Guide-Control-Valve Book

Control Valve
Sourcebook —
Refining
1
Introduction
Refinery
Control Valves
The petroleum refining industry
is an industry that is most vital
to our modern global economy.
Almost constantly, you are in
close contact with products
that once were distilled through
columns like those shown on the
left. Some of these materials and
products are so important that
their rapidly fluctuating market
values are reported every day on
television, radio, Internet, and
newspapers.
The products go through many

phases from crude oil and other
raw materials to the final products
you use every day. On the
following page is a chart showing
...
1-2
SOUR FUEL GAS AMINE REFINERY
TREATING FUEL GAS
HYDROGEN
SULFIDE SULFUR TAIL GAS
SULFUR
RECOVERY UNIT
BUTANE AND LIGHTER LIQUIFIED

TREATING PETROLEUM
SATURATED PROPANE GAS (LPG)
GAS PLANT
N-BUTANE
UNSATURATED ALKYLATION FEED

GAS PLANT
Figure 1.1.1. Complete Refinery

LIGHT STRAIGHT RUN GASOLINE ISOMERIZATION ISOMERATE
PRETREATMENT
UNIT
LIGHT STRAIGHT RUN

HYDROGEN
HYDROGEN
UNLEADED
GASOLINE
NAPTHA NAPHTHA CATALYTIC REFORMATE
HYDROTREATER REFORMER
REFORMULATED
GASOLINE
CRUDE OIL ALKYLATE
STORAGE ISOBUTANE ALKYLATION
HYDROGEN C3+C4 OLEFIN UNIT
LOW SULFUR
GASOLINE BLENDING
GASOLINE
KEROSENE/JET
TREATING
DESALTER
DIESEL DISTILLATE
HYDROTREATING
HYDROGEN
1 - Introduction
ATMOSPHERIC GAS OIL FCC GASOLINE

FLUID TREATING
LIGHT CYCLE OIL
CATALYTIC
CRACKER DECANTED OIL
FEED
ATMOSPHERIC CRUDE DISTILLATION

HYDROTREATING
HYDROGEN
JET FUEL
HC NAPHTHA
KEROSENE
HYDROCRACKER
DIESEL/JET
HYDROGEN
DIESEL FUELS
COKER GAS
DISTILLATE BLENDING
VACUUM VACUUM GAS OIL COKER GAS OIL NO. 2

DISTILLATION HEATING OIL
HYDROTREATER
COKER NAPTHA
VACUUM RESID COKER DIESEL
COKER HEAVY FUEL OIL
PETROLEUM COKE RESIDUAL
BLENDING
ASPHALTS
VISBREAKER PETROLEUM
DAO
COKE
DEASPHALTING
DA BOTTOMS
E1445
1 - Introduction
the raw materials, some of the intermediate petroleum Valve Selection

product phases, and some of the final products that reach
you as a consumer. Many of the products on the next page The information presented in this sourcebook is intended
are further processed and become part of too many items to to assist in understanding the control valve requirements of
mention. general refining processes.
The products are all processed and made ready for the Since every refinery is different in its unit makeup and the
market in refineries. Efficient operation of refineries has a technologies it utilizes, the control valve requirements and
tremendous impact on profit, final consumer price, and wise recommendations presented by this sourcebook should be
use of limited resources. Efficient refinery operation depends considered as general guidelines.
on well-planned and well-executed control strategies,
responsive control systems, and tough, reliable control The information in this sourcebook is intended to assist with
valves. understanding general refining process requirements and
general control valve considerations.
This sourcebook is a primer on the use of control valves in
many refining processes. It is intended to help you: Under no circumstances should this information alone be
used to select a control valve without ensuring that the
Understand the types of refining processes, proper valve construction is identified for the application and
Learn where control valves are typically located within process conditions.
the process,
All valve considerations should be reviewed with your
Identify the operational problems that might be caused Emerson sales office or representative as part of any valve
by poor valve performance, selection or specification activity.
Identify Fisher® valves that are commonly used for the
applications in a refinery. Control Valves
A standard format is used to present the information on each Valves described within a chapter are labeled and numbered
refining process. The information provided is: corresponding to the identification used in the process flow
Other commonly-used names for the described process chart for that chapter. The order in which they are discussed
The basis (feed rate) for the example process is from left-to-right and top-to-bottom.
A short description of the process If a valve is controlling feed, intermediate or final product
streams, the U.S. dollar value of that stream (as recorded at
A list and description of each important process valve in
the time of sourcebook publication) and typical feed rate
the unit
are provided. The valve function also is described, and a
A functional drawing of the process specification section gives added information on process
Typical process conditions conditions, names of Fisher valves that can be considered,
process impact of the valve and any special considerations.
Names of Fisher valves that can be considered for each
process
Potential process impacts and special considerations for
Process Drawing
each valve The process drawing within each chapter shows major
equipment items, their typical placement within the
Other Names processing system and process flow direction. Utilities,
pumps and most heat exchangers are not shown. Valves are
It is not possible to make an all-inclusive list of commonly- numbered in sequence from left-to-right and top-to-bottom.
used process names. Many refineries have developed specific
process names based on local preference or the preferences Problem Valves
of the licensor or designer that developed the process.
Often there are references to valve-caused problems or
Process Descriptions difficulties. The litany of problems includes valve stickiness
caused by excessive friction (called “stiction”), excessive play
Many processing units within a refinery contain furnaces in valve-to-actuator linkages (typically in rotary valves) that
and distillation columns, which makes these pieces of causes deadband, excessive valve stem packing leakage,
equipment and their operation fairly universal. The valve and valve materials that are incompatible with the flowing
requirements for these units are presented in Chapters 1 and medium. Any one or a combination of these difficulties
2, respectively, and are not repeated in the chapters that can affect process quality and throughput, with a resulting
follow. negative impact on refinery profitability.
Chapters 3 through 5 discuss refining processes, with the Many of these problems can be avoided or minimized
valve information presented in each chapter applying directly through proper valve selection. Consideration should be
to the specific process being described. given to valve style and size, actuator capabilities, analog vs.
digital instrumentation, materials of construction and the
like. Although not being all-inclusive, the information that
this sourcebook provides should facilitate the valve selection
process.
1-3
2
Fisher Product Tools
and Documentation
In the day-to-day operation of
your plant you have a long list of
concerns, like meeting production
schedules, maintaining product
quality, and improving the
efficiency of plant utilities, to
name just a few. The last thing
you should have to worry about is
the performance of your plant’s
control valves.
Serving You for the Life of

Your Plant
For nearly 40 years, Emerson
has been a provider of trusted
expertise for reliability centered
control valve maintenance.
A network of service centers,
manufacturing sites, and sales
representatives puts experienced
professionals where and when
they are needed. . .
2 - Fisher Tools and Documentation
Contact your local sales office to get in touch with the Service controlled lab environment, special tests are also commonly
Center nearest you. Highly skilled technicians provide cost performed to solve customers’ toughest challenges.
effective maintenance, valve reliability, and increased process
Results from flow variability testing, hydrostatic pressure
availability through flexible, local service.
testing, capacity verification, metallurgical development, and
cycle life testing all lead to one conclusion—the valve meets
Manufacturing or exceeds the demanding requirements established by the
One thing all control valve buyers have in common is a process control industry.
desire to know as much as possible about their prospective
purchase and the company that manufactures it. Fisher valve Emerson Innovation Center
operations started in 1880 in Marshalltown, Iowa, United
The Emerson Innovation Center for Fisher Technology in
States. Since then, the company has grown to more than
Marshalltown, Iowa, USA, is home to the world’s largest
8,000 people worldwide. Emerson is the largest control valve
flow lab used to evaluate control valves. It incorporates flow
and regulator manufacturer in the world.
testing capabilities up to NPS 36 and 240 bar (3,500 psig).
To meet local product and delivery needs, Fisher product Final control elements are tested in conformance to IEC
manufacturing plants are located in each world area. Each and ISA standards in real-world plant conditions to ensure
manufacturing site is tied directly to Fisher product design production reliability, efficiency, environmental compliance,
centers via the latest communication links, helping ensure and safety.
that manufacturing operations utilize the most up-to-date
product information. This means that each Fisher product Application Assistance
meets design specifications and performs as intended,
regardless of where it’s individual or component parts were Control valves are an investment, so you want to speak
manufactured. with someone one-on-one who knows about you and
your business. The Emerson sales network has extensive
Design Verification through Lab Testing application experience and can recommend the most
suitable products for your application. Go to
Emerson engineers conduct tests that analyze cavitation, www.Fisher.com and click on Fisher Sales Contacts to find
materials, fatigue, wear, high and low temperatures, valve the sales office nearest you. Because of the technical nature
actuators, loop variability, leakage, hydrostatic forces, of the Fisher product line, most of the Emerson network
gaskets, seals, and control system compatibility. In the are engineers with substantial factory training. At Emerson,
2-2
Lab Tested
Our control valves have undergone thorough
and extensive testing. Test engineers determine
sizing coefficients, stem force requirements, and
investigate actual performance.
we’ve built our reputation not just on our quality Fisher health, areas of potential risks, and a prioritized recommend
products, but also on our people and their dedication to action plan.
service. Wherever you are, there’s an Emerson salesperson to
discuss your control needs. Training
OEM Replacement Parts Today, the need for training is more critical than ever to
achieve and maintain cost-effective process operations. So
The Emerson manufacturing network supports Fisher parts whether it’s at your site, our site, or the website, we work
needs in any emergency. The integrated sales channel and hard to ensure you know how to get the best from your
business partner networks offer a local point of customer Fisher products through a selection of valve and instrument
contact with delivery of process control application training courses. Emerson offers comprehensive customer
knowledge and complimentary capabilities. Flexible training and education programs that cover a wide range of
deployment of highly skilled, factory-trained Emerson process topics. The programs consist of structured courses
technicians strategically located near customer process that are geared to real-world situations. Customer training
plants provide repair capabilities for all types of control valves is provided at our educational facilities located near you. In
and associated field instruments. Emerson’s comprehensive addition to standard programs, tailored courses designed
quick ship programs, along with a supporting distribution for the specific needs of an organization can be conducted
network of process control products and spare parts, on-site. Prepackaged training courses are available in video
guarantee immediate response to customer needs. format, making selftraining convenient and cost-effective.
www.EmersonProcess.com/Education
Diagnostic Services
Sizing and Specification
When precision is critical to keep your process in peak
performance, you need your valves to perform to industry Fisher Specification Manager software is available through
and factory specifications. Emerson’s skilled, certified field your local salesperson. The software offers a powerful set
technicians carefully analyze control valves using diagnostic of tools for quickly producing an ISA specification sheet,
services to identify maintenance priorities and develop a improving noise prediction calculations and exporting
proactive plan detailing when devices should be repaired or dimensional data for Fisher and Baumann™ control valves.
replaced with next generation technologies. After diagnostic You’ll find it easy to learn and use.
service, technicians produce a clear report indicating asset
2-3
PRECISE ACTUATION LOW-EMISSIONS PERFORMANCE HIGH-CYCLE TESTING
Antisurge valves must be responsive Fisher ENVIRO-SEAL™ low emissions Many of Emerson’s standard Fisher
in order to protect critical and costly packing is designed and tested for Fisher products are used in extremely high-
compressors from damage during control valves to keep fugitive emissions cycle applications, and must be tested
transients. Fisher precision actuation below 100 parts per million volume to more than one million cycles. Those
technology enables a full stroke up to (ppmv) in your throttling application for same standard products are used in
50.8 cm (20 inches) in less than one tens of thousands of cycles. your refinery to enhance reliability.
second and better than 1% positioning
accuracy.
WITHSTANDING VIBRATION REDUCING PROCESS VARIABILITY QUIETING NOISE
Fisher control valves are designed Fisher control valve assemblies Supported with a 4,738 m2 (51,000 ft2)
and tested for robustness in vibration are subjected to on-line, dynamic facility and a unique 2, 415 m2 (26,000
applications. They are subjected to performance testing to evaluate ft2) sound chamber, Emerson can quantify
additional testing for millions of cycles at their ability to reduce your process noise from valves, piping, and vents.
their resonant (worst case) frequency to variability. These tests replicate how This capability provides insight to ensure
enhance performance in your facility. control valves are used in your plant. highly accurate noise prediction and
helps you comply with regulatory (IEC)
requirements.
2-4
Other Resources
Fisher Control Valve Handbook
The Control Valve Handbook is both a textbook and a
reference on the strongest link in the control loop: the
control valve and its accessories. This book includes extensive
and proven knowledge from leading experts in the process
control field including contributions from the ISA and the
Crane Company.
The Fisher Story—125 Years of Process Control

Experience
This book is a compilation of photos, heritage items,
memories, facts and experiences from the first 125 years.
2-5
Sliding-
Stem
Control
Valves
W
e have the broadest UNIVERSAL
range of sliding-stem
control valves available anywhere
in a variety of construction
materials, flow characteristics, and
end connections. Complementary
actuators and accessories are
also available. Popular sliding-
stem valve product lines include: Fisher easy-e™ valve line popularized
the concept of one valve body with
Fisher easy-e™ globe valves and interchangeable trim. Can be used
effectively, plantwide, in a number of
Baumann valves. applications.
HIGH PRESSURE, HIGH FLOW STEAM CONDITIONING
Built-to-last design with rugged cage Enhanced pressure reduction capabilities

guiding and hardened trim materials. as well as highly efficient and accurate
Fisher ENVIRO-SEAL™ and HIGH-SEAL steam conditioning performance in
packing systems in the valve provide a a single valve. Provides the ultimate
tight stem seal for fugitive emissions combination of performance and
control. maintainability.
2-6
CHEMICAL AND GENERAL SERVICE UTILITY AND LOW FLOW SERVICE SANITARY
Unmatched innovation, technology, and Compact, low-weight Baumann control Designed to satisfy the stringent
reliability. Compact size, anti-corrosion valves help ensure reduced installation demands of the pharmaceutical and
finish, certified emission control packing and maintenance costs. Designs include biotechnology industries. Includes FDA,
and integrated digital technology. patented low flow technology and USP CLVI, and 3A Sanitary Standards,
exceptional deadband and hysteresis Inc. certifications.
characteristics.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS SWEET OR SOUR OIL AND HIGH-PRESSURE GAS SERVICE

GAS APPLICATIONS
Fisher ENVIRO-SEAL valve packing Special deep-bore hammer nut for Innovative Fisher FloPro selectable flow
systems are designed to control increased safety. Fisher Micro-Form rate feature. Designed for high-pressure
emissions below 100 ppmv. Provide valve plug is sour gas compatible. separators, scrubbers, and other gas
extended service life. Fisher easy-Drive™ electric actuator was processing equipment.
designed to protect the environment
from methane gas venting.
2-7
Rotary
Control
Valves
W
hen capacity and PROVEN PERFORMANCE
performance are the
requirements, the Fisher line of
rotary valves is the answer. Popular
rotary valve products include ball,
eccentric disc, eccentric plug, and
butterfly valves with such familiar
tradenames as Vee-Ball™ and

Fisher Vee-Ball™ control valves feature
the Fisher-pioneered V-notch ball for
Control-Disk.™
nonclogging, high capacity flow control.

