Philippine Journal of Public Administration, Vol. XXIX, No.

2 (April 1985) •

Sialb>llilnlty mcdi Change ~

Thee Cftwllil Scervn<ece in thee PhiJiippm<es

JOSE N. ENDRIGA*

The civil service system was marked by different features at various periods in
Philippine history. During the Spanish colonial period, public office exhibited generally
negative characteristics. The American period saw the development Of a non-political
civil service based on merit. However, this positive legacy was eroded by the war and its
aftermath. Despite attempts by successive postwar administrations to restore adminis-

•
trative efficiency through the enactment Of anti-graft measures and the implementation
Of organizational reforms, problems Of graft and corruption continued to plague the
bureaucracy. The martial law period initially held out the promise of thorough reforms
in the bureaucracy, but corruption and other negative characteristicsremained.

The civil service system in the Philippines as we know it today is a

creation of the American regime in the country. .It is generally considered
to be one of the beneficent legacies from that colonial experience and its
image as clean and prestigious during the American period continues to
persist to the present day. Its more checkered history during the days of
the independent republic is something that Filipinos accept or deplore
and explain, but does not seem to diminish the commitment to the ori-
ginal philosophy and principles that were adopted early in the century.

A history of the civil service in the country, however, would be more

complete if we included in our account a review of its antecedents. His-
torically, our experience with the modern civil service is less than a century
old; preceding this experience was more than three ·.centuries of Spanish
rule. Such an experience with another colonial' bureaucracy, despite its
seeming lack of influence in the formal institutions of our present civil
•
service, left what are perhaps durable vestiges in such areas as the relation-
ship between government and the people, the tradition of centralism, and
some of our political practices.'

*Professor, College of Public Administration, University of the Philippines.

This article was taken from "A History of the Civil Service in the Philippines," which won first
prize in the national history writing contest sponsored by the Civil Service Commission, in connec-
tion with its 50th anniversary on September 19, 1983.

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Spanish Colonial Period.

Contemporary judgment on the Spanish civil service in the Philippines

invariably points to its extremely negative characteristics. There is an ele-
ment of unfairness in such a verdict especially where modern standards
of rationality and development-orientedness are used as yardsticks in mak-
ing the judgment. However,such impressions are not different from con-
temporaneous accounts by critics of the colonial government, including
ecclesiastics and lay persons, who often denounced the abuses of the regime
in no uncertain terms." It seems more fruitful for our account to examine
why such tendencies towards corruption existed. We can look at the broad
political and social context that gave rise to and nurtured. such propensi-
ties.

There was, first of all, Spain's own colonial objectives. Their outstand-
• ing characteristic was the high idealism of the Spanish regime which found
apt and numerous expressions in the various legislative enactments that
filled more than three centuries of domination. Whatever the details of the
cedulas, ordenanzas, tese« (one of whose characteristics was the attention
they gave to the most trivial details, for example, of the bureaucrat's life),
the high-mindedness and the noble aims of converting the indios and protect-
ing their welfare always shone through.

The positive aims, however, we're counterbalanced by the practical

Objective of increasing the royal estate through tributes, monopolies, fees
and fines. A huge body of laws and a plethora of institutions were built up
through the centuries to uphold the economic aims of the colonial enter-
prise, which nevertheless was not realized, the colonies being consistently
losing propositions. This, however, is a matter we cannot go into.

Given the contradictory nature of the colonial objectives, the bureau-

• crat had much room for discretions. In fact, there were two legal formulas
that he could invoke to deal with the contradiction. One was "no se haga
novedad," which strictly commanded high colonial officials not to make any
innovation on royal prescriptions. The other was "obedezco pero no cum-
plo" or "I obey but do not enforce." This latter formula was based on the
theory that the prince could not will any wrong if he knew the local situa-
tion. High officials, invoking the injunction, could set aside or postpone the
execution of a law. .

Contradictory colonial objectives were thus resolved in terms of com-

promises between idealism and expediency. Conflicts were often resolved
in favor of the latter, a tendency that can be explained in terms of. other
factors. .

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There was, first of all, the philosophy regarding public office of the
•
Spanish regime. Such philosophy derived from the theory that the colonies
were the king's personal kingdoms, and therefore he could dispose of any-
thing in it through any means that he desired. Accordingly, a public office
was regarded as a grant or favor (merced) from the king. Claimants for
such favor were plentiful and they included those who participated in
the conquest and pacification of the colonies, including. their descendants
who expected, and asked for, such grants. '

.There were two conventional ways of disposing public offices: by

appointment and by purchase. Belonging to the first group were positions
that had.judicial.functions. The highest colonial positions of viceroy, gover-
nor-general, members of the Audiencia and provincial executives were sup-
posed to be filled by appointment. In practice though, many of thein were
acquired by purchase.

Criticisms against the system of sale singled out two things: the incom-
petence of the officeholders and their rapacity. The first one resulted from
•
the fact that, although one of the requirements for a bidder was that to be
qualified for the position, in practice an office was generally awarded to the
highest bidder. The necessity for raising revenue, which after all was the
original purpose of the practice, almost always prevailed over other consi-
derations.

The rapacity of the officeholders which even contemporaneous ob-

'servers never failed to denounce with vehemence was due to the basic fact.
that an office was bought at the financial sacrifice of the buyer. As a general
practice, buyers borrowed the money they used, and they therefore, re-
garded it as an investment, to be recovered quickly, and if possible, at a
profit. There actually emerged in colonial times a busy market in offices,
with bureaucrafts buying offices, selling them at a profit, and buying more
lucrative ones, and so mi.

Actually, the temptation to yield to corruption was present no matter

•
how an office was.acquired: Most offices, especially those at the lower levels
paid very little to their occupants and the latter were in fact expected to
augment their earnings by resorting to extra-legal means. It seems that the
whole philosophy underlying public office, as well as the practices designed
to implement such a philosophy; made corruption not only a natural con-
sequence but also raised the level of tolerance for it.

