the fan is inducting air through two inlets and across two

banks of fill.

4.2.2 Single Flow - This kind of towers only has one air inlet and one fill bank, the remaining three

sides of the towers being cased. Single-flow towers are customarily used in locations where are unrestricted air

path to the tower is available from only one direction.

4.3. Spray-Filled - This kind of towers has not a heat transfer surface, depending only upon the

water break-up af-forded by the distribution system to promote maximum water-to-air

5. Characterized by Construction

5.1. Field Erected - The field-erected cooling towers are those on which the primary construction

activity takes place at the site of ultimate use. All large towers, and many of the smaller towers, are prefabricated,

piece-market and shipped to the site for the cooling towers manufacturer usually provides final assembly.

5.2. Factory Assembled - The factory-assembled cooling towers undergo virtually complete assembly at

their point of manufacture, whereupon there are shipped to the site in as a few sections as mode of transportation

will permit
 6. Typed by Shape

6.1. Rectilinear - These towers are constructed in cellular fashion, increasing linearly to the length and

numbers of cells necessary to accomplish a special thermal performance.

6.2. Round Mechanical Draft (RMD) - Are towers as the name implies, are essentially round in plan

configuration, with fans clustered as close practicable around the center point of the tower. Multi-faceted towers,

such as the octagonal mechanical draft (OMD) also fall in the general classification of “round” towers.

7. Typed by the Method of Heat Transfer

7.1 Evaporated - They derived their primary cooling effect from the evaporation that takes places when air

and water are brought into the current contact.

7.2. Dry Tower - Where by full utilization of dry surface coil sections, no direct contact occurs between air

and water.

7.3. Plume Abatement, and

7.4. Water Conservation - where in progressively greater portions of dry surface coil sections are

introduced into the overall heat transfer system to alleviate specific problems or to accomplish specific

requirements.

3. Identify at least 8 essential parts / components of a cooling tower. Give its function.

3.1. Make up Valve - It is a valve that introduces fresh water into the collection basin to maintain the desires

collecting basin water level.

3.2. Overflow - A drain that prevents the collecting basin from overflowing

3.3. Partition - A baffle with in a multi cell cooling tower that is used to prevent air and / or water flow

between adjacent cells.

3.4. Plenum - It is an internal cooling tower area between the drift eliminators and the fans.

3.5. Speed Reducer - It is a right angle box that transmits power to the fan while reducing the driver speed to

that required for optimal fan performance.

3.6. Sump - It is a depressed portion of the collecting basin from which cold water is drawn to be returned to

the connected basin. The sump usually contains strainer screens, anti-vortex devices, and a drain / cleanout

connection.

3.7. Distribution System - The portion of the cooling tower that distributes water over the fill area. It

usually consists of one or more flanged inlets, flow control valves, internal headers, distribution basin, spray

branches, metering orifices and other related components.

 3.8. Drift Circulating water lost from the tower as liquid droplets entrained in the exhaust air stream: usually

expressed as a percentage of circulating water flow but for more precise work it is parts of water per million by

weight of air for a given liquid to gas ratio.

4. Draw the skeletal diagram of the following with parts:

4.1 Forced Draft

4.2 Induced Draft

4.3 Atmospheric Type Cooling Tower

Cooling Tower - is a type of heat exchanger used to cool condenser water in power and refrigeration plants.

General Types of Cooling Tower

1. Atmospheric / Natural Draft Cooling Tower

1.1 Deck Type

1.2 Spray Type

2. Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower

2.1 Forced Draft Cooling Tower

2.2 Induced Draft Cooling Tower

Performance of Cooling Tower:

Consider the diagram shown below:

a. Range, RR – is the reduction in temperature of the water through the cooling tower.

RR = t 3 – t 4
Where: t3 = Temperature of hot water entering, oC.

t4 = Temperature of hot water leaving, oC.

b. Approach, TA – is the difference between the wet bulb Temperature (twb) and the entering air of the temperature of

the cooling tower.

TA = t4 - twb

Where: twb = Temperature of wet bulb temperature of entering air, oC.

c. Efficiency of Cooling Tower (e) – is the difference between the wet bulb temperature of the entering and the

temperature of the cooling water.