Designed for gas, steam, liquids and
fibrous slurries where reducing process
variability is a must.
HARD-TO-HANDLE FLUIDS HIGH PERFORMANCE
Fisher V500 and CV500 control valves Fisher 8580 control valves are reliable,
offer low operating torque and combine high performance butterfly valves
the ruggedness of a globe valve with the suitable for throttling applications that
efficiency of a rotary valve. Well suited to require extremely low leakage rates.
erosive, coking and other hard-to-handle
fluids.
2-8
WIDE CONTROL RANGE PIPELINE CONTROL
Fisher Control-Disk™ valves have a Designed from the ground up with

wide control range and offer excellent features for optimized pressure, flow,
throttling performance to control closer and process control. Used in gas and oil
to target set point, regardless of process flow streams. Special Fisher Aerodome
disturbances. or Hydrodome attenuators reduce
noise and cavitation effects that cause
pipeline vibration.
TIGHT SHUTOFF AUTOMATED ON-OFF

PERFORMANCE
Fisher high performance valves survive Fisher 8580 rotary valves with
in extreme pressure and temperature FieldQ™ rack-and-pinion actuators
conditions. Exceptional shutoff rates offer automated on-off, quarter-turn
with birdirectional soft seal ring. Special performance and feature either a soft or
Fisher NOVEX and Phoenix III metal seals metal seal for enhanced shutoff.
offer added shutoff capabilities.
2-9
Field
Instruments
and Valve
Accessories
wide selection of Fisher DIGITAL VALVE CONTROLLER
A digital, pneumatic and
electronic instruments control valve
position and variables such as level,
pressure, or temperature. Popular
Fisher products include:
FIELDVUE™ digital valve controllers,
FIELDVUE digital level transmitters,
ValveLink™ software, and pressure The Fisher FIELDVUE digital valve

controller family has powerful diagnostic
and temperature controllers. capabilities. Patented modular design and
minor loop feedback.
DIGITAL VALVE CONTROLLER VALVE DIAGNOSTICS SOFTWARE
Non-contact, linkage-less travel feedback ValveLink software is the configuration,

and local user interface with LCD and calibration, and diagnostic tool used
four pushbuttons for menu navigation. with FIELDVUE Instrumentation. It uses
Powerful FIELDVUE diagnostic capabilities. predictive intelligence to improve the
availability and performance of control
valves.
2-10
WIRELESS POSITION MONITOR DIGITAL LEVEL TRANSMITTER PRESSURE CONTROLLER
Rugged, reliable, easy-to-use Provides installation flexibility. Built-to-last Offers long-lasting dependability. Simply
measurement device that monitors design. HART® and FOUNDATION™ fieldbus constructed. Can reduce steady-state air/
equipment position with a percent of span certified, bringing digital advantages to gas consumption to as little as 1/10th that
plus on/off indication. liquid level control. of other products.
ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC LIQUID LEVEL CONTROLLER VOLUME BOOSTER

TRANSDUCER
Special free-flow design resists plugging. Designed for controlling level on gas Used in conjuction with a positioner on
Approved for use with natural gas as the separators and scrubbers. Sour gas service a throttling control valve to increase
supply medium. ready. Low bleed relays conserve energy stroking speed. Connectors and piping can
and reduce impact on the environment. be installed for diagnostic testing.
2-11
Severe
Service
Solutions
F
or decades, we have been CAVITATING LIQUID
providing solutions for
severe service control valve
applications in the power and
hydrocarbon industries. Special
control problems—either
anticipated or existing—that
involve extremes in temperature,
pressure, corrosion, erosion,

Cavitrol™ III trim contains a multitude
noise, flashing or cavitation, have
of specially shaped holes that reduce
a Fisher valve solution.
flow turbulence. The holes are radially
aligned to flow from one restriction to
another. Both features dissipate the
fluid pressure and prevent cavitation.
OUTGASSING DRILLED HOLE NOISE TRIM
Dirty Service Trim for Outgassing (DST-G) Whisper Trim™ III is a drilled hole trim
is used in services where the fluid has available in a variety of control valve
dissolved gases that are released from sizes and styles. It delivers excellent
solution due to a reduction in pressure. noise reduction. The design architecture
DST-G trim allows large 6.35 mm (¼-inch) even allows for flexibility of size,
particulate to pass. pressure class, materials, rangeability,
and attenuation.
2-12
CAVITATING DIRTY FLOW CAVITATING DIRTY FLOW, LARGE PRESSURE DROPS

CUSTOMIZED
NotchFlo™ DST trim uses a series of Dirty Service Trim (DST) provides Each of the Cavitrol IV trim stages has a
flow restrictions and expansions to cavitation-control for applications successively large flow area. The results
control the pressure drop of the fluid. with entrained particulate. It uses a is very efficient operation because more
The notched plug allows up to 12 mm combined axial and radial flow path than 90 percent of the overall pressure
(½-inch) particulate to flow through the that features large openings allowing drop is taken in the initial stages where
trim without plugging. particulate up to 19 mm (¾-inch) in there is little danger of cavity formation.
diameter to pass through the valve.
STACKED DISK NOISE TRIM SLOTTED NOISE TRIM DIFFUSERS
WhisperFlo trim offers state-of-the- Whisper Trim I offers proven The 6010 inline diffuser places back
art noise attenuation in vapor, gas, attenuation of aerodynamic noise pressure on the control valve, thereby
or steam applications involving high in vapor, gas, or steam applications reducing the turbulence and pressure
pressure drops. It is a laser cut, stacked- involving low to medium pressure drops. drop across the valve, which are main
disk cage assembly that is available in It offers economical, dependable noise contributors in damaging noise and
globe and angle bodies for the most attenuation. It offers great application vibration.
severe applications. flexibility.
2-13
3
Available Technologies
This section will go through

available Fisher technologies
commonly used in the refining
industry.
Topic Page
3.1 Sliding-Stem Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.2 Rotary Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.3 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.4 Control Valve packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.5 Positioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3.6 Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
3 - Available Technologies
3. Control Valves
The control valve regulates the rate of fluid flow as the
position of the valve plug or disk is changed by force from the
actuator. To do this, the valve must:
Contain the fluid without external leakage
Have adequate capacity for the intended service
Be capable of withstanding the erosive, corrosive, and
temperature influences of the process
Incorporate appropriate end connections to mate with
adjacent pipelines and actuator attachment means to
permit transmission of actuator thrust to the valve plug
stem or rotary shaft
Many styles of control valve bodies have been developed
through the years. Some serve a wide application range;
others meet specific service conditions and are used less
frequently. The following chapter describes control valve
35A7592-E
W7027-3
bodies and trim styles.

Figure 3.1.1. Single-Ported Globe-Style Valve Body
3.1 Sliding-Stem Valves

Unbalanced Single-Port Valve
Constructions
Single-port is the most common valve body style and is
simple in construction. These valves are available in various
forms, such as globe, angle, and split constructions.
Generally, single-port valves are specified for applications
with stringent shutoff requirements. They use metal-to-
metal seating surfaces or soft-seating with PTFE or other
composition materials forming the seal. Single-port valves
can handle most service requirements.
Because high-pressure fluid is normally loading the entire
area of the port, the unbalance force created must be
considered in selecting actuators for single-port control valve
bodies.
Although most popular in the smaller sizes, single-port
valves can often be used in NPS 4 to NPS 8 with high-thrust
actuators.
Many modern single-seated valve bodies use cage or retainer W0971-3
style constructions to retain the seat ring, provide valve-plug Figure 3.1.2. Angle-Style Valve Body
guiding, and provide a means for establishing particular valve
flow characteristics. Retainer-style trim also offers ease of style construction. Others might have screwed-in seat rings,
maintenance with flow characteristics altered by the plug expanded outlet connections, restricted trim, and outlet
contour. Cage or retainer-style single-seated valve bodies liners for reduction of erosion damage.
can also be easily modified by changing trim parts to provide
reduced-capacity flow, noise attenuation, or reduction or High pressure, single-ported globe valves are often used
elimination of cavitation. in refineries. Variations available include cage-guided trim,
bolted body-to-bonnet connection, and self-draining angle
Figure 3.1.1 shows two styles of single-ported or single- versions.
seated globe-type control valve bodies. They are widely used
in process control applications, particularly in sizes from NPS Flanged versions are available with ratings to ASME CL2500
1 through NPS 4. and greater.
Angle valves are typically single-ported (figure 3.1.2).
Normal flow direction is up through the seat ring. They are Balanced-Plug, Cage-Style Valve
commonly used in boiler feedwater and heater drain service Constructions
and in piping schemes where space is at a premium and the
valve can also serve as an elbow. The valve shown has cage- This single-ported valve body style uses one seat ring and
provides the advantages of a balanced valve plug often
3-2
W0997-2
Figure 3.1.4. Expanded End Connection Valve with Noise

Abatement Trim
W0992-3
Figure 3.1.3. Balanced-Plug, Cage-Style Valve Construction
associated only with double-ported valve bodies (figure

3.1.3.). Cage-style trim provides valve plug guiding, seat
ring retention, and flow characterization. In addition, a seal
between the upper portion of the valve plug and the wall
of the cage cylinder virtually eliminates leakage from the
upstream to downstream pressures. Downstream pressure
acts on the top and bottom sides of the valve plug, thereby
reducing the static unbalance force. Reduced unbalance
force permits operation of the valve with smaller actuators
than those necessary for conventional single-ported valve
bodies. Interchangeability of trim permits choice of several
flow characteristics, noise attenuation, or anti-cavitation
components. For most available trim designs, the standard
direction of flow is in through the cage openings and down
through the seat ring. These are available in various material
combinations, sizes beyond NPS 36, and pressure ratings to
CL 2500 and greater.
Expanded End Connection, Cage-Guided

Valve Constructions W0467-1a
This adaptation of the cage-guided valve bodies mentioned Figure 3.1.5. Double-Ported Globe-Style Valve Body
above was designed for noise applications such as high
pressure gas reducing stations where sonic gas velocities typically provided with screwed in seat rings which might be
are often encountered at the outlet of conventional valve difficult to remove after use.
bodies (figure 3.1.4). The design incorporates oversized
end connections with a streamlined flow path and the
ease of trim maintenance inherent with cage-style Double-Ported Valve Constructions
constructions. Use of noise abatement trim reduces overall Dynamic force on the plug tends to be balanced as flow tends
noise levels by as much as 40 decibels (dB). Flow direction to open one port and close the other. Reduced dynamic
depends on the intended service and trim selection, with forces acting on the plug might permit choosing a smaller
unbalanced constructions normally flowing up and balanced actuator than would be necessary for a single-ported valve
constructions normally flowing down. body with similar capacity.
Port-Guided Single-Port Valve Valve bodies are usually furnished only in the larger sizes—
NPS 4 or larger and bodies normally have higher capacity
Constructions than single-ported valves of the same line size. Many double-
These valve bodies are usually limited to 10 bar (150 psig) ported bodies reverse, so the valve plug can be installed as
maximum pressure drop. They are susceptible to velocity either push-down-to-open or push-down-to-close (figure
induced vibration. Port-guided single-port valve bodies are 3.1.5). Metal-to-metal seating usually provides only Class II
shutoff capability, although Class III capability is also possible.
3-3
W4641
W9045-1
Figure 3.1.6. Three Way Valve with Balanced Valve Plug Figure 3.2.1. High-Performance Butterfly Control Valve
Port-guided valve plugs are often used for on-off or low- Conventional contoured disks provide throttling control
pressure throttling service. Top-and-bottom-guided valve for up to 60-degree disk rotation. The Fisher Control-Disk
plugs furnish stable operation for severe service conditions. valve features a proportional gain disk design suited for
The control valve body shown in figure 3.1.5 is assembled applications requiring 90-degree disk rotation and extended
for push-down-to-open valve plug action. The valve plug is control range.
essentially balanced and a relatively small amount of actuator
Butterfly valve constructions mate with standard raised-face
force is required to operate the valve. Double-ported designs
pipeline flanges. Large butterfly valves and smaller valves
are typically used in refineries on highly viscous fluids or
with high pressure drops typically require large actuators to
where there is a concern about dirt, contaminants, or process
handle the high operating torque.
deposits on the trim.
Standard liners, such as Nitrile or PTFE liners, can provide
Three-Way Valve Bodies tight shutoff and corrosion protection while maintaining cost
effective base materials, such as cast iron.
Three pipeline connections provide general converging
(flow-mixing) or diverging (flow-splitting) service. Preferred Butterfly valves are available in sizes through NPS 72 for
designs use cage-style trim for positive valve plug guiding control valve applications. Smaller sizes can use versions
and ease of maintenance. Variations include trim materials of traditional spring-and-diaphragm or piston pneumatic
selected for high temperature service. Standard end actuators, including the modern rotary actuator styles.
connections (flanged, screwed, butt weld, etc.) can be Larger sizes might require high-output electric or long-stroke
specified to mate with piping schemes. Actuator selection pneumatic cylinder actuators.
demands careful consideration, particularly for constructions
with unbalanced valve plug. Balanced valve plug style three- V-Notch Segmented Ball Valve
way valve body is shown in figure 3.1.6 with the cylindrical Constructions
valve plug in the down position.
The Fisher Vee-Ball valve construction is similar to a
conventional ball valve, but with a contoured V-notch ball
3.2 Rotary Valves in a segmented ball valve (figure 3.2.2). The V-notch ball
produces a modified equal-percentage flow characteristic
Butterfly Valve Constructions and provides excellent rangeability in excess of 300:1. These
control valves have good rangeability, control, and shutoff
Butterfly valve constructions require minimum space for capability. Their straight-through flow design produces little
installation (figure 3.2.1.). They provide high capacity pressure drop.
with low pressure loss through the valves. Butterfly valve
constructions offer economy, particularly in larger sizes and V-notch segmented ball valve constructions are suited to
in terms of flow capacity per investment dollar. They exhibit control erosive or viscous fluids, or other slurries containing
an approximately equal percentage flow characteristic entrained solids. They use standard spring-and-diaphragm or
and can be used for throttling service or for on-off control. piston rotary actuators. The V-notch segmented ball remains
Soft-seat construction can be obtained by using a liner or by in contact with the seal during rotation, which produces a
including an adjustable soft ring in the body or on the face of shearing effect as the ball closes and minimizes clogging.
the disk.
3-4
W4170-4
Figure 3.2.4. Eccentric Plug Valve

W6087
allow forward or reverse flow with tight shutoff in either

Figure 3.2.2. V-Notch Segmented Ball Valve direction. For erosive applications, reverse flow is preferred.
In addition, plug, seat ring, and retainer are available in
hardened materials, including ceramics. Designs offering a
segmented V-notch segmented ball in place of the plug for
higher capacity requirements are available.
This style of rotary control valve suits erosive, coking, and
other hard-to-handle fluids, providing either throttling
or on-off operation. The flanged or flangeless valves
feature streamlined flow passages and rugged metal-trim
components for dependable service in slurry applications.
W9486 3.3 Actuators