Aside from the nature of Spanish colonial objectives and the philo-
sophy underlying public office, there were other factors peculiar to the
colonial situation which further' aggravated the weaknesses of the bureau-

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cracy. One of these was the fact that, being a colonial bureaucracy, the
135

Spanish regime in the Philippines was a subordinate government," As such,

the colonial government was dependent in all things upon the home govern-
ment. This setup was conducive to the emergence of continuing administra-
tive problems. On the one hand, the distance of the colony, aggravated of
course at the time by the slow means of transportation, made constant
supervision and control a practical impossibility. Hence, colonial officials
were given ample grants of power and discretion.

On the other hand, the same factor of distance raised the possibility
of separation or secession by the colony. Thus,suitable practices were
devised to counteract the possibility. Among these were: the practice of con-
ferring colonial positions only upon persons of approved ancestry, religion
and connections; Spanish reliance upon the church as a check upon the
secular regime; constant transfers of important officials after brief terms in
office; and the requirement that bureaucrats should write reports to the king
about the private lives and official conduct of their colleagues."

There were two specific devices which were utilized to emphasize the
subordinate position of the colonies and to constitute checks on the behav-
ior of colonial bureaucrats. One of these was the institution of the uisitador-
general, who was an official sent out by the Council of the Indies in Spain
and was vested with investigatory, judicial and executory powers. He had
authority to conduct a uisita or investigation of the highest officials in the
colonies, The latter ·were answerable for the state of government, justice,
finance, defense, religion, and the condition of the Indios in their jurisdic-
tions. Punishment against errant officials included removal, suspension and
fines.

The other device was the residencia, which required bureaucrats to

give, at the end of their terms, an account of their conduct while in office.
• At the end of an official's term, his superiors, colleagues, as well as pri-
vate persons, filed charges against him. There was even an open invitation
to the natives to seek redress for their grievances. In practice, the residencia
was an ordeal, with the proceedings varying in duration from a few months
to several years. Compounding the severity of the proceedings was the
requirement that the salary of the judge who conducted the investigation
(designated as juez de residencia) was to be paid out of the estate of the
guilty. Completing the residencia was a prerequisite to departing from the
islands; a satisfactory verdict was also a requirement to assuming a new
office.

=
~ owever, just like most Spanish institutions, the residencia was -iB5- .
""'T,a
. by such factors as powerful connections in Spain where unfavorable

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. PUBLIC
, ADMINISTRATION '

~ttenuo;teel
verdicts could be reversed. The institution was further alt9mateEl by the
•
concern for the security of the small Spanish community in the colony
which could be harmed by severe proceedings. So that in the end, the theo-
retically important institution lostits power to check official abuses, and by
the end of the eighteenth century it had practically passed into oblivion. 5

Another characteristic of the Spanish, regime that contributed to its

weakness was its highly centralized organization, The centralization was,
first of all, on a formal institutional level, personalized' in the powerful
position of the Governor-General.

The centralization of the regime was also in a physical sense. This

meant, basically, the concentration of the Spanish population in Manila.
The reasons for this were, of course, of a practical nature: administrative
convenience reinforced the need for concentration. Furthermore, in the
case .of the small Spanish population in the country, social reasons, or the •
desire for contact with people of the same race and social standing strength-
ened the physical concentration. Until the early nineteenth century, the
existence of the galleon trade, which constituted the economic lifeline of the
Spanish colony in the Philippines, exacerbated even.further the need for con- ,
centration in the capital city. '

Physical concentration, however, did not by any means signify cohe-

sion or cooperation. As a' matter of fact, relationships among the Spanish
community in Manila was characterized largely by conflict. One reason for
thiS was that the king himself, as we noted earlier, required bureaucrats
to write him about the official conduct as well as the private lives of their
colleagues. The clergy, perhaps in conformity with their calling, took upon
themselves the duty of checking the official excesses and personal lapses
of the bureaucrats. This conjures up in the' minds of the modern reader a
situation wnere reports, mostly of a negative nature, kept flowing into Spain,
informing the king about the actions of this bureaucrat, this priest or that •
individual. The conflicts among the Spaniards became more manifest during
the visits of the visitador-general or during the conduct of a residencia when
an the jealousy, rivalry and intrigue found official outlet., [ (

Finally, abetting even, further the negativism of the regime was the
colonial situation itself. In theory, the Indios were immature children whose
welfare was to be looked after by the colonizers; they were to be converted
to Christianity, settled in towns, and made to pay all sorts of exactions
which the law provided should be done with the least harm to the natives.
Another implication of the theory was that the natives could never affect
the intentions and actions of the superior; they were to be the passive reci-
pients of the colonizers' explicitly noble intentions.

'.
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Thus, in accordance with the theory that the subject people were
137

morally and politically inferior, officeholding for Filipinos was confined to

the lowest levels of government: the town and the village. There is a con-
sensus among scholars of Philippine history that it was one of the master
strokes of colonial policy to mobilize the local pre-Spanish nobility to oc-
cupy the leadership positions in the pueblos and the barrios. In the first
place, the necessity for it was there, considering that there were relatively
few Spaniards in the Philippines, the distance of the colony being an effec-
tive disincentive to Spaniards. The policy and the practice also made it so
much easier for the Spaniards to impose exactions since the agents acting
for the regime were not only Filipinos themselves but .were leaders of pre-
Spanish society whom the masses were accustomed to obeying. It also bene-
fited the native nobility in the sense that their customary positions in
society were thus reinforced and therefore they did not lose their status and
prestige. At least that was the intention of the policy.

The lowest level of Filipino participation in the colonial bureaucracy

was the position of cabeza de barangay. The cabeza, or headman, was thus
the direct link between the people and the colonial regime. He was a mem-
ber of the native principalia from whose ranks were drawn the Filipino
bureaucrats. The cabeza's main responsibility was to look after the peace
and order of his barangay, to see to the enforcement of the polos y seroictos
and to collect the tributes of the inhabitants of his jurisdiction. In this capa-
city as tribute-collector, he was an agent of the Royal Hacienda which
required him to post a bond, in the form of goods or property, which were
confiscated in case he failed to remit his collections within the alloted
time."