RR t3 - t 4
e= X 100% = X 100%
TA t4 - twb
d. Make up Water Requirement

Using mass balance (Basis: m = 1 kgm)

m1w1+m3 = m1w2+m4

Rearranging:

m3 - m4 = m1(w2 w1)

Since: m5 = m3 - m4

Thus: m5 = m1(w2 w1)

Where: m5 = Make up H2O requirement

m1 = Mass Flow rate of air entering

m2 = Mass Flow rate of water entering

m4 = Mass Flow rate of water leaving

w1 = Humidity Ratio of air entering

w2 = Humidity Ratio of air leaving

e. By heat balance

Heat absorbed by air = heat rejected by H2O

m1 (h2 – h1) = m3Cp (t3 –t4)

f. By energy balance: Basis m = 1 kgm

Energy Entering = Energy Leaving

m1h1 + m3h3 + m5h5 = m1h2 + m4h4

Since: m5 = m 3 – m 4

m1h1 + m3h3 + (m3 – m4)h5 = m1h2 + m4h4

g. % of make up H2O
 Amount of make up H2O m5
= =
Mass of water flowing m3

m = Massflow in kg/s

h = Enthalpy in kJ/kg

W = Humidity ratio in kg/kg

t = Temperature in oC

Cp = Specific Heat of H2O

Sample Problem 1

Water at 550C is cooled in a mechanical draft cooling tower which has an efficiency of 69%. The ambient air is at

320C dry bulb ad 270C wet bulb. Compute the temperature of cool water leaving the cooling tower.

Given: tA = 550C

e = 69% (Cooling Tower Efficiency)

tdb = 320C (Dry bulb Temperature)

twb = 270C (Wet bulb Temperature)

Required: tb = Temperature of cooled water leaving the cooling tower

Solution: Using Equation

Actual Range
e= X 100%
Theoretical Approach

e= ta – t b X 100%
 ta - twb

550C – tb
69% = X 100%
550C -270C

tb = 35.680C
Sample Problem 2

Same problem as in Problem 1, except that the heat in the condenser is 620 kJ/s. Compute the capacity in kg/s of the

pump used in the cooling tower if the specific volume of water is 0.01045 m3/kg.

Given: ta = 550C (Problem 1)

QR = Heat rejected in the condenser

= 620 kJ/s

 = Specific Volume of water

= 0.01045 m3/kg

Solution: QR = mwCpw (tw)

QR
mw =
Cpw (tw)

mw = 620 kJ/s
4.1868 kJ/s (55-35.68)
mw = 7.67 kg/s

Fans - is a machine for applying power to a gas to increase its energy content causing it to flow or more. When

gases are to be moved against small pressure differentials (0-15 in WG) fans are used.

They have wide applications in,

a. Power Plant f. Conveying

b. Drying System g. Cooling

c. Heating h. Dust Collection

d. Ventilation i. Pneumatic System

e. Air Conditioning

Essentially a FAN consists of a rotating wheel or impeller surrounded by a stationary member designated as housing.

Fans maybe identified as either;

1. Blower

2. Exhausters

Blower -a fan used to force air under pressure, that is, the resistance to gas is imposed primarily upon the

discharge.

Exhauster - is a fan used to withdraw air under suction, that is, the resistance to gas flow is imposed primarily

upon the inlet. If remove gases from a space by suction and discharge it under slight pressure at the housing outlet.

Classifications

a. According to Axial Flow:

a.1 Propeller Fan

 a.2 Tube axial Fan

a.3 Vane axial Fan

Performance of Fans - is a statement of volume, total pressure, static pressure, speed, power input, mechanical and

static efficiency at standard air density.

a. For static head, hs:

w hw
hs =
a
Where: w = Density of water

= 9.81 kN/m3

= 1000 kg/m3

a = Density of Air

= 1.20 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 21.20C

hs = static head, m of air

hw = manometer reading, m of water

Note: Static pressure, velocity pressure and total pressure are all inter related.

b. For velocity head, hv:

Hs= V0 2
2g

Where: hv = velocity head, m of air

V0 = out let velocity, m/sec

g = gravitational acceleration

= 9.81 m/s2

= 32.2 ft/s2

c. Total head, h:

hs = hs + hv

d. Fan Capacity, Q:

Q = AV

Where: A = fan outlet area

V = fan outlet velocity

e. Power output of fan or Air Power, Pair:

Pair = Qh

Where:  = Specific Weight of air

Q = fan Capacity
 h = total head

f. For Power input or Brake Power, Pbrake:

Pair
Pbrake =
em
Where: em = Mechanical Efficiency of fan

g. For Static Efficiency of fan, es:

hs
es = em
hv

h. For Affinity Laws:

3 Basic Affinity Laws

h.1 Fan Speed variation (at constant fan size, and constant density). If the speed (rpm) is varied.