Pneumatically operated control valve actuators are the
Figure 3.2.3. Eccentric Disk Control Valve most popular type in use. Other actuator types include
electric, hydraulic, and manual. The spring-and-diaphragm
Constructions are available with either heavy-duty metal or pneumatic actuator is most commonly specified due to
PTFE-filled composition ball seal ring. They are available in its dependability and simplicity of design. Pneumatically
flangeless or flanged body end connections. Both flanged operated piston actuators provide high stem force output
and flangeless valves mate with CL150, CL300, CL600 for high thrust applications. Adaptations of both spring-and-
flanges, or DIN flanges. diaphragm and pneumatic piston actuators are available for
direct installation on rotary valve constructions. Electric and
Eccentric Disk Control Valve electro-hydraulic actuators can be used where no air supply
Constructions source is available, where low ambient temperatures could
freeze condensed water in pneumatic supply lines, or where
Eccentric disk control valve constructions offer effective unusually large stem forces are needed.
throttling control. They provide a linear flow characteristic
through 90 degrees of disk rotation (figure 3.2.3). Eccentric Spring-and-Diaphragm Actuators
mounting of the disk pulls the disk away from seal after it
begins to open, minimizing seal wear. Eccentric-disk control Spring-and-diaphragm actuators are simple, dependable,
valve bodies are available in sizes through NPS 24 and are and economical. Pneumatically operated spring-and-
compatible with standard ASME flanges. They use standard diaphragm actuators use air supply from a controller,
pneumatic spring-and-diaphragm or piston rotary actuators. positioner, or other source. Various styles include:
Flow direction is dependent on the seal design. They are Direct-acting: increasing air pressure pushes the
frequently applied in applications requiring large sizes and diaphragm down and extends the actuator stem (figure
high temperatures due to their lower cost relative to other 3.3.1)
styles of control valves. Optimum control range for this style Reverse-acting: increasing air pressure pushes the
of valve is approximately one third as large as a ball or globe diaphragm up and retracts the actuator stem (figure
style valve. Consequently, additional care is required in sizing 3.3.2)
and applying this style of valve to eliminate control problems
Reversible: actuators that can be assembled for either
associated with process load changes.
direct- or reverse-action (figure 3.3.3)
Eccentric Plug Valve Constructions Direct-acting unit for rotary valves: increasing air
pressure pushes the diaphragm down, which may either
Eccentric plug valve constructions combat erosion. The open or close the valve, depending on the orientation of
rugged body and trim design handle temperatures to 427°C the actuator lever on the valve shaft (figure 3.3.4)
(800°F) and shutoff pressure drops to 103 bar (1500 psig).
The path of the eccentric-plug minimizes contact with the The net output thrust is the difference between diaphragm
seat ring when opening, reducing seat wear and friction, force and opposing spring force. Molded diaphragms provide
prolonging seat life, and improving throttling performance linear performance and increased travels. Output thrust is
(figure 3.2.4). Its self-centering seat ring and rugged plug
3-5
W0363-2
W8486-3
Figure 3.3.1. Direct-Acting Diaphragm Actuator

Figure 3.3.3. Reversible Diaphragm Actuator
W9589-1
W0364-2 Figure 3.3.4. Direct-Acting Rotary Diaphragm Actuator

Figure 3.3.2. Reverse-Acting Diaphragm Actuator
Various accessories can be incorporated to position a double-
acting piston in the event of supply pressure failure. These
required and the supply air pressure that is available will
include pneumatic trip valves, volume tanks, and lock-up
dictate the size.
systems. Also available are handwheels and units without
yokes, which can be used to operate butterfly valves, louvers,
Piston Actuators and similar industrial equipment. Other versions for service
on rotary valve constructions include a sliding seal in the
Piston actuators are pneumatically operated using high
lower end of the cylinder. This permits the actuator stem to
pressure plant air (up to 11 bar or 150 psig), often eliminating
move laterally, as well as up and down without leakage of
the need for supply pressure regulator. Piston actuators
cylinder pressure. This feature also permits direct connection
furnish maximum thrust output and fast stroking speeds.
of the actuator stem to the actuator lever mounted on the
They can be double-acting to give maximum force in both
rotary valve shaft; thereby, eliminating one joint or a source
directions or they can be spring-return to provide fail-open or
of lost motion.
fail-closed operation (figure 3.3.5).
3-6
W9479
Figure 3.3.7. Rack-and-Pinion Actuator with HPBV

X0923
X0992
Figure 3.3.5. Piston Actuators Manual Actuators

Manual actuators are useful where automatic control is not
required, but where ease of operation and good manual
control is still necessary (figure 3.3.6). They are often used
to actuate the bypass valve in a three-valve bypass loop
around control valves for manual control of the process
during maintenance or shutdown of the automatic system.
Manual actuators are available in various sizes for both globe
and rotary valve constructions. Dial-indicating devices are
available for some models to permit accurate repositioning
of the valve plug or disk. Manual actuators are much less
expensive than diaphragm, piston, and electro-hydraulic
actuators and are often used on bypass lines in a refinery.
Rack-and-Pinion Actuators
Rack-and-pinion designs provide a compact and economical
solution for rotary shaft valves (figure 3.3.7). They are
typically used for on-off or control applications requiring
simple compact solutions.
W0595-3
Electric Actuators
FOR SLIDING-STEM VALVES Traditional electric actuator designs use an electric motor
and some form of gear reduction to move the valve. These
mechanisms have been used for continuous control (figure
3.3.8).
Electro-hydraulic Actuators
Electro-hydraulic actuators require only electrical power to
the motor and an electrical input signal from the controller.
Electrohydraulic actuators are ideal for isolated locations
where pneumatic supply pressure is not available but where
precise control of valve plug position is needed. Units are
W8176-1
normally reversible by making minor adjustments and
FOR ROTARY-SHAFT VALVES are self-contained, including motor, pump, and double-
acting hydraulically operated piston within a weatherproof
Figure 3.3.6. Typical Manual Actuators or explosion-proof casing. Other than a few specific
3-7
W8616
W9797-3
Figure 3.4.1. Control Valve Packing

Figure 3.3.8. Electric Actuator with Dump Valve
example, strict government regulations, that were developed
applications, electrohydraulic actuators are not typically used by the US, dictate leak detection and repair programs
in refining applications. (LDAR). Valves and pumps have been identified as key
sources of fugitive emissions. For valves, this is the leakage
3.4 Control Valve Packing to atmosphere due to packing seal or gasket failures. LDAR
programs require monitoring all valves (control and non-
Packing is part of the control valve assembly used to seal control) at an interval that is determined by the percentage
against leakage around the valve disk or stem. Most control of valves found to be leaking above a threshold level ranging
valves use packing boxes with the packing retained and from 100 to 500 ppmv depending on industry and local
adjusted by a flange and stud bolts. Packing selection regulations. Packing systems designed for extremely low
is driven by service conditions, performance, as well as leakage requirements also extend packing-seal life and
governmental regulations focused on fugitive emissions. performance to support an annual monitoring objective.
Packing materials and arrangements discussed below are The Fisher ENVIRO-SEAL packing system is one example. Its
the most commonly specified for Fisher valve constructions. enhanced seals incorporate four key design principles:
Fisher rotary and sliding-stem packing constructions are
1. Containment of the pliable seal material through an
shown in figure 3.4.1.
anti-extrusion component
PTFE V-Ring 2. Proper alignment of the valve stem or shaft within the
bonnet bore
PTFE packing is constructed of a plastic material with an
inherent ability to minimize friction. PTFE material is molded 3. Applying a constant packing stress through Belleville
in v-shaped rings that are spring loaded and self-adjusting springs
in the packing box. Packing lubrication is not required. PTFE 4. Minimizing the number of seal rings to reduce
packing is resistant to most known chemicals and requires consolidation, friction, and thermal expansion
extremely smooth (two to four micro-inches RMS) stem
finish to seal properly. Sealing can be compromised if the Please reference Table 3.4.1 for sliding stem and Table 3.4.2
stem or packing surface is damaged. Recommended packing for rotary for pressure temperature limits for environmental
box temperature limits are –40 to +232°C (–40 to +450°F). sealing capabilities for each of the following packing styles.
Laminated and Filament Graphite Single PTFE V-Ring Packing

The single PTFE V-ring arrangement uses a coil spring
Laminated and filament graphite material is suitable for high
between the packing and packing follower. It offers very
temperature or where low chloride content is desirable. It
good sealing performance with the lowest operating friction.
typically produces higher stem friction and is impervious to
challenging fluids. Recommended packing box temperature
limits for laminated and filament graphite are cryogenic ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE Packing
temperatures up to 649°C (1200°F). Lubrication is not ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing system is an advanced packing
required, but an extension bonnet should be used when method that utilizes a compact, live-load spring design.
packing box temperature exceeds 427°C (800°F). While it most typically is thought of as an emission reducing
packing system, ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing is also suited to
Low Emission Packing non-environmental applications with higher temperatures
and pressures, yielding the benefit of longer, ongoing service
Fugitive emissions are non-point source volatile organic life.
emissions that result from process equipment leaks. For
3-8
Table 3.4.1 Sliding-Stem Packing Selection Guidelines
Table 3.4.2 Rotary Packing Selection Guidelines
ENVIRO-SEAL Duplex Packing PTFE layers inside the packing rings as well as thin PTFE
washers on each side of the packing rings. This strategic
This sliding-stem packing system provides the capabilities of placement of PTFE improves control, reduces friction,
both PTFE and graphite components to yield a low friction, promotes sealing and extends the cycle life of the packing
low emission, fire-tested solution for applications with set.
process temperatures up to 232°C (450°F).
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite for Rotary Valves
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite ULF for Sliding-Stem Valves
This rotary packing system is designed primarily for
This sliding stem packing system is designed primarily for environmental applications at temperatures from −6°C to
environmental applications at temperatures in excess of 316°C (20°F to 600°F) or for those applications where fire
232°C (450°F). The ULF packing system incorporates thin safety is a concern.
3-9
24B9310
W8619 A6844
Figure 3.4.2. Single PTFE V-Ring Packing Figure 3.4.4. ENVIRO-SEAL Duplex Packing System
A6163-1 38B4612-A
Figure 3.4.3. ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE Packing System Figure 3.4.5. ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite ULF Packing System
HIGH-SEAL Graphite ULF

Identical to the ENVIRO-SEAL graphite ULF packing system
below the packing follower, the HIGH-SEAL system utilizes
heavy-duty, large diameter Belleville springs. These springs
provide additional follower travel and can be calibrated with a
load scale for a visual indication of packing load and wear.
While ENVIRO-SEAL packing systems have been designed
specifically for fugitive emission applications, these
technologies also should be considered for any application
where seal performance and seal life have been an ongoing
concern or maintenance cost issue.
Given the wide variety of valve applications and service
conditions within industry, variables such as sealing ability,
operating friction levels, and operating life are difficult to
quantify and compare. W6125-1
Figure 3.4.6. ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite Packing System

for Rotary Valves
3-10
W8049
Figure 3.5.2. Analog I/P Positioner

W8533-1
Figure 3.4.7. HIGH-SEAL Graphite ULF Packing System
3.5 Positioners and Diagnostic

Capabilities
Pneumatically operated valves depend on a positioner to
take an input signal from a process controller and convert
it to valve travel. These instruments are available in three
configurations: X0338
1. Pneumatic Positioners: A pneumatic signal (usually Figure 3.5.3. Fisher FIELDVUE Digital Valve Controller
3-15 psig) is supplied to the positioner. The positioner
translates this to a required valve position and supplies 1. Digital Non-Communicating: A current signal (4-20
the valve actuator with the required air pressure to mA) is supplied to the positioner, which powers both
move the valve to the correct position. the electronics and controls the output.
2. Digital Fieldbus Communications:
a. HART: Like the analog I/P positioner, a 4-20 mA
signal is used to control the instrument. However,
an additional digital signal over the wires is used
for two-way communication to enable diagnostic
capabilities.
b. FOUNDATION fieldbus— Fieldbus is an all-digital
protocol that provides control, reduced wiring,
data, and diagnostic capabilities.
c. Profibus—This is largely found in on/off
applications that use PLC control, but has evolved
W7855-1
to be used in control applications as well.
Figure 3.5.1. Pneumatic Positioner
There are several distinct advantages of using a digital valve
controller over a pneumatic or analog positioner:
2. Analog I/P Positioner: This positioner performs the Reduced cost of loop commissioning, due to automated
same function as the one above, but uses electrical configuration and calibration capability.
current (usually 4-20 mA) instead of air as the input Use of diagnostics to maintain valve and loop
signal. performance levels.
3. Digital Valve Controller: Although this instrument Access to valve diagnostics through the Distributed
functions very much as the analog I/P described Control System (DCS) or commonly used maintenance
above, it differs in that the electronic signal conversion tools.
is digital rather than analog. The digital products cover Improved process control accuracy that reduces process
communicating and non-communicating solutions: variability.
3-11
FIELDVUE instruments enable diagnostic capabilities that

can be accessed remotely. With the aid of Performance
Diagnostics (PD), diagnostic tests can be performed without
taking the instrument out of service (on-line diagnostics). ROTATABLE
HEAD
Off-line diagnostics (valve signature and step response
testing) are also available. Watching performance decline
over time enables an optimized maintenance program.
Pneumatic and analog instruments also have diagnostic
capabilities. An in-plant person, with the aid of the TORQUE TUBE
FlowScanner system (Figure 3.5.4), can diagnose the health DISPLACER ROD
of a valve through a series of off-line tests. The FlowScanner™
system consists of a portable, ruggedized computer and
travel and pressure sensors. The sensors are connected to
DISPLACER
the valve to enable diagnostic tests, which are conducted
with the valve off-line. A skilled maintenance technician can CAGE
determine whether to leave the valve in the line or to remove

the valve for repair.
W2141-1
Figure 3.6.1. Displacer Level Transmitter Schematic
Cageless sensors are generally used on specific gravity and