As compensation for his responsibilities, the cabeza was entitled to

one and 'one-half per cent of his tribute collection. He, together with his
wife and his eldest son, were exempted from the tribute and the palos y
servicios. He was also addressed as Don and given preferential treatment
during ceremonies by being made to sit beside the gobernadorcillo. At
least in law. the cabeza was supposed to be treated with respect by the
parish priest and was not to be SUbjected to corporal punishment or to
manual services.7 Such legal protection, however, was invariably violated
in practice.

The gobernadorcillo, who was the head of the pueblo, or town, was
both an executive and a judicial officer. In cases involving small sums and in
petty criminal cases, his judicial authority was final. In cases of bigger
importance, he was supposed to make the preliminary investigation and for-
warded the case to the alcalde mayor or provincial governor.

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As town executive, his duties were extensive. He was the agent of the
Royal Hacienda on the town level, and as,such he was in charge of the col-
lection of all manner of taxes. He also' had fairly paternalistic duties in rela-
tion to the townspeople. He was to see to it that they did not live in, idle-
ness, that they cultivated the soil, raised gardens, bred livestock, and that
they also attended religious services. This latter function was important if
he was to maintain good relations with the parish priest.

The reward for the gobernadorcillo's services included a "salary" of

two pesos a month, a share of one and one-half per cent of the tribute col-
lection, the title of Don which he invariably retained throughout his life,
and a place of importance during religious and civil ceremonies.

The modern reader, however, would find such compensations not com-
mensurate with the burdens that the' gobernadorcillo had to bear. For aside
from the legal penalties for failures, and infractions of the law, he had' to
, endure demeaning treatment by the alcalde mayor and the parish priest. He '
became, invariably, the willing tool of the former in his abuses and corrup-
•
tion, and he was treated like an immature ward by the latter, who adminis-
tered even corporal punishment to the gobernadorcillo, exalted as his posi-
tion sounded.

His monetary compensation was also severely inadequate for the

demands, which were official, made on' him. For example, he was supposed
to remit his collections to the treasury at his own expense. He was also ex-
pected to take care of all the expenses in the pueblo. He had to provide the
maintenance for the town jail and the dailysustenance of the prisoners. He
was also expected to provide for officesupplies. He was also responsible
for the construction of public works, even if the labor was supposed to be
provided for free. 8 '

The consequences of such impositions on the bureaucratic behavior

of the gobernadorcillo are of course predictable. Various ways - many
of them illegal - were thus resorted to in order to help defray the expen-
ses for which the central government had neglected to provide. This fact
indicates that several characteristics of corruption of the Spanish regime
seeped down to the lowest levels, in this case assuming added significance
since the perpetrators were themselves Filipinos.
Finally, ·it remains to note that given the already negligible role that Fili-
pinos performed in the colonial government, this participation was further
diminished and rendered practically. meaningless in the face of the vast
powers of the parish priest. To the modern reader the array of duties and
powers of the, parish priest looks incredible: He was inspector of the pri-
.mary schools; president of the health board and board of charities; president

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of the board of urban taxation; president of the board of statistics. He cer-

139

tified to the correctness of cedulas, to the civil status of persons, to the cha-
racter of individuals. He had to be present in elections for municipal offices;
he censored municipal budgets before they were Sent to the provincial
governor; he was counsellor to the municipal council, examiner of scholars
in the public schools; he was the censor of the plays, comedies, and dramas
presented in various fiestas; he was a member of the provincial board,"

The American Regime

The American occupation of the Philippines is regarded as a signifi-

cant phase in the evolution of modern colonial policy and administration.
Unlike the Spanish venture which was characterized by its religious impulse,
and the British experience which was distinguished by its economic charac-
ter, the American expansion was undertaken in the absence ofa constant

• purpose which may be said to constitute the colonial objective .

This does not mean that there were no explicit purposes expressed:
business interests, church groups, military strategists, and other interest
groups expounded on their own respective purposes. However, the absence
of a national consensus about the expansion of the United States, as well
as the fortunate timing that U.S. policy was being formulated during a pre-
sidential election year (1900), explains largely why the colonial policy. of the
U.S. in the Philippines, tended to be constructive instead of being blatantly ,
selfish and exploitative. The fact also that the U.S. was a relative newcomer
in the colonial venture explains why there were no established traditions or
policies to guide her actions. Instead, the policies that she adopted tended to
be empirical, realistic, and flexible. In fact, there was considerable experi-
mentation in the approaches to policy-making and practice.' 0

Politically speaking, the contrast with the unlamented Spanish regime

• was glaring. The separation of church and state, the completely secular cha-
racter of the latter, the political participation of Filipinos in all levels of go-
vernment were a world apart from the Spanish system where the power of
the priests, the minimal participation of natives in government gave the
Filipinos practically no experience in running their own affairs.

The political institutions set up in the Philippines were in accordance

with the democratic and republican character of political institutions in the
United States, although given the colonial situation, the setup provided for
considerable American control. The highest governmental authority. was the
Philippine Commission, which was composed entirely Of Americans until
1901 when three Filipinos were appointed to it. The Commission.exercised
.exclusive legislative powers until 1907 when an all-Filipino lower house was

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elected, with the Commission remaining as the upper house.l ! An American

•
Governor General was the chief executive and he was also chairman of the
Philippine Commission.

The administration of the colony was placed in the hands of a non-

political civil service. Fewer institutions have had as auspicious a beginning
as the civil service introduced by the American regime in the Philippines.
It represented, in fact, a favorable confluence of Filipino aspirations and
American intentions. By the time the civil service system was introduced
into the Philippines, it was essentially a "finished product," where effi-
ciency, economy and. merit were not the only dominant values, but where
the controversies surrounding the passage of the Pendleton Act of 1883 had
added the concept of polical neutrality.' 2 All of these values were incor-
porated into the Civil Service Act which was one or the first pieces of
legislation (Act No.5) passed by the Philippine Commission and which,
appropriately enough was entitled "An Act for the Establishment and Main-
tenance of an Efficient and Honest Civil Service in the Philippines." It was •
enacted on September 19, 1900. The purpose of the act was declared in Sec-
tion 4 thereof to be "the establishment and maintenance of an efficient
and honest civil service in all the executive branches of the Philippine
Islands, central, departmental and provincial, and of the city of Manila, by
appointments and promotions according to merit and by competitive exa-
minations where the same are practicable."