2 3
Q2 N2 h2 N2 P2 N2
= ; = [ ] ; [ ]
Q1 N1 h1 N1 P1 N1

h.2 fan size variations (at constant speed and constant density). If fan wheel diameter D is varied.

3 2 5
Q2 D2 h2 D2 P2 D2
= ; = [ ] ; [ ]
Q1 D1 h1 D1 P1 D1

h.3 Gas density variations (constant fan size and constant speed). If density  is varied.

Q h2 2 P2 2
= Q2 ; = ; =
1 h1 1 P1 1

Where: Density in kg/m3

N = fan speed in rpm

P = power in kW

Q = capacity in m3/s

D = fan wheel diameter

h = head in m

i. Bernoulli’s Equation applied to fan:

From,

Total head = Static Pressure Head + Velocity Head

 P2 - P 1 V2 2 - V 1 2
h= +
 2g

Where: P1 = w1h1 P2 = wh2

w = Density of water a = Specific weight of air

P1 = inlet pressure P2 = discharge pressure

V1 = inlet Velocity V2 = Discharge Velocity

ME Board Problem:

1. Air enters a propeller fan through a duct at a velocity of 6.29 m/s and an inlet static pressure of 2.51cm of H2O less

than atmospheric pressure. The air leaves the fan through a duct at a velocity of 12 m/s and a discharge static pressure of

76.10 mm of H2O above the atmospheric pressure. If the specific weight of air is 1.19 kg/m3 and the fan delivers 9.40 m3/s,

what is the fan efficiency when the power input to the fan is 14.0 kW at the coupling?

Given: Vs = 6.29 m/s Q = 9.40 m3/s

Ps = 2.51 cm H2O = 0.0251m H2O Pin = 14.0 kW

Vd = 12 m/s

Pd = 76.10 mm H2O = 0.07610 m H2O

air = 1.19 kg/m3

Required: efan = fan efficiency in %

Solution:

Air Power
Fan Efficiency =
Input Power

Pair
efan = x 100%
Pin

For Pair : Solve for h (Total head)

Pd - P s Vd2 - Vs2
h= hs + hv = [ + ]
 2g

0.07610 - 0.0251 (12)2 - (6.29)2

h= [ ] (1000) +
 2(.81)

= 48.18 m of air

Then, Pair = Qh

Pair = [1.20 (0.00981)(9.40)(48.18)]

 = 5.33 kW

Therefore,

5.33
efan = x 100%
14

= 38.07 %

2. A 13 Hp motor is used to drive a fan that has a total head of 20, 000 mm. If the fan efficiency is 75%, determine the

maximum capacity in m3/s?

Given: efan = 75%

h = 20, 000 mm = 20m

Pin = 13 Hp

Required: Q in m3/s

Solution:

Pair
efan = x 100%
Pin

Pair = (efan)( Pin)

Pair = (0.75)( 13)

= 9.75 Hp

Then, Pair = Qh = (1.20)(Q)(0.00981)(20)

9.75 = 0.23544 Q

 Q = 41.41 m3/s

Heat Exchanger are devices which affect the transfer of heat from one substance.
Types / Classification
1. Steam Boiler
2. Steam Condenser
3. Water Heater
4. Oil Heater
5. Evaporators
6. Economizers
7. Fluid Heater and Coolers
8. Tube Banks
1. For Steam Boiler a device wherein a fluid at constant temperature receives heat from a warmer fluid the
temperature of which decreases air it flows through the heat exchanger. The heated fluid can be at rest or moving in any
direction.

2. For Steam Condenser wherein fluid at constant temperature gives up heat to a colder fluid the temperature of
which gradually increases as it flows through the devices. The heating fluid can be at rest or moving in any direction.
3. For Water Heater, Oil Heater and Cooler are parallel flow heat exchanger wherein the fluids flow
in the same direction and both of them change their temperature.