interface control applications requiring large displacers that
are more easily accommodated by flange connections. The
availability of many different displacer stem lengths permits
lowering the displacer down to the most advantageous depth
in the vessel.
Displacer type level transmitters can have design
temperatures as high as 454°C (850°F). High design
temperature and pressures may require special design
X0061
considerations.
Figure 3.5.4. FlowScanner System
3.6 Levels
Level transmitters are used in the refining industry to
measure level of the fluid in the tank. There are various
methods of doing this. A displacement method is used in
the level transmitters. These are called “displacer type level
transmitters.”
Figure 3.6.1 shows the major parts of the level transmitter.
As the displacer “tends” to move up on raising fluid level,
the resistive force is transmitted through the torque tube to
the transmitter, which is mounted at the end of the torque
tube. This type of level transmitter uses the displacement
principles for level measurement. The displacer, when
submerged in the fluid, gets a force exerted on it that is
transmitted via a torque tube assembly to the transmitter,
which correspondingly sends a signal to the control room
indicating the level of the fluid.
The displacer type level transmitter is designed to measure
liquid level, interface level, or density/specific gravity inside a
process vessel. W7926
Caged sensors (figure 3.6.2) provide more stable operation Figure 3.6.2. Caged Sensor
than do cageless sensors (figure 3.6.3) for vessels with
internal obstructions or considerable internal turbulence. W8231
Figure 3.6.3. Cageless Sensor
3-12
4
Control Valves
Topic Page
4.1 Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4.2 Distillation Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.3 Gas Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.4 Crude Desalter / Distillation Unit. . . . . . 4-11
4.5 Vacuum Crude Column . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
4.6 Delayed Coker Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
4.7 Hydrotreater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28
4.8 Hydrocracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
4.9 Catalytic Reformer Unit . . . . . . . . . . . 4-43
4.10 Fluidized Catalytic Cracking. . . . . . . . . 4-49
4.11 Alkylation Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-58
4.12 Amine Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-66
4.13 Sulfur Recovery Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-71
4.14 Pressure Swing Adsorption . . . . . . . . . 4-74
4.15 Blending Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-78
4 - Refinery Control Valve Application Reviews
4. Refinery Control
Valve Application
Reviews
4.1 Furnace
Other Names—Fired heater, cracking furnace, reboiler heater
Furnaces are used to heat process feed material. Heat is
created by burning fuel in burners on the floor and/or walls
of the furnace. There are many different types of fuel that can
be used by a furnace, such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), refinery waste gas, and fuel oil.
The process feed stream to a furnace is usually broken into
multiple tube passes to improve heat transfer. The most Figure 4.1.1. Furnace
common configurations are two and four-pass furnaces. The
passes are recombined into a single effluent stream after they coke buildup. If a flow valve provides inconsistent feed, the
exit the furnace. temperature will also swing and will usually lead to excessive
coke buildup. This will shorten the furnace cycle time
The outlet temperature of a furnace is normally dictated by between decoking procedures, which will normally require
the requirements of a downstream process, usually a reactor, the process unit downstream to shutdown.
fractionator column, or distillation column. Adjusting the
amount of fuel burned controls the outlet temperature. Feed valves can typically be bypassed when necessary. A
combination of the measured flow and any measured pass
In some cases, the furnace provides enough heat to thermally temperatures can be used to regulate the bypass valve.
crack the feed stream from large hydrocarbon molecules to
smaller molecules. In these cases, the outlet temperature is Control is critical to maintaining integrity of furnace tubes
used to control the amount of cracked components in the (such as preventing coke lay-down), safe operations,
effluent stream. It is important to understand whether or not and overall reliability of the furnace. While the furnace is
cracking is occurring, as coke can build up resulting in less firing, process fluid flow is required at all times, therefore a
efficient heat transfer and requiring routine maintenance to FIELDVUE digital valve controller with PD tier diagnostics is
the furnace if cracking occurs. recommended to predict valve sticking or build up issues.
Typical Process Conditions:
Furnace Application Review — Fluid: Heavy gas oil, Naphtha, Flashed crude, etc.
Furnaces are used in many refining process units and will — P1 = 14 – 50 bar (200 - 725 psig)
be discussed specifically in the Delayed Coker Unit (Section — T = 260 – 370°C (500 - 700°F)
4.6). This section will discuss the typical critical control valve
applications common to all furnaces in a refinery used to heat — Q = dependent on process design
process feed. Typical Control Valve Selection:
Figure 4.1.2 shows the typical layout of a furnace with the — Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ or ED
critical control valves identified. Depending on the process — Higher Flow Rates: NPS 3 to NPS 8 V500
fluid being heated and the design temperature required, care
must be taken in material selection for valves in a furnace. — Materials of Construction: sour feedstocks may require
NACE trim materials
1, 2, 3, and 4. Feed Valves
5. Fuel Gas Valve
Feed valves are usually set up as flow-control loops. They are
configured to fail open so that a valve failure will protect the Depending on the furnace service and configuration this
furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses flow or valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the
has insufficient flow, the tube can quickly become so hot that fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed
the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences, so that a control loop failure will not allow excessive fuel to
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be be dumped into a hot furnace. Instrumentation may include
destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the a loop to bypass the digital valve controller in case of power
firebox of the furnace. failure to cut off fuel to furnace. A fuel valve failure will almost
always shut down the processing unit downstream. Although
Problem valves can lead to difficulties with controlling the many fuel valves have bypass circuits, refinery operations
outlet temperature of the furnaces. Also, many process feeds personnel are usually reluctant to run a furnace on bypass for
slowly build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes. any significant time because of safety concerns.
Coking is a non-linear reaction, and in some processes even
a few extra degrees of temperature can lead to excessive
4-2
FURNACE
FEED VALVE
#1
FEED VALVE
#2
FEED FEED VALVE
#3
FEED VALVE
#4
FUEL
GAS
#5
E1155 FUEL GAS VALVE
Figure 4.1.2. Furnace Process Flow Diagram
The preferred control loop configuration for the outlet Typical Process Conditions:
temperature is a cascade to the set point of the loop
controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such — Fluid: Fuel gas
that the temperature control loop directly manipulates the — P1 = 2 – 4 barg (30 - 60 psig)
fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides control — T = 40°C (100°F)
performance that is inferior to a cascade configuration. It is — Q = dependent on process design
extremely susceptible to any valve deadband such as that
caused by a sticking valve. This can be detected by excessive Typical Control Valve Selection:
oscillation of the outlet temperature.
— NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e EZ, ET, ED, or GX 3-way
When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature — ENVIRO-SEAL duplex packing may be required for
loop or by a flow control loop, there will often be a pressure fire-safe construction, with reduced friction when
control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also compared to graphite packing
fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
of the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, refinery
SST trim, sour fuel gas may require NACE trim
operations personnel will be more willing to run a fuel valve
materials
in bypass as they still have a way to quickly shut off the fuel in
an emergency.
Because this valve is critical to unit operation, FIELDVUE 4.2 Distillation Column
DVC6200 with PD tier diagnostics is recommended. Because Other Names—Tower, stripper, stabilizer, splitter,
monitoring valve position is so critical to this valve when it demethanizer, deethanizer, depropanizer, debutanizer, DIB
is supposed to fail close, it may be desirable to include the (deisobutanizer) tower, precut tower, fractionator
position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE DVC6200 to
provide position feedback to the Distributed Control System Distillation columns are found in all refineries and many
(DCS), upon loss of power to the digital valve controller, industrial processes. The objective for any distillation column
assuring whether or not the valve actually closed. is to separate a feed stream into light-component and
heavy-component product streams. Distillation columns
are inherent to many units in a refinery so specific product
4-3
Flooding
If the amount of vapor and liquid traveling through the
column (often referred to as “traffic”) becomes too great,
the column can “flood.” Too much reflux flow or too
much reboil heat resulting in too much vapor, (or both)
can cause flooding. When flooding occurs, the efficiency
of the distillation column is dramatically reduced, with
corresponding drops in product purities. Column flooding
can be prevented through good control practices, including
many Fisher final control elements.
Distillation Column Application Review

Since distillation columns are used in many refining process
units, the control valve selection is heavily dependent on the
process fluid being distilled. However, across most process
units the valve functions in distillation columns are similar. In
the subsequent text, a summary of each of the critical control
valves in these units is discussed. This selection is based on
what is typically expected, there may be some variations due
to specific user requirements. Figure 4.2.2 shows the typical
layout of a distillation column with the critical control valves
identified.
1. Feed Valve
This valve controls the feed going into the distillation
column. Feed valves are usually set up as flow or level control
loops. An upstream unit or process often controls the valve.
Figure 4.2.1. Distillation Column
Unstable feed flow will make the distillation column difficult
streams can be drawn off and either further processed to control. A problem valve will often cause the feed flow
or used as blending elements in final product streams. to oscillate. As a result, the column will alternate between
Throughout this text, you will see them frequently referred too little and too much reboil heat. Depending on the size
to as fractionators. There are two sections that cover specific and number of trays in the column, the effect of a swing in
distillation columns: crude distillation in 4.4 and vacuum the feed will take anywhere from several minutes to more
distillation in 4.5. The distillation process relies on the relative than an hour to reach the ends of the column. Sometimes,
volatility between the components that make up the feed the reboil and reflux controls will amplify the swings. The
stream. The high-volatility (lighter) components will boil final result is that meeting product purity targets becomes
at a lower temperature than the low-volatility (heavier) more difficult. Refinery operations personnel will normally
components. Therefore, when heat is added to the column respond by over-purifying the products, wasting energy to
through a bottom reboiler, the lighter materials are vaporized compensate for the problematic feed control valve.
and rise to the top of the column. The overhead vapors are Typical Process Conditions:
cooled until they condense and become a liquid again.
— Fluid: Primary reactor effluent
Reflux & Reboil — P1/P2 = dependent on process design
— T = dependent on process design
The efficiency of the distillation depends on the amount of
contact between the vapor rising and the liquid falling down — Q = dependent on process design
through a column. Therefore, some of the overhead liquid — Flashing may be present depending on process
product is sent back (refluxed) to the top of the column. This variables
assures that fewer of the heavy components come off the top Typical Control Valve Selection:
of the column, thereby improving the purity of the overhead
product. However, this process also requires more heat from — Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ, ED, ET, or
the reboiler to re-vaporize the lighter components in the GX
reflux stream. The reboiler is responsible for re-circulating the — Higher Flow Rates: NPS 6 to NPS 12 easy-e EWD or NPS
bottom product of the distillation column and removing any 6 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball
light hydrocarbons from the bottom product stream. The
operation of a distillation column is a balancing act between — Materials of Construction: WCC with standard trim
product purity and energy use. (400-series stainless for easy-e or 300-series stainless
for Vee-Ball) unless process fluid requires sour service
trim.
4-4
#5
PRESSURE
#4 CONTROL VENT
VALVE GAS
PRESSURE
CONTROL
VALVE
OVERHEAD
RECEIVER
#2 #6
OVERHEAD
COLUMN PRODUCT
REFLUX OVERHEAD
VALVE PRODUCT
VALVE
FEED
#1
FEED
VALVE
REBOIL
VALVE
STEAM
#7
REBOILER
BOTTOM
PRODUCT
VALVE
BOTTOM
PRODUCT
E1156 #3
Figure 4.2.2. Distillation Column Process Flow Diagram
2. Reflux Valve Typical Control Valve Selection:

The reflux valve is typically either a flow or column — Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ or GX
temperature-control loop. It is used to adjust the purity of — Higher Flow Rates: NPS 3 to NPS 12 Control-Disk or
the overhead product. The higher the reflux rate, the purer NPS 3 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball
the overhead product will become. However, raising the — Materials of Construction: dependent on process
reflux rate also will require more reboil heat and eventually design
will flood the tower.
A poorly operating reflux valve will have the same effects as a 3. Bottom Product Valve
bad feed valve. Product purities will oscillate, and the column
will be difficult to control. This valve has a direct impact on The bottom product valve is typically used to control the
the efficiency of the column. level in the bottom of the column. It normally has no effect
on column operation unless it causes the level to change
Typical Process Conditions: quickly and dramatically.
— Fluid: Reflux fluid Typical Process Conditions:
— P1/P2 = dependent on process design — Fluid: Distillation bottoms
— T = dependent on process design — P1/P2 = dependent on process design
— Q = dependent on process design — T = dependent on process design
— Q = dependent on process design
4-5
Typical Control Valve Selection: these valve constructions to alert users to any required
maintenance in these valves.
— Lower Flow Rate, Clean Fluids: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e
EZ, ED, or ET These valves are very important to control the stability of
— Higher Flow Rate: NPS 3 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball the distillation column. Many columns use tray temperature
to control overhead composition, thus stable pressure
— Viscous or Dirty Fluid: NPS 1 to NPS 8 V500 is required to ensure that temperature changes reflect
— Materials of Construction: dependent on process composition changes, not pressure changes.
design, may require satellite or ceramic trim materials
for ball valve or eccentric plug designs Typical Process Conditions:
— Fluid: Dependent on process design
4., 5. Hot Vapor Bypass and Pressure Control Valves — P1/P2 = dependent on process design
The pressure control valves are used to control the column — T = dependent on process design
pressure. Higher column pressures will yield better product — Q = dependent on process design
purities, but require more energy to operate. Normal
operating procedure is to minimize the pressure to lower Typical Control Valve Selection:
energy costs while maintaining product specifications. There — Lower Flow Rate: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ, ED, or ET
is a low limit because lower pressures reduce the amount of
vapor/liquid traffic the column can handle and can make it — Higher Flow Rate: NPS 3 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball
more likely to flood. — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or graphite packing, depending on
process design conditions
The simplest way to control pressures is to continuously
vent gas from the system (valve #5). This sizing of this valve — Materials of Construction: dependent on process
is critical. If the valve is too large, a small valve movement design, if gas is acidic, special materials may be
will cause a large pressure swing. If the valve is too small, required
the pressure response will be very sluggish. It is likely that a
valve that is too small will operate from completely closed 6. Overhead Product Valve
to completely open. In either scenario, oscillating column
The overhead product valve is typically used to control the
pressure and difficult column control result. A sticking
level in the overhead receiver. It normally has no effect on
pressure control valve presents the same problem. A sticking
column operation unless it causes the level to change quickly
valve is a common concern on vent gas service because the
and dramatically.
valve packing is normally tight to prevent fugitive emissions.
Many distillation columns also use what is known as a
“hot vapor bypass” valve (#4) to control pressure. In these — Fluid: Distillation overhead product
instances, some of the hot overhead vapors are bypassed — P1/P2 = dependent on process design
around the overhead condenser heat exchanger. The
amount of bypass will control the pressure. This eliminates — T = dependent on process design
the constant venting of process gas, which usually goes to a — Q = dependent on process design
low-value refinery waste fuel gas system. Unfortunately, the Typical Control Valve Selection:
pressure response on a hot vapor bypass valve is normally
very sluggish due to slow process response time. Like the — Lower Flow Rate: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ, ED, ET, or
vent gas valve, this valve is a concern for fugitive emissions, GX
and the packing is likely to be tight. A sticking valve causes — Higher Flow Rate: NPS 3 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball
wide, slow oscillations in column pressure, and product
— Materials of Construction: dependent on process
purities likewise swing widely and slowly. The response of
design
refinery operations personnel is usually to over-purify.
A majority of columns with hot-vapor bypass valves also 7. Reboil Valve
utilize a vent gas valve. In these cases, a single pressure
control loop manipulates both valves. At lower pressures, the The reboil valve controls the amount of heat put into the
hot vapor bypass valve is used. As the pressure rises, there is a column by the reboiler. In many cases, steam is used as a
transition point where the hot vapor bypass valve closes fully heat source. The service is very clean, and fugitive emissions
and the vent gas valve starts to open. are not a concern. Steam valves are usually very reliable.
However, a problematic valve will make the column difficult
At high pressures, the vent gas valve controls the pressure. to control precisely. This will be especially true if the column
This configuration often leads to pressure control problems, feed is subject to frequent changes.
since the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves have different
control characteristics. Also, it is unlikely that one valve Not all reboilers use steam as a heat source. To save energy,
will close precisely at the same time the other valve opens. many refineries have integrated their units so that higher-
If the column is constantly making a transition between temperature process streams are used to provide heat for
using the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves, the pressure lower-temperature processes. In these cases, the reboil
will normally oscillate. This is a tuning rather than a valve valve will foul more easily and might create fugitive emission
problem, but it should be kept in mind for column design or concerns.
valve resizing. A FIELDVUE DVC6200 digital valve controller
with PD tier diagnostics is recommended for both of
4-6
NATURAL PRESSURE REFINERY

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES
LIGHT NAPHTHA ISOMERIZATION