The legislative intentions of the United States were strictly reinforced

by the implementors of the legislation. In addition to the Governor General
and the Philippine Commission, the men actually in charge of setting up the
civil service were zealous advocates of civil service reform. They were fond
of making comparisons between the civil service of the Philippines with that
of the United States and found the former superior in two respects: it was
free from the spoils system that continued to afflict the American system,
and it. had a much broader coverage, being applied to I all positions in the •.
civil administration, insular and provincial; as well as the municipal govern-
ment of Manila.1 3 .

The major characteristics of the civil service system established in the

Philippines bear some examination if only because of their historic signifi-
cance. The system was, first of all, broad in coverage and centralized in
organization. It placed under one system the classified employees of all
divisions and organs of insular, provincial and municipal governments. The
Civil Service Board, (later the Bureau of Civil Service) which had adminis-
trative control of the system, was an independent office under the immed-
iate supervision and control of the Governor General. It had substantial
p~wers. It exercised .supervision and control over examinations. Competitive

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examinations were required for original entrance into the civil service, as
141

well as for promotions. As in the U.S. civil service, the examinations were
designed primarily to determine the fitness of the applicant for the position
he was to occupy. Most of the examinations were competitive, but non-
competitive tests were also administered in special cases, as when there were
no applicants for certain positions.

The Civil Service Act prohibited any inquiry into the political or reli-
gious views and affiliations of examinees and employees,whether for
appointment or promotion. Moreover, direct or indirect solicitation, collec-
tion or receipt of political contributions by or from employees were .strictly
prohibited.

Persons appointed contrary to the Civil Service Act were not entitled to
receive salary, and the appointing officers involved were personally respon-

• sible for compensating them.

Competent and qualified employees, if available within the service,

were to be promoted to the positions of chief or assistant chief of bureau. '

On the whole, civil servants enjoyed security of tenure, attractive hours

of work, generous leave privileges, and a prestigious career. .
But there were flies in the ointment. As a matter of policy as well as
of practice, Americans were paid higher salaries than Filipinos occupying
the same positions. In defending the practice, the Civil Service Board in
1901 noted that it cost very much more for Americans than for Filipinos to
live in the Philippines "even where members of both races require practically
the same necessities of life.,,14 Because of this, it had been difficult to retain
many of the Americans in the service where "by reason of their experience,
ability and their knowledge of the English language, they are absolutely
needed."
• As a matter of fact, more Americans were occupying the higher posi-
tions in the civil service, while the lower ones were filled almost exclusive-
ly by Filipinos. This situation graphically illustrates the Republican policy of
"a government of Americans, assisted by Filipinos.,,15 The Americans were
thus placed in the role of tutors, "to teach techniques and the substance of
expertise to subordinate Filipino bureaucrats." In other words, as a matter
of administrative policy, the American regime adhered to a doctrine of Bri-
tish derivation, that "the direction of the actual administration of the sub-
ordinate government be entrusted to a permanent corps of expert and
professional administrators for the United StateS.,,16

Nevertheless, such a policy turned out to be a failure, and no corps

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of permanent American bureaucrats could be maintained in the colonial'

•
civil service. There were several explanations for this; There was, first of all, '
the uncertainty about the tenure of the United States in the Philippines.
Although Republican intentions implied an extended stay in the Philippines,
they were not sufficient to reassure American civil servants. The Philippines'
also did not prove attractive enough to them. As the Governor General
said in 1907: "Many of those who in the beginning were so minded [to stay
in the Philippines] due to ill health of themselves or their families, or the
longing to return to friends and relatives, changed front and preferred to
return to their homeland, there to enjoy life at half the salary in the environ-
ment to which they were accustomed."! 7 There were also attractive oppor-
tunities 'in the United States brought 'about by increasing prosperity and the
demand of the U.S. government for employees to serve in the Panama
Canal zone. Even in the Philippines, the Governor General complained
"the service is,constantly drained of its employees by' private concerns and
private enterprises."! 8,

The most important reason for the Filipinization of the civil Service was
•
.' the policy, of Filipinization itself pursued by the Republican administra-
tion. This had been written into the Civil Service Law itself. The policy also
seems to have been strictly adhered to in practice. Fortunately, the recruit-
ment of competent Filipinos did not pose any difficulties. The widespread
public school system that was established in the country graduated a con-
tinually increasing stream. Many of these graduates turned to the civil ser-
vice which, because of the benefits that it gave and the prestige that it car-
ried, was the most attractive form of employment available.

, Filipino participation in the civil service was going to increase even

further after 1913 when political conditions would usher the Democrats
into power, who would thereafter pursue a policy that would hasten even
further the tendencies towards Filipinization. Governor General Francis •
Burton Harrison (1913-1921) implemented the Democratic policy of rapid
Filipinization by resorting to the following specific measures: 'forced resig-
nations, reduction in, pay of the higher positions, the abolition of certain
positions and "the creation of conditions that were intolerable to many
Senior Americans in the service.,,19 These means were very effective: by
1919 Americans constituted only six per cent of the total bureaucratic
force of 1280:t. 20 Within a relatively short period, therefore, Filipinization
had resulted in what has been referred to as "a bureaucracy of Filipinos,
assisted byAmericans,"

The rapid tempo with which the policy was pursued could be expected
to result in what the sociologists 'would refer to as dysfunctions. But let us

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hear it from a contemporaneous verdict, this one coming from Leonard

143

Wood, who was to succeed Harrison, but who in 1921 was sent to the Phi-
lippines on an investigating mission: "We find that many Filipinos have
shown marked capacity for government service and that the' young genera-
tion isfull of promise; that the civil service laws have in the main been
honestly administered, but there is a marked deterioration due to the injec-
tion of politics.,,21 Wood himself as Governor (1921-1927) had dramatic
opportunity to test the quality of the Filipinized civil service when in 1923
his difficulties with Filipino leaders came to a head with the resignation of
the entire cabinet .and the Council of State. Wood simply instructed .the
permanent undersecretaries to take over from the departmental secretaries
and the rank-and-file to carry on the work of administration. Then he sent
a confident cable to Washington, which said in part: "Conditions as to gov- I

ernment operations normal. The undersecretaries have automatically taken

the place of the secretaries who resigned and are .functioning harmoniously

• and efficiently.t" 2

By the end of the Wood administration, therefore, the Philippine civil

service might be said to have come of age. The Filipino civil servants had
proved 'themselves, and the institution itself had survived. In fact, the law
and regulations that were in force by 1913 remained untouched, except for
minor modifications that strengthened rather than weakened the service.
In 1916, the civil service law was embodied in the new Administrative Code.
The Bureau of Civil Service continued under the control of an American
director until 1920 when a Filipino of more than 10 years of service in the
government, Mr. Jose Gil, was appointed head of the office.