4. For Fluid Heater and Cooler are counter flow heat exchangers wherein the fluids flow in directions opposite to
one another.
5. Tube Banks and Coolers flow heat exchangers in which one fluid flows at an angle to the second one.
6. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

(Δt)max - (Δt)min

LMTD = (Δt)max
ln
(Δt)min

7. Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

(Δt)max + (Δt)min
AMTD =
2
Heat Exchanger
Example #1
1. Water enters the surface condenser at 20ºC and leaves at 35ºC. Find the LMTD if the condenser temperature is
45ºC.
 Condenser

45°C 45°C

35°C

20°C
Water

Solution

(Δt)max - (Δt)min

LMTD = (Δt)max
ln
(Δt)min

Where: (Δt)max = 45ºC - 20ºC

= 25ºC
(Δt)min = 45ºC - 35ºC
= 10ºC

Therefore 25°C- 10°C

LMTD = 25°C
ln
10°C

LMTD = 16.37 ºC
Example#2
A liquid to liquid Counterflow heat exchanger is used to heat to heat a cold fluid 125°F. Assuming that the hot fluid
enters at 450ºF and leaves at 400°F.
a. Compute the LMTD for the heat exchanger
b. Determine the AMTD
 490°F

325°F
Hot Fluid

400°F
125°F
Cold Fluid

Solution:
Where: Δta = (Δt)max
= 400°F - 125°F
Δta = 275°F
Δtb = (Δt)min
= 490°F - 325°F
Δtb = 165°F
a. Solving for LMTD

(Δt)max - (Δt)min

LMTD = (Δt)max
ln
(Δt)min

275°F - 165°F

LMTD = 275°F
ln
165°F
LMTD = 215.34°F
b. For AMTD

(Δt)max + (Δt)min
AMTD =
2

275°F - 165°F
AMTD =
2

AMTD = 220°F

Problem #3
A counterflow bank of boiler tubes has a total area of 900ft 2 and the overall coefficient of heat transfer is 10 BTU/hr-
ft2-°F. Determine the heat transfer if the LMTD is 1300°F.
Answer:
Given Required:
2
A= 900ft Q= ?
2
U= 10 BTU/hr-ft -°F
Θ= 1300 °F
Solution:
Q = AUθ
= (900ft2)( 10 BTU/hr-ft2-°F)( 1300 °F)
Q = 11,700,000 BTU/hr

CONVEYING SYSTEM
Conveyors - is a type of material handling equipment used to convey or transfer various materials like for
example ash, disposals, packaging materials, and others.
TYPES OF CONVEYORS
1. Pneumatic Conveyors – in power plants, it is used for removing ash, residue from various points where it
accumulates about a furnace setting-ash, dust separators, and drip hoppers at the front and below the stoker.
2. Bucket and Drag Conveyors – are widely used in small plants as means of conveying ash to a hopper from which it
maybe gravity – loaded to freight cars or trucks.
3. Flat Belt Conveyors – used in packaging – industry by moving a product from one place to another.
4. Screw Conveyors – is used to transfer, flow, grains and pulverized coal.
5. Flight Conveyors – used to move packages, boxes, crate, and copra materials.
6. Troughed Belt Conveyors – used to carry coal, and ore materials from site to nearby station.
Note: In power plant (like coal – fired power plant), about 50% of the ash from pulverized coal is carried through the
SGU or Boiler passes and into the stack, unless fly – ash separators are used. Fly ash can be collected by:
a. Electric Precipitation
b. Water Spray and
c. Cyclone Collectors
Electric precipitation is the most effective but it is expensive.
Other ash disposal units used in power plant are the ff:
1. Hydraulic Sluice
2. Motor Truck and
 3. Track Operated car

EXAMPLE OF CONVEYOR
Belt - 10” wide flat belt, 2 ply rubber with 2” deep flexible rubber bucket mounted on 20” centers.
Bed - 7/8” steel tube frame 12.5” wide x 14” deep with 2” side wall less towing dolly undercarriage.
Drive - Motor mount belt guards, V-belt tension spring with choice of standard 1 ½ hp single phase motor or P334
5 hp Briggs and Stratton gas Engine. With type H motor mount standard.
Speed - 110 ft per min.
Pneumatic Conveyor

Chain and Bucket Conveyor

Bucket and Drag Conveyor

Track Operated Car

Large Conveyor in Mining, pit and quarry, etc