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER
DELAYED COKER RESIDUAL

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.3.1. Gas Plant Location
This valve is important because it drives the vapor back up Most reactive processes in a refinery create light-end material
through the column. Vapor through the column affects in addition to the desired products (gasoline, kerosene,
column efficiency. Reboiler steam will have a direct effect on diesel, etc.). These light-ends include hydrogen, methane,
overhead reflux flow. ethylene, ethane, propylene, propane, and various butanes
and butenes. Light-ends are usually a low-value process
Typical Process Conditions: stream, and are often used as fuel gas for process heaters.
— Fluid: Steam However, if enough light-end materials are produced,
— P1 = dependent on process design, typically 10.3 bar there is economic incentive to separate the light-ends into
(150 psig) saturated steam component streams. The exact product streams depend on
refinery needs as well as any potential external marketing
— T = dependent on process design opportunities.
Some cracking units produce enough light-ends that a gas
Typical Control Valve Selection: plant is built specifically as part of the unit. (Delayed cokers
and fluid catalytic crackers are units that usually have an
— NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or ES
integral gas plant.) In other cases, gas plants are built to
— Class V shutoff may be utilized to minimize energy handle the combined light-ends of several process units.
usage
Almost all valves in a light-ends gas plant are a possible
— Materials of Construction: steam application materials
source of fugitive emissions. Therefore, it is very likely that
or materials compatible with the process gas
the valve packing will be kept very tight. This can lead to
excessive control valve deadband. Packing selection and
4.3 Gas Plant actuator sizing might play a critical role in valve performance
for this type of service.
Other Names—Light-ends unit, saturated (sats) gas plant,
vapor recovery unit, unsaturated gas plant The example used for this section is a typical FCC gas plant.
The light-ends that come from the FCC fractionator overhead
The main function of the refinery gas plant is to recover are separated by this plant into fuel gas (hydrogen, methane,
valuable C3, C4, C5, and C6 components from various and ethane), C3 (propylene and propane), C4 (butenes and
gas streams generated by refinery processing units such butanes), and naphtha.
as the crude unit, delayed coker, fluid catalytic cracker,
reformer, and hydrocracker. This recovery is done by using Figure 4.3.2 shows the layout of the vapor recovery system
fractionators and absorbers. Recovered light hydrocarbon and the commonly associated control valves. This depiction
gases C1 and C2 are used as refinery fuel in various fired includes a depropanizer, which may or may not be present.
heaters. Other units may be present, such as a depentanizer. However,
this depends upon the overall desired final products.
4-7
#7
FUEL GAS
SPONGE ABSORBER
PRIMARY #3 OVERHEAD VALVE
ABSORBER FEED
CONTROL VALVE
#8
FROM
FRACTIONATOR
SECONDARY
ABSORBER
ABSORBER
PRIMARY
LEAN OIL
FIRST STAGE WET SECOND STAGE WET PRIMARY ABSORBER
GAS RECYCLE GAS RECYCLE BOTTOMS
CONTROL VALVE LEAN OIL TO
CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE
SECONDARY ABSORBER
#1 #2
CONTROL VALVE
#9
STRIPPER
#4
RICH OIL
TO FRAC
RICH OIL FROM

FROM SECONDARY ABSORBER
HP SEPARATOR
FRACTIONATOR CONTROL VALVE
WET GAS #5
COMPRESSOR
STRIPPER FEED
CONTROL VALVE
DEPROPANIZER OVERHEAD
CONTROL VALVE
#12
DEBUTANIZER
OVERHEAD REFLUX
CONTROL VALVE DRUM
#10
DEPROPANIZER
QUENCH
DEPROPANIZER
REFLUX
TOWER CONTROL VALVE
DEBUTANIZER
#6 #13 C3
C4
STRIPPER BOTTOMS #11

TO DEBUTANIZER DEBUTANIZER
CONTROL VALVE BOTTOMS
GASOLINE
DEBUTANIZER BOTTOMS
E1157 LEVEL CONTROL VALVE
Figure 4.3.2. Gas Plant Process Flow Diagram
Gas Plant Application Review In the primary absorber, vapor from the high pressure
separator flows to the bottom while raw gasoline and lean oil
The gas plant is used to reject fuel gas, recover C3 and C4 from the debutanizer flow to the top. The liquids absorb C3
liquid products, and produce debutanized gasoline within and heavier components from the vapor. The gases leaving
the required vapor pressure levels. The main fractionator the top of the primary absorber are sent the secondary
overhead vapors are compressed in the wet gas compressor, absorber.
which is typically a two-stage device. The high pressure gas
In the secondary absorber, heavy naphtha from the main
and liquids from the low pressure knock out drum are cooled
fractionator is used to recover any liquids left in the vapor
and combined with liquid from the primary absorber and
stream. Fuel gas leaves the top of the absorber and is typically
flow to the high pressure separator.
subjected to further treatment in an amine treatment unit.
Liquid from the high pressure separator is pumped to the top The bottoms return to the main fractionator.
of the stripper. The stripper removes C2 and lighter products,
Liquid from the bottom of the stripper flows to the
which then go to the primary absorber. The C3 and heavier
debutanizer. The overhead liquids can be treated and sent
products are removed in the stripper bottoms.
to storage or further separation of C3 and C4 products can
4-8
occur. Further separation of the bottoms products is possible, Typical Process Conditions:
but will vary from plant to plant.
— Fluid: Distillate
1. First Stage Wet Gas Recycle Control Valve — P1 = 13 – 21 bar (173 – 289 psig)
— P2 = 12 -18 bar (159 – 246 psig)
This valve is used to protect the first stage of the wet gas
compressor from the effects of surge that can occur during — T = 40°C – 60°C (104°F - 140°F)
startup, shutdown, and process upsets. The performance — Q = 200 – 850 m3/hr
of this valve is critical to the operation and efficiency of the Typical Control Valve Selection:
compressor. There is the potential for coke buildup on the
internals of the valve, thus it is critical that a multi-stage trim — NPS 8 to NPS 12 easy-e EU, EW, or Vee-Ball
is not present in this application. A globe valve with Whisper — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
Trim is commonly used in this application.
— Equal percentage characteristic
Typical Process Conditions: — Class IV shutoff
— Fluid: Wet gas
4. Primary Absorber Bottoms Control Valve
— P1 = 6 – 10 bar (72 – 130 psig)
— P2 = 2 – 4 bar (14 – 43 psig) This valve controls the liquid level in the primary absorber.
— T = 110°C – 130°C (23°F - 266°F) Accurate control is required in this application to ensure the
proper interaction of liquid and vapor streams. A globe or
— W = 85,000 – 350,000 kg/hr rotary valve is commonly used in this application.
Typical Control Valve Selection: Typical Process Conditions:
— NPS 8 to NPS 16 easy-e ET, EW, or EU — Fluid: Distillate
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim — P1 = 12 – 19 bar (159 – 260 psig)
— Noise attenuation may be required — P2 = 11 – 17 bar (144 – 231 psig)
— Class V shutoff — T = 40°C – 60°C (104°F – 140°F)
2. Second Stage Wet Gas Recycle Control Valve — Q = 250 – 950 m3/hr
Typical Control Valve Selection:
This valve is used to protect the second stage of the wet gas
compressor from the effects of surge that can occur during — NPS 8 to NPS 12 easy-e ET, EW, or Vee-Ball
startup, shutdown, and process upsets. The performance — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
of this valve is critical to the operation and efficiency of the
compressor. Potential for coke buildup is present on the
internals of the valve, thus the use of a multi-stage trim must — Class IV shutoff
not be present in this application. A globe valve with Whisper
Trim is commonly used in this application. 5. Stripper Feed Control Valve
Typical Process Conditions: This valve controls level in the high pressure separator and
flow to the stripper to remove C2 and lighter components.
— Fluid: Wet gas Accurate level control in the high pressure separator is
— P1 = 13 – 21 bar (173 – 289 psig) necessary to prevent liquid carryover into the primary
— P2 = 6 – 10 bar (72 – 130 psig) absorber. A globe or rotary valve can be used in this
— T = 110°C – 130°C (230°F - 266°F) application.
— W = 85,000 – 350,000 kg/hr Typical Process Conditions:
Typical Control Valve Selection: — Fluid: Light hydrocarbons
— NPS 10 to NPS 16 easy-e ET, EW, or EU — P1 = 18 – 24 bar (246 – 333 psig)
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim — P2 = 15 – 23 bar (202 – 318 psig)
— Noise attenuation may be required — T = 50°C – 80°C (122°F - 176°F)
— Class V shutoff — Q = 200 – 2000 m3/hr
3. Primary Absorber Feed Control Valve
— NPS 6 to NPS 16 easy-e ET valve, CV500, V500, or
This valve controls the flow of overhead liquids from the easy-e EUT
main fractionator to the primary absorber. Accurate control — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
is needed in this application to ensure proper vapor to liquid
ratio in the absorber. A globe or rotary valve is commonly
used in this application. — Class IV shutoff
4-9
6. Stripper Bottoms to Debutanizer Control Valve pressure. The product purities will likewise swing widely and
slowly. The response of refinery operations personnel will
This valve controls the level of light hydrocarbons in the usually be to over-purify.
stripper column. This operation is critical to removal of C2
and lighter components. A rotary or globe valve can be used A majority of columns with a hot vapor bypass valve will use it
in this application. in combination with a vent gas valve. In these cases, a single
pressure control loop will manipulate both valves. At lower
Typical Process Conditions: pressures, the hot vapor bypass valve is used. As the pressure
— Fluid: Light hydrocarbons rises, there will be a transition point where the hot vapor
bypass valve closes fully and the vent gas valve starts to open.
— P1 = 15 – 20 bar (202 – 275 psig) At high pressures, the vent gas valve controls the pressure.
— P2 = 12 – 14 bar (159 – 188 psig) This configuration often leads to pressure control problems,
— T = 120°C – 130°C (248°F - 266°F) as the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves will have different
— Q = 250 – 2000 m3/hr control characteristics. It is also unlikely that one valve will
close precisely at the moment the other valve opens. If
Typical Control Valve Selection: the column constantly transitions between using the hot
vapor bypass and vent gas valves, the pressure will normally
— NPS 6 to NPS 16 easy-e ET or EUT, CV500, or V500 oscillate. This is a tuning rather than a valve problem but it
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim should be kept in mind for column design or valve resizing.
— Equal percentage characteristic Typical Process Conditions:
— Class IV shutoff
— Fluid: Distillate light-end hydrocarbon liquid and non-
7. Sponge Absorber Overhead Valve condensable gas
— P1/P2 = dependent on process design
This valve serves as the pressure controller for the gas plant.
— T = less than 93°C (200°F)
Because it is setting the pressure for the entire gas plant, it is
important that this valve perform well. This is a minor stream Typical Control Valve Selection:
in terms of flow (less than 1 MBPD) and has a value equal to
that of fuel gas. — NPS 2 – NPS 6 easy-e EZ, ED, or ET; NPS 4 – NPS 8 Vee-
Ball
It is also possible that the debutanizer or the C3/C4 splitter — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
will have a pressure control valve as well.
— Materials of construction: dependent upon presence
The pressure control valve is used to control the column of acid in gas
pressure. Higher column pressures will yield better product
purities but require more energy to operate. The goal of 8. Lean Oil to Secondary Absorber Control Valve
normal operating procedure is to minimize the pressure to
lower energy costs while maintaining product specifications. This valve is used to control the flow of lean oil (heavy
The low energy limit exists because lower pressure reduces naphtha) to absorb heavier components in the secondary
the amount of vapor/liquid traffic the column can handle and absorber. Proper flow control is necessary to capture as much
make it more likely to flood. of the heavier components as possible. A rotary or globe
valve can be successfully used in this application.
vent gas from the system. The sizing of the vent valve is Typical Process Conditions:
critical. If the valve is too large, a small valve movement will — Fluid: Lean oil (heavy naphtha)
cause a large pressure swing. Likewise, if the valve is too
small, the pressure response will be sluggish. It is likely that — P1 = 18 – 24 bar (246 – 333 psig)
an undersized valve will operate from completely closed to — P2 = 13 – 18 bar (173 – 246 psig)
completely open. In either scenario, an oscillating column — T = 40°C – 50°C (104°F - 122°F)
pressure and difficult column control are the result. A sticking
— Q = 30 – 150 m3/hr
pressure control valve will present the same problem. A
sticking valve is a common concern on vent gas valves Typical Control Valve Selection:
because the valve packing will normally be tight to prevent
fugitive emissions. — NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or V500
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
Many distillation columns also use what is known as a “hot
vapor bypass” valve to control pressure. In this case, some of — Equal percentage characteristic
the hot overhead vapors are bypassed around the overhead — Class IV shutoff
condenser heat exchanger. The amount of bypass will control
the pressure. This eliminates the constant venting of process 9. Rich Oil from Secondary Absorber Control Valve
gas, which usually goes to a low value refinery waste fuel gas
system. Unfortunately, the pressure response on a hot vapor This valve controls the liquid level in the secondary absorber
bypass valve is normally very sluggish due to slow process enabling proper capture of the heavier components in the
response time. Like the vent gas valve, this valve is a concern gas stream from the primary absorber. A globe or rotary
for fugitive emissions, and the packing is likely to be tight. valve can be used successfully in this application.
A sticking valve will cause wide, slow oscillations in column
4-10
Typical Process Conditions: A medium sized rotary valve is generally utilized in this
application.
— Fluid: Rich oil
— P1 = 12 – 18 bar (159 – 246 psig) Typical Process Conditions:
— P2 = 4 – 6 bar (43 – 72 psig) — Fluid: Propane
— T = 60°C – 80°C (140°F - 176°F) — P1 = 16 – 18 bar (217 – 246 psig)
— Q = 50 – 150 m3/hr — P2 = 15 – 17 bar (202 – 231 psig)
Typical Control Valve Selection: — T = 50°C – 60°C (122°F - 140°F)
— Q = 50,000 – 100,000 Nm3/hr
— NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or V500
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Equal percentage characteristic — NPS 12 to NPS 16 8532, Control-Disk, or V300
— Class IV shutoff — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
10. Debutanizer Overhead Control Valve — Class IV shutoff
This valve controls the flow of the vapor driven off in the
debutanizer to be quenched and subjected to further 13. Depropanizer Reflux Control Valve
separation to capture C3 and C4 components. A medium-
This valve controls the propane reflux back into the
sized rotary valve is commonly used in this application.
depropanizer. Proper control is required in this application to
Typical Process Conditions: ensure adequate separation of the C3 and C4 components in
the depropanizer. A medium sized globe or rotary valve can
— Fluid: C3 and C4 hydrocarbons be utilized in this application.
— P1 = 12 – 14 bar (159 – 188 psig)
— P2 = 11 – 13 bar (144 – 173 psig)
— T = 60°C – 80°C (140°F - 176°F) — Fluid: Propane
— Q = 30,000 – 120,000 Nm3/hr — P1 = 16 – 18 bar (217 – 246 psig)
— P2 = 13 – 15 barg (173 – 202 psig)
— T = 50°C – 60°C (122°F - 140°F)
— NPS 10 to NPS 12 Control-Disk or Vee-Ball — Q = 1000 – 2000 m3/hr
— Class IV shutoff — NPS 8 to NPS 10 easy-e ET or NPS 6 to NPS 8 V500
11. Debutanizer Bottoms Level Control Valve — Equal percentage characteristic
This valve controls the liquid level in the debutanizer ensuring — Class IV shutoff
proper separation of the lighter components from the
heavier components. A rotary valve is commonly used in this
application.
4.4 Crude Desalter/Distillation
Unit
— Fluid: Gasoline Other Names—Crude unit, crude fractionator, crude column,
pipestill, atmospheric crude column
— P1 = 12 – 14 bar (159 – 188 psig)
— P2 = 8 – 10 bar (101 – 130 psig) The atmospheric crude distillation unit (CDU) is the first
processing unit in a refinery downstream of the desalter. The
— T = 100°C – 110°C (212°F - 230°F) unit is a complex column that fractionates crude oil into the
— Q = 70 – 350 m3/hr basic product streams. These basic product streams from
the crude distillation unit can vary widely depending on the
refinery operating objectives. Typical boiling point cuts from
— NPS 6 to NPS 10 V500 or Vee-Ball the atmospheric crude unit include: naphtha, kerosene,
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim diesel, gas oil, heavy gas oil, and residue, which is fed to the
vacuum crude unit for further distillation and separation
— Equal percentage characteristic under vacuum. Normally, these product streams are sent to
— Class IV shutoff downstream units for further processing before being sent to
product tanks.
12. Depropanizer Overhead Control Valve
The crude oil is sent through a process heater and is partially
This valve controls the overhead vapor flow into the reflux vaporized before entering the fractionator near the bottom
drum to facilitate separation of C3 and C4 components. of the column. Refer to section 4.1 covering the furnace
4-11