However, despite all the changes that had occurred and the proof that
Filipinos had given that they were capable of running their government,
the situation up to 1935 was still a colonial one, with the Filipinos still
ultimately accountable to the colonialrulers. The Commonwealth period
• would give the Filipinos greater control over their own affairs. .

How did the Commonwealth government fare in the conduct of its

civil service? There was skeptical expectation that the institution would
start manifesting characteristics contrary to the principles of merit and poli-
tical neutrality. The record of the Commonwealth, however, shows that
it strengthened, rather than weakened, the civil service system in the coun-
try.

First of all, there was the decision to guarantee the independence

and permanence of the civil service system by writing into the Constitution
itself a provision on the Civil Service. This was not even part of the man-
datory provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie Law, which provided for the

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setting up of the Commonwealth government. The constitutional provision
•
was followed up by specific pieces of legislation that .further strengthened
the civil service. One of these, passed in 1936, elevated the Bureau of Civil
Service from a second-class to a first-class bureau. The office of the Direc-
tor of Civil Service was changed to Commissioner of Civil Service, with the
rank of Undersecretary of Department. By strengthening the agency in
charge of' the civil Service of the country, Quezon thereby gave further
notice of his commitment to the principles of an advanced civil service
system.

Act No. 17.7, also enforced in 1936, was an epochal piece of legislation,
It extended the civil service to all branches and subdivisions of the govern-
ment and applied the principle of competitive examination to all positions.
Thus, thousands of municipal employees were brought into the 'civil ser-
vice. The law empowered the Commissioner of Civil Service to discipline
subordinate officers or employees by removal, suspension, reduction in •
rank, and in pay. This authority was formerly vested in the heads of depart-
ments. The law, however, reiterated the accepted principle that no officer
or employee of the civil service shall be removed or suspended except for
cause as provided by law. Commenting on ActNo. 177, Joseph Ralston Hay-
den said that it was "acivilservice reformer's dream come true... It writes'
into the law of the land virtually every safeguard of the' merit system that
Philippine directors of the civil service had been advocating for years.?" 3

There were two other important initiatives undertaken during the

Commonwealth period which have proven their worth. One of these was the
creation of the Government Service Insurance System (GSIS) in November
1936. Prior to the organization of the GSIS, there was no retirement law
worthy of the name. The other was the setting up of a Government Survey
Board to assess the government's administrative and organizational resources.
The board discovered serious faults in the recruitment and position-classi-
fication systems. A legislative enactment that resulted from its findings '.
provided for a fairly advanced position-classification system and salary ad-
justments effective in 1940. The Second World War, of course, interrupted
any further implementation of this and other Commonwealth programs and
would usher in many problems which the new republic had to cope with.

The Independent Republic

On July 4, 1946, in accordance with the provisions of the Tydings-

McDuffie Law, the Philippines was granted its independence by the United
States. The new status of the country by itself placed increased responsibili-
ties on its political and administrative system. The tasks were made even
, heavier and more difficult by' the problems brought about by the Second

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World War: the economic prostration and severe physical destruction of the
145

country, as well as the political amorality manifested in the vastly increased

incidence of graft and corruption. The political and administrative system
of the new republic, therefore, was put to a severe test, and its beginnings
were not promising.

The emergence of a two-party system immediately after independence

was itself a significant development that was to affect the civil service.
Henceforth, the bureaucracy became vulnerable to partisan politics. Before
independence, the Nacionalista party was the only political party in existence,
whose actions were anyway circumscribed by the American presence as well
as by the "discipline of the independence campaign." There emerged two
opposing parties and therefore partisan interests found accommodation,
for example; in the spoils system. In the late 1940s, the security of tenure
of civil servants was respected by politicians, but there were vacancies in the

• newly-created Department of Foreign Affairs and temporary positions in

the Department of Public Works and Communications, which became the
outlet of the spoils system." 4

In 1950, the Philippine government concerned over the general state

of the country, requested the United States government to send a mission
to survey Philippine conditions and "to recommend measures that will en-
able the Philippines to become and to remain self-supporting.F" Known as
the Bell mission, the survey group rendered a dismal report on the condition
of the country. In accordance with its diagnosis of the Philippine situation,
the mission's recommendations focused on solutions to the economic and
financial problems of the country. However, it had important things to say
and to recommend about the public. administration of the new republic.

It noted, first of all, that although the government inherited a "rea-

sonably well-organized administration and a well-trained civil service,"2 6
• the war and the disorders that it caused had made it difficult to restore
administrative efficiency. It also made the observation that the civil service
system, "although designed to be based on merit, does not function in this
way." It made a general recommendation that "a special effort must now be
made to improve the public administration in order to give the people con-
fidence in the government. It is particularly important at this time because
the economic development program will of necessity place even greater res-
ponsibility on public administration. The success of the development pro-
gram may depend more on the efficiency and honesty of the public service
than on any other single factor."

The Philippine government was receptive to the findings and recom-

mendations of the Bell mission and for the rest of the decade of the 1950s',

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many initiatives were undertaken which were outright responses to the

•
recommendations of the mission.