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.4.1. Crude Desalter and Distillation Unit Location
(process heater). Stripping steam also is injected at the has a large amount of suspended solids. Both methods of
bottom of the column. One or more process pump-around desalting are continuous.
heat exchanger loops and a top reflux stream are used to cool
the rising vapors, which separates the crude mixture into 1. Mixing valve (upstream of the desalter unit)
product streams. Product streams are extracted through side
draws to the steam stripping columns. The column pressure This valve is considered to be a severe service application
and product draw temperatures are used to control the valve. It serves to mix water and crude oil together prior to
product streams to quality specifications, usually to the final entering the desalter. The crude oil is dirty since it comes
or 95% of the boiling point for the product stream. from the ground, so there will be sand and sediment along
with water and salts.
Desalter Typical Process Conditions:
Raw crude oil often contains water, inorganic salts, — Fluid: Crude oil, wash water, and emulsifiers
suspended solids, and water-soluble trace metals. These — P1 = 20 – 23 barg (300 – 325 psig)
contaminants must be removed to reduce corrosion,
— P2 = 16 – 19 barg (230 – 275 psig)
plugging and fouling of equipment, and prevent poisoning
of catalyst in downstream processing units. Desalting, the — T = 232 – 315°C (450 - 600°F)
first step and one of the most critical processes in refining, — Q = 310 – 600 kg/h
removes these contaminants. Desalter efficiency can have
dramatic impact on nearly every downstream unit.
Crude oil desalting is the process of “washing” the crude — NPS 6 to NPS 16 butterfly or NPS 6 to NPS 16 Vee-Ball
with water to extract salts and solids. The two most typical (reverse flow)
methods of crude-oil desalting, chemical and electrostatic — Cage guided valves are not recommended
separation use hot water as the extraction agent. In chemical — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
desalting, water and chemical surfactant (demulsifiers) are — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
added to the crude, heated so that salts and other impurities or solid stellite trim, NACE may be required if crude is
dissolve into the water or attach to the water, and then sour
held in a tank where they settle out. Electrical desalting
is the application of high-voltage electrostatic charges to — Class IV shutoff
concentrate suspended water globules in the bottom of the
settling tank. Surfactants are added only when the crude
4-12
PROCESS
WATER ELECTRICAL
POWER
ALTERNATE
DESALTED
CRUDE
UNREFINED ELECTROSTATIC
CRUDE SEPARATOR
HEATER MIX VALVE

EFFLUENT WATER
DUMP VALVE
DEMULSIFIER
E1547 CHEMICAL
Figure 4.4.2. Crude Desalter Process Flow Diagram
Crude Distillation Unit Typical Control Valve Selection:
The CDU is common to all refineries, as it begins the process — Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e ED
of converting crude oil into valuable products. Because this — Higher Flow Rates: NPS 6 to NPS 12 EWD or NPS 3 to
unit is inherent to all refineries, there are certain control valve NPS 8 V500 (reverse flow)
trends that are beneficial to understand. — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
— Materials of Construction: WC9 body with 300-series
1. Feed Valve to Furnace (Pass Flow Control Valves) or solid stellite trim, NACE may be required if crude is
sour
The feed to a crude distillation unit is crude oil from the oil
fields. Feed valves are usually set up as flow-control loops. — Class IV shutoff
They are configured to fail open so that a valve failure will
protect the furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube 2, 3. Pump-Around Valve Function
loses or has insufficient flow, the tube can quickly become
so hot that the metal can melt. This can have disastrous A crude fractionator will always have at least one pump-
consequences, as most process feeds make excellent fuels. around heat exchanger loop for controlling the heat balance.
A furnace can be destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is Most fractionators will have more than one pump-around
dumping into the firebox of the furnace. loop. The pump-around loop is used to extract heat from the
column, creating the separation between the product draws
There are a series of four to six valves in parallel that are used immediately above and below the pump-around loop. The
to split the flow from the desalter into several streams for pump-around valves are usually flow controllers.
better heat transfer or to break process stream into multiple
stream “passes” to improve heat transfer. A poorly performing or bypassed pump-around valve will
increase the variability in the quality specifications of the
Problem valves can lead to difficulties controlling the outlet product draws. A valve failure most likely will create an upset
temperature of the furnaces. Also, many process feeds slowly lasting from 30 minutes to a few hours depending on the
build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes. Coking severity of the failure.
is a non-linear reaction and in some processes even a few
extra degrees of temperature can lead to excessive coke Typical Process Conditions:
build-up. If a flow valve is oscillating, the temperature will — Fluid: Hydrocarbon liquid
also swing and will usually lead to excessive coke buildup.
— P1 = 10 barg (150 psig)
This will shorten the furnace cycle time between decoking
procedures, which normally requires the process unit — T = 95 – 340°C (200 - 644°F)
downstream to shut down. — Q = dependent on process design
Feed valves can easily be bypassed when necessary. A Typical Control Valve Selection:
combination of the measured flow and any available pass
temperatures can be used to regulate the bypass valve. — Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ, ET or ED
— Higher Flow Rates: NPS 3 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball
— ENVIRO-SEAL packing
— Fluid: Crude oil — Materials of Construction: NACE materials are likely
— P1 = 20 – 23 barg (300 – 325 psig) required
— P2 = 16 – 19 barg (230 – 275 psig) — Class IV shutoff
— T = 232 – 340°C (450 - 600°F)
— Q = 545 – 680 m3/h (2400 – 3000 gpm)
— Flashing may be present depending on process variables
4-13
COMPRESSOR
BYPASS VALVE
#14
OVERHEAD
PRESSURE
CONTROL
VALVE
LIGHT
ENDS
#10
COMPRESSOR
OVERHEAD
RECEIVER
REFLUX OVERHEAD
VALVE PRODUCT VALVE
PUMP-
AROUND
VALVE
NAPHTHA
#2 #5 #7
STRIPPING STEAM
VALVE
STRIPPER
#11
STEAM
PUMP-
AROUND
VALVE STRIPPER STRIPPER BOTTOMS
CRUDE #12
(PRODUCT) VALVE
FRACTIONATOR
#3
KEROSENE
STRIPPING
STEAM
VALVE
STEAM
STRIPPER BOTTOMS
#8 (PRODUCT) VALVE
FEED DIESEL
VALVE
CRUDE #13
HEATER
FRACTIONATOR
FEED STRIPPING VALVE
STEAM
#1
BOTTOMS
#6
VALVE
BOTTOMS TO
VACUUM UNIT
#9
FUEL GAS
#4
FUEL
E0925-2 VALVE
Figure 4.4.3. Crude Distillation Column Process Flow Diagram
4. Fuel Valve that the temperature control loop directly manipulates the
fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides control
Depending on the furnace service and configuration, this performance that is inferior to a cascade configuration. It is
valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the extremely susceptible to any valve deadband such as that
fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed caused by a sticking valve. This can be detected by excessive
so that a control loop failure will not allow excessive fuel to oscillation in the outlet temperature.
be dumped into a hot furnace. Instrumentation may include
a loop to bypass digital valve controller in case of power When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
failure to cut off fuel to furnace. A fuel valve failure will almost loop or by a flow control loop, there will often be a pressure
always shut down the processing unit downstream. Although control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also
many fuel valves have bypass circuits, refinery operations fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure
personnel are usually reluctant to run a furnace on bypass for of the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, refinery
any significant time because of safety concerns. operations personnel will be more willing to run a fuel valve
in bypass as they still have a way to quickly shut off the fuel in
The preferred control loop configuration for the outlet an emergency.
controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such Since this valve is critical to unit operation, a Fisher FIELDVUE
DVC6200 digital valve controller with PD tier diagnostics is
4-14
recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical to this Typical Process Conditions:

valve when it is supposed to fail close, it may be desirable
to include the position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE — Fluid: Naphtha and gas mixture
DVC6200 instrument. This provides position feedback to — P1 = 5 - 6 barg (70 - 100 psig)
the DCS, upon loss of power to the FIELDVUE DVC6200 — P2 = 4 - 5 barg (40 - 80 psig)
instrument, assuring whether or not the valve actually — T = 93 - 250°C (200 - 480° F)
closed.
— Q = 150 – 175 m3/h (670 – 760 gpm)
— Fluid: Fuel gas
— Lower Flow Rates: NPS 2 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball
— P1 = 3 - 4 barg (40 - 60 psig)
— Higher Flow Rates: NPS 6 to NPS 12 Control-Disk
— P2 = 2 – 3 barg (30 – 35 psig)
— ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
— T = 32°C (90° F)
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with standard
— Q = 3700 – 5900 sm3/h (130,000 – 208,000 scfh) 400-series or 300-series SST trim
6. Fractionator Stripping Steam Valve
— NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e EZ, ET, EWT, or GX
— If low noise trim is required, use caution if the fuel gas Stripping steam is injected into the bottoms of the
is dirty fractionator to strip out lighter components from the crude
bottoms stream. This valve drives the vapor back up through
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex packing may be required for
the column, which impacts column efficiency. Reboiler steam
firesafe construction, with reduced friction when
will have a direct effect on overhead reflux flow and the
compared to graphite packing
column flooding parameters.
SST trim, sour fuel gas may require NACE trim A valve failure most likely will create an upset lasting from
materials thirty minutes to a few hours depending on the severity of
the failure.
Process Impact:
— Valve performance is critical to controlling furnace
temperature — Fluid: Steam
— P1 = 10 - 17 barg (150 - 250 psig)
Special Requirements:
— T = 232 - 300°C (450 - 575° F)
— Steam jacketing might be required to maintain the
viscosity of the fuel oil low enough so that it atomizes
well enough in the burner. Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Steam jacketing may also be required in fuel gas — NPS 2 to NPS 8 easy-e ED or NPS 6 to NPS 12 easy-e
application to prevent water from condensing. If water EWD
condenses it might be acidic depending on the H2S
content in fuel gas. — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
— Materials of Construction: Materials compliant with
5. Reflux Valve Function steam service, 300-series SST body with 300-series/
Alloy 6 trim
The reflux valve is used to control the separation between
the top product (usually naphtha) and the highest-side Process Impact:
draw product. The reflux valve can be either a flow or a — The amount of stripping steam also affects the
temperature controller. separation efficiency of the crude fractionator
A poorly performing or bypassed reflux valve will increase — Valve is important as it drives the vapor through the
the variability in the quality specifications of the overhead column
product and the top side draw. A valve failure will most likely — Reboiler steam will have direct effect on overhead
create an upset lasting from thirty minutes to a few hours, reflux flow
depending on the severity of the failure. To minimize the
occurrence of a valve failure, a FIELDVUE DVC6200 digital 7. Overhead Product Valve Function
valve controller with PD diagnostics is recommended for this
valve. Due to the location of this valve, if wired diagnostics The overhead product is naphtha, a blending component in
are not available, installation of an Emerson Smart Wireless gasoline.
THUM may be desirable.
The overhead product valve is usually on level control from
the overhead receiver, and may be used in conjunction with
a Fisher Level-Trol liquid level controller (Figure 4.4.4). This
valve does not usually have any impact on the operation of
the crude fractionator unless a failure causes the liquid level
in the overhead receiver to over fill or empty. In this case,
4-15
X1091
Figure 4.4.4. Typical Level-Trol Application
the column pressure would be affected, and the fractionator Typical Control Valve Selection:
would experience an upset until the pressure stabilized.
Usually, level alarms on the unit would allow the operator to — NPS 2 to NPS 8 easy-e ED or NPS 6 to NPS 12 easy-e
catch this before it becomes an upset. EWD
It is more likely that a poorly performing product valve could
cause stability problems to a downstream processing unit — Materials of Construction: Materials compliant with
in configurations where there is no surge tank between the steam service, 300-series SST body with 300-series/
units. Alloy 6 trim
Typical Process Conditions: 9. Bottoms Valve Function

— Fluid: Naphtha The bottom material becomes the vacuum distillation
— P1 = 7 barg (100 psig) unit charge. The process fluid could be viscous and likely
— T = 93°C (200° F) has entrained particulate, which needs to be taken into
consideration in valve selection.
The bottoms flow does not usually have any impact on the
operation of the crude fractionator unless a failure causes the
— NPS 4 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or NPS 6 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball liquid level of the bottoms to overfill or empty. Usually, level
— Materials of Construction: generally WCC body with alarms on the unit allow the operator to catch this before it
standard 400-series SST trim, but consideration of causes an upset.
special materials is required if it is acidic Typical Process Conditions:
8., 11. Stripping Steam Valves — Fluid: Heavy vacuum gas oil, slop wax, heavy bottoms
— P1 = 4 - 18 barg (50 - 260 psig)
The stripper uses steam to establish (control) the initial
— P2 = 2 - 15 barg (30 – 220 psig)
boiling point of the material leaving the bottom of the
stripper. — T = 332 - 400°C (630 - 750° F)
— Q = 430 – 480 m3/h (1,900 – 2,100 gpm)
Steam enters the bottom of the stripper tower and reduces
the hydrocarbon partial pressure. The process fluid partially Typical Control Valve Selection:
vaporizes to reestablish vapor-liquid equilibrium. The heat of
vaporization comes from the process fluid itself, not from the — NPS 2 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball or reverse flow V500
stripping steam. — Materials of Construction: WC9 or 300-series SST body
with 300-series SST trim, NACE is likely required. Solid
Each side-draw product stream usually feeds a product stellite or ceramic trim may be used to reduce damage
stripper. The stripper uses steam to drive off any light from entrained particulate.
components remaining in the product stream. Poor steam
valve performance can lead to variability in the quality 10. Overhead Pressure Control Valve Function
specifications for the product stream.
Typical Process Conditions: The overhead pressure control valve releases gases including
H2, H2S, methane, ethane, propane, and butane. Typically,
— Fluid: Steam this stream is very small (one to three percent of feed).
— P1 = 10 - 17 barg (150 - 250 psig) The column pressure has a significant effect on fractionator
— T = 232 - 300°C (450 - 575° F) operation. A valve failure that allows the column to over or
— Q = dependent on process design under pressure can cause an upset that might take hours
of recovery time. A problem valve can create pressure
oscillations that prevent the fractionator from optimal
operation. Valve sizing is critical for this service. If the valve is
4-16
X1092
Figure 4.4.5. Liquid Level Installation Schematic
too large, the column pressure will be prone to rapid swings. Typical Control Valve Selection:
If the value is too small and has a large response time, it can
cause long slow swings. — NPS 2 to NPS 6 easy-e ET
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
In order to minimize unit downtime, a FIELDVUE DVC6200
digital valve controller with PD diagnostics is recommended — Materials of Construction: generally WCC body with
for this application. Position feedback inherent to the standard 400-series SST trim, but consideration
FIELDVUE DVC6200 instrument may also be desirable to of special materials is required if it is an acidic gas
validate valve position. environment
This valve controls the pressure to the distillation column 12, 13. Stripper Bottoms (Product) Valves
and is very important in controlling the stability of the tower.
Many columns use tray temperature to control overhead The stripper bottoms valves are used to control the bottoms
composition, thus stable pressure is required to ensure that level in the strippers. These valves do not usually have any
temperature changes reflect composition changes, not impact on the operation of the strippers unless a failure
pressure changes. causes the liquid level of the bottoms to overfill or empty.
Usually, level alarms on the unit allow the operator to catch
Typical Process Conditions: this before it causes an upset.
— Fluid: Mixture of gases including H2, H2S, ethane, These valves can be used in conjunction with a Level-Trol
propane, and butane liquid level controller. Depending on the size and complexity
— P1 = 6 barg (90 psig) of the stripper, the liquid level installation may be similar to
— T = 80°C (175° F) Figure 4.4.5. A level alarm system can be programmed into
the Fisher DLC3000 digital level controller.
4-17

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.5.1. Vacuum Distillation Unit
Typical Process Conditions: The crude bottom stream is sent through a process charge
heater and is partially vaporized before entering the vacuum
— Fluid: Kerosene or diesel with particulate fractionator near the bottom of the column (refer to section
— P1 = 7 barg (100 psig) 4.1 related to the furnace). Stripping steam is also injected
— T = 200 - 300°C (400 - 575° F) at the bottom of the column. One or more process pump-
— Q = dependent on process design around exchanger loops are used to cool the rising vapors,
separating the crude bottom mixture into the product
Typical Control Valve Selection: streams. The product streams are extracted through side
draws to steam stripping columns. The column vacuum
— NPS 2 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball or V500
is controlled by an overhead ejector system. The column
— Low flow or clean fluid applications could use a globe vacuum pressure and product draw temperatures are used to
valve solution (easy-e EZ or ED) control the product streams to quality specifications, usually
— ENVIRO-SEAL packing viscosity or flash point.
— Materials of Construction: 300-series SST body with
300-series SST/Alloy 6 trim. For fluids with high Vacuum Crude Column Application
viscosity or entrained particulate, solid Alloy 6 or Review
ceramic trim may be considered.
The overall process of the vacuum crude column looks nearly
4.5 Vacuum Crude Column identical to the crude distillation column. However, the two
are unique since the vacuum crude column is run at vacuum
Other Names—Vacuum tower, vacuum flash, vacuum pressures. Due to the vacuum pressures these valves are
fractionators, vacuum crude column exposed to, certain process valves may require alternative
packing arrangements to account for vacuum pressure
The vacuum crude column unit is fed the bottoms from the conditions.
crude distillation unit. The unit is a complex column that
fractionates the crude bottoms under vacuum conditions 1. Feed Valve
to improve separation into basic product streams. The basic
product streams from a vacuum crude unit can vary widely The feed to a vacuum crude unit is the bottoms from the
depending on the refinery operating objectives. Typical basic crude distillation unit. It has not undergone any processing
product streams are gas oil, light vacuum gas oil (LVGO), other than being split based on relative volatility.
heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO), and residual (resid) bottoms. Feed valves are usually set up as flow-control loops. They are
Normally, these product streams are sent on to downstream configured to fail open so that a valve failure protects the
units for further processing.
4-18
TO EJECTOR
SYSTEM
GAS
OIL VALVE
PUMP-
AROUND
VALVE
GAS OIL
#3 #8
STRIPPING STEAM
VALVE
STRIPPER
STEAM
PUMP-
AROUND VACUUM
#11
VALVE TOWER
STRIPPER BOTTOMS
(PRODUCT) VALVE
#4
STRIPPER
LVGO
#10
STRIPPING STEAM
VALVE
STEAM STRIPPER BOTTOMS
(PRODUCT) VALVE
#9
HVGO
FEED
VALVE #7
CHARGE
HEATER
FEED
#1
VACUUM
RESID
VALVE
VACUUM
RESID
#6
#2 STRIPPING
FUEL
GAS STEAM VALVE
STEAM
E0926 FUEL VALVE
#5
Figure 4.5.2. Vacuum Crude Column Process Flow Diagram
furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses or has Typical Process Conditions:
insufficient flow, the tube can quickly become so hot that
the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences — Fluid: Crude unit bottoms
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be — P1 = 10 – 21 barg (150 – 300 psig)
destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the — P2 = 9 – 10 barg (147 – 298 psig)
firebox of the furnace. — T = 332 - 360°C (630 - 680°F)
Problem valves can lead to difficulties with controlling the — Q = 37 – 50 m3/h (164 – 219 gpm)
outlet temperature of the furnaces. Also, many process feeds — Flashing may be present (although not severe)
slowly build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes. depending on process variables
Coking is a non-linear reaction and in some processes even
a few extra degrees of temperature can lead to excessive Typical Control Valve Selection:
coke build-up. If flow valves are alternately providing too
— Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ
much and then too little flow, the temperature will also
swing, and usually leads to excessive coke buildup. This — Higher Flow Rates: NPS 6 to NPS 12 easy-e EWD or NPS
typically shortens the furnace cycle time between decoking 3 to NPS 8 V500 (reverse flow)
procedures, which normally requires the process unit — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
downstream to shutdown. — Materials of Construction: WC9 body with 300-series
Feed valves can easily be bypassed when necessary. A or solid stellite trim. NACE may be required if crude is
combination of the measured flow and any available pass sour. Also C12 and 347 SST body materials.
temperatures can be used to regulate the bypass valve. — Class IV shutoff
4-19
2. Fuel Valve The pump-around loop is used to extract heat from the
column, creating the separation between the product draws
Depending on the furnace service and configuration, this immediately above and below the pump-around loop. The
valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the pump-around valves are usually flow controllers.
fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed
so that a control loop failure will not allow an excessive A poorly performing or bypassed pump-around valve will
amount of fuel to be dumped into a hot furnace. A fuel valve increase variability in the quality specifications of the product
failure will almost always shut down the processing unit draws. A valve failure will most likely create an upset lasting
downstream. Although many fuel valves have bypass circuits, from thirty minutes to a few hours, depending on the
refinery operations personnel are usually reluctant to run a severity of the failure.
furnace on bypass for any significant time because of safety Typical Process Conditions:
concerns.
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon liquid
The preferred control loop configuration for the outlet
temperature is a cascade to the set point of the loop — P1 = 6 - 21 barg (85 - 300 psig)
controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such — P2 = 4 - 20 barg (65 - 280 psig)
that the temperature control loop directly manipulates — T = 66 - 149°C (150 - 300° F)
the fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides — Q = 265 – 370 m3/h (1,165 – 1635 gpm)
inferior control performance to a cascade configuration. It
is extremely susceptible to any valve deadband such as that Typical Control Valve Selection:
caused by a sticking valve. This can be detected by excessive
— Lower Flow: NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ, ET, ED, or GX
oscillation in the outlet temperature.
— Higher Flow: NPS 3 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball
When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
loop or by a flow control loop, there will often be a pressure
control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure of or 300-series SST trim, sour service trim materials may
the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, operations need to be considered.
will be more willing to run a fuel valve in bypass as they still
have a way to quickly shut off the fuel in an emergency. 5., 6., 8. Stripping Steam Valves
Since this valve is critical to unit operation, a Fisher FIELDVUE Stripping steam is injected into the bottoms of the tower to
DVC6200 digital valve controller with PD tier diagnostics is strip out lighter components from the crude bottom stream.
recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical to this The amount of stripping steam also affects the separation
valve when it is supposed to fail close, it may be desirable efficiency of the vacuum tower.
to include the position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE
DVC6200 instrument. This provides position feedback to Stripping steam is also used in the product strippers. The
the DCS, upon loss of power to the FIELDVUE DVC6200 stripper uses steam to drive off any light components
instrument, assuring whether or not the valve actually remaining in the product stream. Poor steam valve
closed. performance can lead to variability in the quality
specifications for the product stream. A valve failure will most
Typical Process Conditions: likely create an upset lasting from thirty minutes to a few
hours, depending on the severity of the failure.
— Fluid: Fuel gas
— P1 = 3 - 4 barg (40 - 60 psig) These valves are important because they drive the vapor
back up through the column or the strippers. Vapor through
— P2 = 2 – 3 barg (30 – 35 psig)
the column affects column efficiency. Reboiler steam will
— T = 32°C (90° F) have a direct effect on overhead reflux flow.
— Q = 3700 – 5900 sm3/h (130,000 – 208,000 scfh)
— Fluid: Steam
— NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e EZ, ET, ED, or GX — P1 = 2 - 17 barg (28 - 250 psig)
— If low noise trim is required, use caution if the fuel gas — P2 = 1 – 15 barg (1 – 200 psig)
is dirty
— T = 232 - 300°C (450 - 575° F)
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex packing may be required for
— Q = 450 – 910 kg/h (1,000 – 2,000 lb/h)
firesafe construction, with reduced friction when
compared to graphite packing Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series — NPS 2 to NPS 8 easy-e ED or NPS 6 to NPS 12 EWD
SST trim, sour fuel gas may require NACE trim
materials — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
— Materials of Construction: Materials compliant with
3., 4. Pump-Around Valve steam service, 300-series SST body with 400-series
SST or 300-series SST/Alloy 6 trim
A vacuum tower will always have at least one pump-around
heat exchanger loop for controlling the heat balance.
Many towers will have more than one pump-around loop.
4-20
7. Vacuum Resid Valve 4.6 Delayed Coker Unit

The bottom material exiting the vacuum crude unit is
Other Names—Coker, delayed coking unit
vacuum resid.
The bottoms do not usually have any impact on the operation Similar Process Units
of the vacuum tower unless a failure causes the liquid level
of the bottoms to overfill or empty. Usually, level alarms on Visbreaker, fluid coker, flexicoker, thermal cracker
the unit allow the operator to catch this before it causes an
The delayed coker unit (DCU) processes very heavy vacuum
upset. Because this is a level control valve, it would be used
residual, which is heated to over 480°C (900°F) and put into
in conjunction with a level controller, like a Fisher Level-Trol
the coke drums. It undergoes thermal cracking as the oil
liquid level controller.
decomposes under extreme heat. Products include butane
Typical Process Conditions: and lighter material naphtha for reforming, turbine and diesel
fuel, gas oil for catalytic cracking, and fuel grade petroleum
— Fluid: Vacuum resid coke.
— P1 = 13 - 21 barg (190 - 300 psig)
The delayed coker unit process thermally cracks heavy
— P2 = 10 – 20 barg (150 – 295 psig) feedstocks, such as crude unit bottoms, vacuum unit
— T = 332 - 400°C (630 - 750° F) bottoms, or other heavy gas oils. The products are sponge
— Q = 270 – 310 m3/h (1,200 – 1,350 gpm) or needle coke, gas oil, naphtha, and light ends. Delayed
cokers are used to process as much product as possible from
Typical Control Valve Selection: the bottom of the barrel. Visbreaking is a similar process
— NPS 3 to NPS 8 V500 (reverse flow) or NPS 6 to NPS 12 to the delayed coker. It has many of the same control valve
Vee-Ball applications, but is generally less severe than the DCU.
Therefore, it will not be discussed specifically in this text.
— Materials of Construction: WCC or 316 SST body with The delayed coker unit consists of four sections:
300-series SST trim or solid Alloy 6 trim. Ceramic trim 1. Product fractionator
may also be considered. Also C12 and 347 SST body
materials. 2. Coker furnace and coke drums
— Class IV shutoff 3. Vapor recovery
9., 10. Stripper Bottoms (Product) Valve 4. Overhead and hydraulic systems
In this section, we will discuss the applications surrounding
The stripper products are light vacuum gas oil (LVGO) and the product fractionator, coker furnace, and coke drums.
heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO). Applications in the vapor recovery unit are similar to those
The stripper bottoms valves are used to control the bottoms discussed in section 4.3 on gas plants. Applications in the
level in the strippers. These valves do not usually have any overhead and hydraulic systems are dependent on the
impact on the operation of the strippers unless a failure process licensor, and will not be included in this publication.
causes the liquid level of the bottoms to overfill or empty. There are two ways incoming feed is delivered to the delayed
Usually, level alarms on the unit would allow the operator to coker unit:
catch this before it causes an upset.
1. Combined with coke drum vapors to the bottom of
Typical Process Conditions: the coker product fractionator
— Fluid: LVGO or HVGO 2. Pre-heated and fed to the coke drums
— P1 = 10 - 16 barg (140 - 225 psig)
For the purpose of this discussion, we will assume the
— P2 = 1 – 12 barg (10 - 175 psig) incoming feed from the vacuum tower bottoms is sent,
— T = 43 - 80°C (110 - 175° F) along with coke drum vapors, to the bottom of the product
— Q = 34 – 230 m3/h (150 - 1000 gpm) fractionator. The coke drum vapors are the products of
thermal cracking that occurs in the coke drum at around
Typical Control Valve Selection: 480°C (900°F). There are side streams drawn off specific trays
— NPS 2 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or NPS 6 to NPS 12 EWT or of the fractionator that are sent on to other units for further
NPS 3 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball processing.
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing The overhead stream of the coker fractionator is sent to a
— Anti-cavitation trim may be required depending on vapor recovery unit (gas plant) or sent to other process units
process conditions; for clean fluids, Cavitrol III trim in the refinery. The fractionator separates the drum vapors
may be used, for dirty fluids a NotchFlo DST may be into typical product streams. For this example, the streams
required are light ends, naphtha, light gas oil, and heavy gas oil.
— Materials of Construction: WCC or 316 SST body with The fractionator bottoms are sent to the coker furnace.
400-series SST trim or 300-series SST trim if service is In this furnace, the feed is rapidly heated and partially
sour. NACE may be required. vaporized. Steam is often injected into the feed oils to control
— Class IV or Class V shutoff the furnace residence time. Some thermal cracking occurs
4-21

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.6.1. Delayed Coker Unit Location
in these furnaces; however, that is minimized to prevent users to provide all details to control valve vendors to help
excessive coke build-up in those units. Feed through the ensure valves are properly selected.
heaters needs to be tightly controlled. If it is fed too slowly,
There are many special valves within a delayed coker that are
coke build up will occur in the heaters. If it is fed too quickly,
not control valves. These include the 4-way switching valve,
high velocity coke particulate can damage the equipment.
which directs the coker furnace output to the coke drums
The vapor-liquid mixture leaves the furnace and enters the
and the block valves between the coke drums. Typically, the
bottom of a coke drum. In the coke drum the entrained liquid
is thermally cracked to coke and other vapor products. As the block valves are full bore metal ball valves.
coke drum fills, the cracked vapors leave the top of the coke
drum and enter the bottom of the fractionator. 1. Decoke Water Valve
Over the course of several hours, the coke drum will fill This valve delivers water to the coke drum during the decoke
with coke. When a drum is full, the furnace effluent will be portion of the drum cycle. It is not normally critical to coker
switched to another drum. After the drum is filled, the coke operation. Sometimes, coke will block the valve and prevent
drum is steamed to remove any residual oil, and then it is water from entering the coke drum.
cooled with water, to a temperature around 90°C (200°F). Process conditions vary widely for this application. It is not a
The water is drained from the drum, and then the top and critical valve, and either sliding-stem or rotary valves can be
bottom heads are removed to prepare for coke removal. used. Use caution when selecting a sliding-stem valve, due to
Coke is removed from the drum through hydraulic drills the small clearances inherent to the construction.
(decoking). Once empty, the drums are tightened, purged,
and pressure tested before being put back into service when Typical Process Conditions:
the second drum is filled. Typical drum cycle times are 12 to
— Fluid: Water
24 hours depending on the unit design.
— P1 = 11 – 14 barg (155 - 200 psig)
Delayed Coker Application Review — P2 = 3 – 12 barg (40 - 170 psig)
— T = 85 - 232°C (190 - 450°F)
Control valves in the delayed coker unit need to be selected
— Q = Dependent on process design
appropriately. Common selection issues include high
temperatures, large particulate, material compatibility,
viscous fluids, and corrosive environments. It is important for
4-22
#27
LIGHT
COKER UNIT DECOKING ENDS
DRILLING WATER #21
FRACTIONATOR
DECOKING LIGHT END
VALVE VALVE
RECEIVER
OVERHEAD COKE #6 #10 OVERHEAD COKE