One of the earliest initiatives, in fact, was the establishment in the

country of the first school of public administration. Established in 1952 in
the University of the Philippines under a joint contract between the State
University and the University ofMichigan, the Institute of Public Adminis-
tration carried on a four-fold program which included an academic curricu-
lum, in-service training, research, and consultation services. '

The biggest effort undertaken in pursuance of the Bell mission's recom-

mendations was the organization of the Government Survey and Reorganiza-
tion Committee (GSRC) in 1954. The GSRC was given a broad mandate to
(1) promote the better execution of the laws, and the more effective manage-
ment of the government and the expeditious administration of public busi-
ness; and, (2) to increase the efficiency of the operations o.fthe government
tothe fullest extent possible." 7 •
The GSRC made studies and proposed organizational reforms in such
areas as the following: agriculture and natural resources, commerce and
industry, economic planning, education and culture, health, labor, public
works and communications, revenue system and statistics and allied research.
It gave the highest priority to the reorganization of the National Economic
Council; thereby. underscoring the interdependence between the planning
organization and 'national development. Among the GSRC plans which were
implemented and had far-reaching consequences for the civil service were
on: (1) position classification (2) the standard pay plan and (3) the crea-
tion of the Wage and Position Classification Office (WAPCO).

How did the civil service system perform as far as the provisions of the .
basic laws on the system were concerned? By the 1950s, the legal bases of
the civil service were still the original Civil Service Act of 1900, the Civil •
Service Rules and Regulations of 1909, and Commonwealth ACt No. 177
of 1936. In 1954, the President of the Philippines created a Committee in
the Civil Service to look into the civil service independently of the GSRC.
The Committee's judgment on the civil service, more specifically in. public
personnel administration, is worth quoting: "Judged by modem standards
. . . personnel management is deficient and the Bureau of Civil Service ...
has been unable to function with the effectiveness and efficiency expected.
of a central personnel agency. The symptoms of this ailment of the govern-
ment are- very evident. There is delay in the recruitment, examination and
placement of employees; there is over-centralization of authority in the
Bureau of Civil Service; there is loose and inadequate discipline of civil
service employees; and, there is no program for positive personnel manage-

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• THE PHILIPPINE CIVIL SERVICE

ment. There are thousands of temporary employees in the competitive ser-

vice, and the government has .failed to provide the necessary means to
ensure a progressive merit system offering career opportunities sufficient-
ly attractive to persons of high caliber.,,28 '

The Civil Service Act of 1959 (R.A. No. 2260) sought to remedy the
defects of the civil service system by (1) amending, repealing or improving
existing provisions in the Civil Service Law and in other legislation which
tended to defeat the merit system and (2) making new provisions for carry-
ing out more effectively and economically the needs and requirements of
the public service.29 More specific provisions of the Act (1) changed the
Bureau of Civil Service into a Civil Service Commission; (2) created a full-
time Civil Service Board to act as appellate body in administrative cases de-
cided by the Civil Service Commissioner; (3) provided for the creation of

'.
personnel offices and personnel officer positions in various branches of the
governnment; (4) authorized agencies to have appropriate training staff
and to establish their own in-service training. programs in accordance with
standards laid down by the Commission; (5) provided an improved per-
formance rating system as well as an improved promotion system; (6) con-
sidered immorality and improper solicitation of contributions from subordi-
nates and schoolchildren as grounds for disciplinary action. We can see from
this incomplete list of provisions that the new law not only directed its
thrust atthe basic weaknesses of the civil service but also upheld progressive
principles of personnel adininistration.
" '

The question on how the new law would fare in actual practice is
partly answered by sporadic studies documenting bureaucratic performance.
One of these" 0, presents in some detail an apparently widespread practice
of Congress and the Office of the President dividing equally through rather
elaborate procedures, all new positions created in the budget of 1959, the
year, interestingly enough when the Civil Service Act was passed. The so-
called "50-50 Plan," which gained wide publicity and notoriety, illustrated
• very well how political and cultural factors had come to vitiate the workings
of a progressive civil service system.

Violations of civil service rules and regulations, such as the "50-50

Plan" demonstrates, do not, however, cover the full range of graft and
corruption that came to characterize the 1950s and the 1960s. The perva-
siveness of the phenomenon which seemed to have emerged in full flower
after the Second World War, is well documented in the free and colorful
press of the time. It can be described as permeating all levels of society.
At the lower levels we had the petty fixers who hung around government
offices offering to "fix" an application or another for a fee, or employees
who collected reimbursements for spurious per diem claims, or policemen
,who practiced extortion on helpJess citizens. On the middle level were

1985

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officials who profited from fake vouchers, padded payrolls, salary kick-
•
backs, overstocking of government supplies, or protection of illegal Chinese
immigrants. On the high levels were candidates for positions who filed dis-
honest declarations of election campaign expenses, political big-shots who
peddled influence,party leaders who misused public .funds for partisan pur-
poses. Then there was an elite group of grafters and corrupt officials whose
profits -from corrupt transactions with the' government ran into millions of
pesos, but whose powerful connections rendered them virtually untouchable
by the law: .

There were certainly enough laws in the books that could be thrown
at the grafters. Congress was quite responsive to the upsurge of graft and
corruption after independence," 1 The first such law was the Forfeiture Law
of 1955 which authorized the state to forfeit in its favor any property
found to have been unlawfully acquired .during the incumbency of the
employee "which was manifestly out of proportion to his salary and other
income:"In 1960, the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act was passed after
rough sailing in Congress. It was considered a more comprehensive and
•
potent piece of legislation. The law listed eleven acts of public officials as
constituting corrupt acts, aside from those already prohibited by existing
laws. Apart from this law, there were still others which were subsequently
enacted.

In addition to anti-graft laws, a plethora of anti-graft agencies were also

created in the exercise of the President's power to probe into anomalous
activities of public officials. These executive agencies were not only charged
with the task of implementing the anti-graft laws, but were also responsible
for related functions such as promoting administrative' efficiency, intro-
ducing reforms in government operations and attending to public com-
plaints. The study we referred t0 3 2 lists no less than nine such agencies
created from 1950 to 1970. If they share one characteristic at all, it is their
short duration, most of them not even as long as the administration that
established them. In several, also, they were ineffective and their poor
record has been diagnosed as due to the following factors: (1) organizational
•
instability; (2) frequent changes in leadership; (3) political pressures in
employee recruitment; (4) public apathy; and (5) strained \relationships
among the judicial, the legisiative branches, and other government agencies.

The Martial Law Regime

As the country entered the decade of the 1970s,'it appeared that the
problems of the Republic were to continue unsolved, until the declaration
of martial law in 1972 promised the most extensive and wrenching effort at
reform ever attempted in the history of the Philippine republic. In conso-

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nance with the character of the authoritarian regime, it was possible to

149

undertake a quick succession of measures designed "to save the Republic and
-to transform Philippine society." President Marcos declared the whole coun-
try a land reform area, disbanded private armies, rounded up members of
crime syndicates, increased tax collectioris and cleaned up the streets. He
also decreed the reorganization of the government and the. summary dismis-
sal of employees with records of graft, corruption and inefficiency.

The Integrated Reorganization Plan (IRP), which was the result of a

two-year effort of the Reorganization Commission, had remained unacted
upon since 1969 because of Congressional opposition to many of its provi-
sions. The Commission had been bound by the "package" approach to re-
organization, which stipulated that Congress either had to accept or reject in
toto the plan as.submitted by the President. Presidential Decree No.1 acti-
vated the Reorganization Plan, and thereby set in motion the most exten-

• sive reorganization scheme ever undertaken by the Philippine government.

Here are some of the several features of the IRP: 3 3

(1) It decentralized the national government to the extent necessary

for improved administration by (a) reducing the number of agencies directly
under the supervision of the Office of the President and (b) establishing
eleven uniform regional districts;

(2) It standardized the organization and common operational activi-

ties of departments. Staff services were standardized into four: planning,
finance and management, administrative, and technical services;

(3) It facilitated the preparation and execution of national develop-

ment programs by merging the National Economic Council and the Presi-
dential Economic Staff into a single planning entity, which became the Na-
tional Economic and Development Authority;

• (4) It generated savings through such methods as the abolition, trans-

fer of functions and mergers of agencies.
Apart from the IRP itself, a succession of presidential decrees and
letters of instruction give an idea of the importance given to the civil service.
For example, P.D. No 6 provided for summary discipline and removal of ci-
.e

vil servants, which led to the "purges" of 1973 and 1975. P.D. No. 868
placed under civil service laws and rules government-owned and controlled
corporations and repealed all provisions of charters, laws and decrees which
had exempted certain agencies. P.D. No. 807 (the Civil Service Decree of the
Philippines) provided new, more facilitation policies, together with Letter
of Instructions Nos. 316, 317, 318, 319 and 320, all-issued on September
23,.1975.

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150 PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

The IRP itself proposed structural. changes and innovations to'

•
strengthen the merit system. Noteworthy among these are: the conver-
sion of the single-headed Civil Service Commission to a three-man Com-
mission; the decentralization of personnel functions to line departments, .
bureaus and regional offices; the provision of more effective policies on
personnel selection, promotion, discipline and training; and the formation
of a Career Executive Service (CES). .

Reinforcing the innovative thrusts of the IRP, as well as of the nume-

rous presidential issuances that -followed in its wake, was the three-year
"Civil Service Development Plan" issued in 197·5. CaUed "an integrated
approach in the government," it stresses the supportive role of the person-
nel system in program administration.P" It has identified five priority areas:
- . career and personnel development, performance evaluation, administrative
discipline, recruitment and examination, and review of policies. The Plan
supplies a detailed work program with specific targets. •

To realize career and personnel development under the aforemen-

tioned plan, the CSC instituted a large-scale training program for middle-
levelmanagers. Such a program, popularly known as JET (for Junior Exe-
cutive Training), aims to promote managerial effectiveness, professional-
ism, dedication to the public service, and awareness of the central role of the
civil service in national development.P" The perceived success of the JET
program has inspired the design and implementation of a follow-up program,
with an equally clearer acronym, STREAM, for Supervisory Training for
Effective Administrative Management.

In the area of evaluation, the CSCinitiated the organization of Per-

formance Evaluation Committees (PEC) which in 1976 undertook an exten-
sive assessment of the entire civil service. Such an evaluation has since elici-
ted reservation regarding the validity of the findings as a basis for action.P"
However, it was the first such attempt to evaluate fhe whole civil service, .'
and perhaps the value of the effort lies only there, and as an object lesson in
conducting future performance evaluation,

It might be observed at this point that practically all the policies

and initiatives undertaken under the IRP, the Development Plan and other
legal issuances have upheld a -positive approach. The facilitative structures,
procedures and Personnel policies attest to this. However, we must also
note that the most dramatic episode undertaken during the period of mar-
tial law was the famous purge of 1973 when about 1,500 civil servants were
summarily dismissed. On the third anniversary of martial law,another large
group of government personnel were again "purged," and the list included
cabinet members.

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The purges received considerable criticism, for indeed, many errors

151

seemed to have been committed in drawing up the list. For example,

among those who were dismissed were people who had already died, had
resigned, or had been transferred from their offices. Such cases caused
considerable embarrassment to the government. Indeed, the conduct of
the purge stunted its own objective. Instead, it resulted in considerable
backlash and created an atmosphere, of insecurity and fear among civil
servants. What the purges seem to have demonstrated was that an authori-
tarian government can indeed have recourse to extra-ordinary means to
cleanse the ranks of the civil service. But, despite all the efforts at improve-
ment and reform throughout the decades of the 1950s and the 1960s,
it continued to exhibit serious problems and weaknesses.

In spite of all the efforts to maintain an efficient and honest govern-

mental machinery, corruption remained a major problem. In fact, a few
government agencies came to be identified with corruption. Three well-

II
• documented case studies demonstrate this. Of the Bureau of Internal Re-
venue the writer traced the presence of corrupt practices to: (1) a per-
vading administrative culture that tends to tolerate corruption and create
opportunities for corrupt activities; (2) weaknesses in the administrative
machinery that give ample opportunity for manipulation of financial docu-
ments and records as well as for collusion between the bureaucrat and the
client.P?

In the Board of Transportation, corruption took the form of the fol-

lowing: (1) facilitation or delay in the processing of or taking of action on
the papers; (2) circumventing specified steps or processes; (3), giving of
approval even if the paper or equipment assessed fails to conform to the
standard; and (4) engaging in business with the client while in the perform-
ance of his duties by the bureaucrat.I" In another office concerned with
supply management, the writer discussed anomalies which included ghost

• deliveries, insufficient deliveries, purchases made in excess of the quantity

required, and the selling of government supplies to dealers, only to b~ .
bought back by the officer. 3 9

A distinctive response to the problem of graft and corruption in the

martial law regime has been the activation of the Constitutional provision
regarding the creation of the position of Tanodbayan (Ombudsman) and a
special court, the Sandiganbayan. Both are independent of the President and
are assured of organizational stability by the Consthutional provisions,
which makes them different' from previous anti-graft' agencies. However,
they require that actions for suits be initiated by citizens, which is a source
of weakness, since public indifference and even cynicism will not encourage
.such bold actions. Both have been in operation for more than five years

1985

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.and have established a fairly impressive record of the number of cases they
•
have handled, as well as in the number of convictions. The public's impres-
sion,however, is that only lower-ranking civil servants have been found'
guilty and meted out severe penalties. A big-time grafter still has to be con-
victed to convince a doubting public that the government is really serious
about solving the problem of graft and corruption.

In the preceding discussion, our. juxtaposition of positive laws and ac-

tions on· the one hand and negative bureaucratic behavior on the other is
not only symbolic, but practically descriptive, of the state of the civil ser-
vice system. The situation reveals a basic conflict between the standards
that we hold in theory and our ability to maintain them in practice. The
standards of bureaucratic behavior that we have written into our laws are
very high, and historically our norms have been getting stricter, with more
prescribed behavior entering into the books. Our ·capacity to obey the
laws and to punish the offenders does not seem to have undergone any pal-
pable improvement over more than three decades' of the independent repub-
lic. In .fact, as we entered the 1980.8, there was no noticeable diminution
•
of graft and corruption; the cynics would even say that it has only increased,
if only because there are more public resources now which 'can be diverted
into private coffers. .

It seems that for some indefinite time into the future, our period of
comfortable and uncomfortable accommodations between our conflicting
values will continue. At least, for now we can claim that we have been exert-
ing much effort to put the house in order, and that our standards of public
behavior are high and clear and that we shall continue to try to uphold them.

Endnotes

ISee, for example, the interpretation of Onofre D. Corpuz in The Philippines (Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965) pp. 87-92. Also Edwin Stene and Associates, Public Adminis-
•
tration in the Philippines (Manila: V.P. Institut~ of Public Administration, 1955) pp. 49-53,

2 See Onofre D. Corpuz, The Bureaucracy in the Philippines (V,P. Institute of Public Adminis-
tration, 1957) and Eliodoro Robles, The Philippines in the Nineteenth Century (Quezon City:' Malaya
Books, Inc" 1969)
3 .
Corpuz, Bureaucracy, p. 34.

5Nicolas Zafra, "The Residencia in the Colonial Administration System in the Philippines,"
Philippine Historical Bulletin (March 1963) pp. 14-33.' '

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6Robles,op. cit., pp, 70-71.

153

8Fedor Jagor, Travels in the Philippines (Berlin: 1873) pp. 189-190.

9"Testimony Taken by the Philippine Commission Relating to Religious Orders," Senate Docu-
ment 190 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901) pp. 63-71.

lOBonifacio Salamanca, The Filipino Reaction to American Rule (Hamdem, Conn: The Shoe-
string Press, 1968), pp. 26-51 for a discussion of the birth of American policy towards the Philippines.

11 Corpuz, op. cit., pp. 161-162.

12Paul van Riper, History of the U.S. Ovil Service (Evanstone, I1linois:Row, Peterson and Co.,
1958) pp. 96-100.

• 13Joseph R. Hayden, The Philippines: A Study in National Development (New York: MacMil-
lan & Co., 1955), p. 88.

14Report of the Director of the Ovil Service, 1901, II, p. 290.

15Corpuz,op. cit., p.176.

16/bid , pp.174-175.

17Report of the Philippine Commission, 1907,1, pp. 80-81.

18/bid, p. 80.

19Hayden,op. cit., p. 96.

20Corpuz,op. cit., p. 201.

21Senate Document No. 325, 67th Congress, 2nd series, p. 45.

• 22Annual Report of the Governor General, 1923, p, 37.

23Hayden,op. cit., p. 110.

24COrpUZ,Op. cit., p. 225.

25u.s. Economic Survey Mission's Report (Manila: Philippine Book Co., 1950), p. 1.

26/ bid., p. 115.

27Republic Act No. 997, June 9, 1954, Sec. 2(a).

28Bell Mission Report.

290 vil Service Act of 1959.

.'
1985
154 PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
•
30Gregorio Francisco, Jr. and Raul P. de Guzman, "The 50-50 Agreement," in R.P. de Guzman
(ed.), Patterns in Decision-Making (Manila: V.P. College of Public Administration, 1963) pp. 105-134.

'3lMa. Concepcion Alfiler, "Administrative Measures Against Bureaucratic Corruption: The

Philippine Experience," Philippine Journal of Public Administration, Vol. XXIII, Nos. 3 and 4 (July-
October 1979), pp. 321~349.'

32Ibid.

33Integrated Reorganization Plan (Manila:'Commission on Reorganization, March 1972).

34Albina Dans, "The Philippine Civil Service: Structure and Policies," Philippine Journal of
Public Administration, Volume XXVI, Nos. 3 and 4 (July-October 1977) p. 291.

35Ligaya Jorge, "The JET: Program for Education and Training at Middle Managerial Level,"
in ibid., pp. 421-423

36Ledivina V. Carifio, "Personnel Policies and Bureaucratic Behavior under Martial Law,"
ibid., p. 310.

37Leonor M. Briones, "Negative Bureaucratic Behavior and Development: The Case of the
•
Bureau of Internal Revneue," Philippine Journal of Public Administration ,(Volume XXIll, Nos. 3
and 4 (July-October 1979), pp. 255-27.8. .

38Victoria A. Bautista, "Negative Bureaucratic Behavior in the Regulation of the Taxi~b

Businesses: The Case of the Board of Transportation," in ibid., pp. 296-320.

39Raul P. de Guzman, Rizalino Vifieza and Josie H. de Leon, "Bureaucr~tic Behavior and Deve-
lopment: A Case Study of Supply Management in a Philippine Government Agency," in ibid., pp.
279-295.

April