DRUM ISOLATION DRUM ISOLATION
VALVE VALVE
FRACTIONATOR FRACTIONATOR
REFLUX VALVE NAPHTHA VALVE
#4 COKE COKE #12
#16 #22
DRUM DRUM
VAPOR VAPOR
NAPHTHA
VALVE VALVE
COKING #17 LCGO STRIPPER

DRUMS FRACTIONATOR REFLUX VALVE
COKE
CONDENSATE #9
VALVE
FRACTIONATOR
PUMP-AROUND #18 STRIPPER
VALVE
#7 #11
FRACTIONATOR
DECOKE STRIPPER STEAM
WATER VALVE VALVE
LCGO STRIPPER
#15
FEED VALVE
DRUM DRUM
WATER SWITCH SWITCH STEAM
#1 VALVE VALVE #23
#5 #13
HCGO #19
DECOKE DECOKE STRIPPER #24
ISOLATION ISOLATION REFLUX
VALVE VALVE LIGHT
VALVE GAS OIL
STEAM FRACTIONATOR
#2 LIGHT GAS
DECOKE OIL PRODUCT
STEAM VALVE VALVE
#20
HCGO STRIPPER
#14 FEED VALVE
COKING
FURNACE #25
#8 STRIPPER
STEAM
FURNACE
FEED FRACTIONATOR
VALVE STRIPPER STEAM
FUEL GAS VALVE
#3
FUEL
VALVE #26
FEED
HEAVY
UNIT GAS OIL
FEED
VALVE FRACTIONATOR
E1158 HEAVY GAS OIL VALVE
Figure 4.6.2. Delayed Coking Unit Process Flow Diagram

— NPS 3 to 4 V500 or NPS 3 to 6 easy-e ET — Fluid: Steam
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series — P1 = barg (150 - 575 psig)
SST or 300-series/Alloy 6 or solid stellite trim. — P2 = barg (20 – 535 psig)
— Class IV shutoff — T = °C (416 - 800°F)
2. Decoke Steam Valve
This valve delivers steam to the coke drum during the
decoker portion of the drum cycle. It is not critical to coker — Lower Flow: NPS 1.5 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ
operation. — Higher Flow: NPS 4 to 8 easy-e ED or easy-e ET
SST or 300-series/Alloy 6 trim.
— Class III or Class IV shutoff
4-23
3. Unit Feed Valve Typical Process Conditions:
This valve feeds the bottom product from the vacuum tower — Fluid: Hydrocarbon gas, steam, possibly coke
to the coker fractionator. It requires large flow passages due particulate
to potential particulate and must be able to handle high — P1 = 2.8 – 3.5 barg (40 - 50 psig)
temperatures. Swings in control can cause upsets to the — P2 = 2.7 – 3.4 barg (39 - 49 psig)
coker heater feed and the coker heater fuel requirements.
— T = 440 - 505°C (825 - 940°F)
Feed valves are usually set up as flow control loops. Feed — Q = Dependent on process design
valves can be bypassed when necessary. A combination of
the measured flow and any available pass temperatures can Typical Control Valve Selection:
be used to regulate the bypass valve. — NPS 20 to NPS 30 High-Performance Butterfly Valve
Typical Process Conditions: (HPBV)
— Fluid: Vacuum bottoms
— Materials of Construction: C12 or WCC body with high
— P1 = 14 – 20 barg (200 – 290 psig)
temperature, hard faced trim.
— P2 = 12 – 18 barg (180 – 270 psig)
— T = 200 - 225°C (390 - 450°F)
— Q = 299 – 340 m3/h (1310 – 1500 gpm) 7., 11. Coker Drum Switching Valves
Typical Control Valve Selection: Most users have a preference for full bore metal ball valves
— NPS 4 to NPS 8 V500 or NPS 4 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball in this application. They are generally on/off constructions,
which are not required to throttle. Typically, this is not a
— ENVIRO-SEAL packing Fisher control valve application. It is important for a refiner to
— Materials of Construction: WCC or WC9 body with know whether or not these valves are open. As such, it would
300-series or solid stellite trim. NACE may be required be suggested to have on/off position feedback provided
if crude is sour. through a TopWorx 4310 wireless position monitor in this
— Class IV shutoff application.
4., 12. Overhead Coke Drum Isolation Valves 8. Coker Heater Fuel Gas Valve
These are actually block valves, not control valves. They are Depending on the furnace service and configuration, this
used in the coking process when residual gases are drawn off valve normally will be part of a loop that controls either the
the coke drums as they are being filled as well as when the fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail–closed
coke drums are steamed out. In many cokers, these two lines so that a control loop failure will not allow an excessive
are different. Because it is important to have the position of amount of fuel to be dumped into a hot furnace. A fuel
this valve verified at several points during the delayed coker valve failure will almost always shut down the downstream
process, a TopWorx™ 4310 (on/off service) or Fisher 4320 processing unit. Although many fuel valves have bypass
(throttling service) wireless position monitor can be used to circuits, some refinery operations personnel are reluctant to
verify valve position. run a furnace on bypass for any significant time because of
safety concerns.
5., 13. Decoke Isolation Valves The preferred control loop configuration for the outlet
These are also block valves, not control valves. However, if temperature is a cascade to the setpoint of the loop
they are leaking through into a hot drum, they can cause controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such
a significant upset to the fractionator as steam will cause that the temperature control loop directly manipulates
the column pressure to rise or fluctuate. Like the overhead the fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides
isolation valves, verifying valve position is very useful here, inferior control performance to a cascade configuration. It
and the 4310 or 4320 wireless position monitor could be is extremely susceptible to any valve deadband such as that
used to provide that feedback to the user’s DCS. caused by a sticking valve. This can be detected by excessive
6., 10. Coker Drum vapor Valves When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
These valves control the vapors off of the top of the coke control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also
drum. Traditionally, this has been an on-off butterfly valve. fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure of
However, more recently throttling control has become a the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, operations
requirement for this application. This valve will need to be personnel may be more willing to run a fuel valve in bypass,
able to open quickly in the event that a chunk of coke needs as they still have a way to quickly shut off the fuel in an
to pass. The actuator and accessories should be selected with emergency.
this in mind.
Since this valve is critical to unit operation, a FIELDVUE
DVC6200 digital valve controller with PD tier diagnostics
is recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical,
especially when it is to fail close. It may be desirable to
4-24
include the position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE Feed valves can easily be bypassed when necessary. A
DVC6200. This option provides position feedback to the DCS, combination of the measured flow and any available pass
upon loss of power to the digital valve controller. temperatures can be used to regulate the bypass valve.
Typical Process Conditions: Special considerations are required when selecting valves
and actuators in this section of the delayed coker due to the
— Fluid: Fuel gas large amount of particulate. Overheating will cause excess
— P1 = 2.8 – 10 barg (40 - 150 psig) coke formation. This impact can be reduced by utilizing
— P2 = 1.4 – 5.2 barg (21 - 76 psig) diagnostics and oversizing actuators to compensate for
— T = 65 – 232°C (150 - 450°F) coke formation. Licensors frequently dictate over-sizing the
actuator by 1.5 times the required force. This is true for both
— Q = Dependent on process design sliding-stem and rotary valves.
Typical Control Valve Selection: Since valves are required to both pass and shut off against
— NPS 1.5 to 3 easy-e EZ or ET or NPS 2 to NPS 3 Vee-Ball the coke particles, cage-guided solutions are avoided and
actuators are usually oversized. Rotary valves should be
oriented in reverse flow with hardened trims. Both valve
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series types should be selected with high temperature hardened
SST or NACE compliant trim if fuel is sour trim. Commonly the V500, V500FFD, or 461 are selected for
— Class IV or V shutoff use in these units.
Emerson has worked with our users to develop a special
9. Coke Condensate Valve version of the V500 called the V500FFD. The V500FFD is a
This valve is used to handle the coke condensate and water furnace feed design V500, which has a few unique features
that is drawn off the coke drums during the cooling process. that make it a good solution for these applications:
It has to handle liquids with particulate Hard-faced slotless retainer to resist erosion
Typical Process Conditions: Body insert to protect the seat and body from high
velocity erosive flows and to ease maintenance
— Fluid: Coke condensate
Plug construction with wear resistant seating surface
— P1 = 2 – 4.5 barg (30 - 65 psig) made of Tungsten Carbide to maximize service life
— P2 = 0.3 – 2.8 barg (5 - 40 psig) Abrasion-resistant Tungsten Carbide coating applied to
— T = 150 - 400°C (300 - 750°F) the internal flow passage
— Q = Dependent on process design Figure 4.6.3 highlights the characteristics of the V500 and
Typical Control Valve Selection: V500FFD.
— NPS 1.5 to NPS 4 V500 or NPS 1.5 to 4 easy-e EZ or ET Typical Process Conditions:
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with solid Alloy 6 — Fluid: Coker feed
or 300-series SST trim — P1 = 26 – 45 barg (385 - 645 psig)
— Class IV shutoff — P2 = 10 - 33 barg (145 - 475 psig)
14. Furnace Feed Valve — T = 295 - 425°C (565 - 800°F)
— Q = 36 – 39 m3/h (159 – 175 gpm)
configured to fail open so that a valve failure will protect the Typical Control Valve Selection:
furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses or has — NPS 2 to NPS 3 V500 or V500FFD (Figure 4.6.3)
the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences,
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be — Materials of Construction: Chrome Moly or 300-series
destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the SST body with 300-series SST, solid Alloy 6, or ceramic
furnace firebox. trim. Special grades of 300-series SST may be required
if feed is acidic.
Problem valves can lead to difficulties with controlling the
outlet temperature of the furnaces. Also, many process
feeds slowly build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant
tubes. Coking is a non-linear reaction, and in some processes 15. Fractionator Pump-around Valve
even a few extra degrees of temperature can lead to A coker fractionator will have at least one pump-around
excessive coke build-up. If a flow valve provides inconsistent heat exchanger loop for controlling the heat balance. Most
feed, the temperature also swings and usually leads to fractionators will have more than one pump-around loop
excessive coke buildup. This shortens the furnace cycle time (often a heavy oil and light oil pump-around). The pump-
between decoking procedures, which normally requires the around loop extracts heat from the column, creating the
downstream process unit to shut down. separation between the product draws immediately above
and below the pump-around loop. The pump-around valves
are usually flow controllers.
4-25
HARDFACED SLOTLESS SEAT SELF CENTERS WITHOUT SHIMMING

RETAINER RESISTS OR CENTERING IN ASSEMBLY. EXTENDED
EFFECTS OF EROSION SERVICE LIFE WITH SECOND SEATING SURFACE.
BODY INSERT PROTECTS THE SEAT AND BODY FROM

HIGH VELOCITY EROSIVE FLOWS AND EASES REPAIR.
PLUG CONSTRUCTION INCLUDES WEAR RESISTANT SEATING SURFACE TO

MAXIMIZE SERVICE LIFE BY MINIMIZING THE EFFECTS OF EROSION.
OVERSIZED SHAFTS AND METAL BEARINGS

ALLOW HIGH PRESSURE FLOWS AT
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES. ALSO ENSURES
LOW WEAR AND NO SHAFT WINDUP FOR
EXCELLENT THROTTLING PERFORMANCE.
ABRASION RESISTANT COATING CLAMPED SPLINE SHAFTS PROVIDES ZERO LOST MOTION
APPLIED TO INTERNAL FLOW PASSAGE. WHEN COUPLED WITH FISHER THROTTLING ACTUATORS.
STREAMLINE FLOW GEOMETRY ENSURES STABLE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS. THIS WILL REDUCE PROCESS INDUCED VARIABILITY
W9257 DUE TO UNSTABLE FLOW NOISE AND WILL MINIMIZE THE WEAR EFFECTS OF EROSIVE FLOW THROUGH THE VALVE.
Figure 4.6.3. Fisher V500FFD Features
A poorly performing or bypassed pump-around valve will Typical Process Conditions:

increase the variability in the quality specifications of the
product draws. A valve failure will most likely create an upset — Fluid: Naphtha
lasting from thirty minutes to a few hours depending on the — P1 = 8 – 21 barg (115 - 300 psig)
severity of the failure. — P2 = 3.6 – 19 barg (50 - 280 psig)
Typical Process Conditions: — T = 35 – 180°C (100 - 360°F)
— Fluid: Heavy oil or light oil
— P1 = barg (89 – 200 psig) Typical Control Valve Selection:
— P2 = barg (45 – 177 psig) — NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e ED, EZ, or ET or NPS 3 Vee-Ball
— T = °C (405 - 795°F) — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
— Q = Dependent on process design SST or 300-series SST trim
Typical Control Valve Selection: — Class IV shutoff
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 V500 or NPS 6 to NPS 12 High- 17, 19. Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) & Heavy Coker Gas
Performance Butterfly Valve; depending on process Oil (HCGO) Stripper Reflux Valves
design conditions, a Control-Disk valve may be used.
— Materials of Construction: WCC or Chrome Moly body The stripper reflux is responsible for sending the coker gas oil
with 300-series SST or solid Alloy 6 trim. C12 bodies back to the product fractionator for a purer product.
commonly used on HCGO applications due to high Typical Process Conditions:
temperature and corrosion resistance. WC9 should
not be substituted without user acceptance. — Fluid: LCGO or HCGO reflux
— Class IV shutoff — P1 = barg (82 - 339 psig)
— P2 = barg (55 – 240 psig)
16. Fractionator Reflux Valve — T = °C (105 - 567°F)
The reflux valve is used to control the separation between — Q = Dependent on process design
the top product (usually naphtha), and the highest-side Typical Control Valve Selection:
draw product. The reflux valve can be either a flow or a
temperature controller. — NPS 3 to 4 easy-e ET or ED or NPS 2 to NPS 8 V500
A poorly performing or bypassed reflux valve will increase — Materials of Construction: WCC Body with 400-series
the variability in the quality specifications of the overhead SST or 300-series SST or solid Alloy 6 trim
product and the top-side draw. A valve failure will most likely — Class IV shutoff
create an upset lasting from thirty minutes to a few hours,
depending on the severity of the failure.
4-26
18., 20. LCGO & HCGO Stripper Feed Valves Typical Process Conditions:
These valves pull a stream of light coker gas oil (LCGO) or — Fluid: Light gas
heavy coker gas oil (HCGO) from the product fractionator — P1 = 17 - 23 barg (250 - 340 psig)
and send that stream to a stripper unit. The stripper unit — P2 = 16 - 20 barg (240 - 290 psig)
uses superheated steam to remove any residual gas oils from
the process streams. Stripper bottoms are sent to the coker — T = 68 - 71°C (155 - 160°F)
heater and eventually to the coke drum. — Q = Dependent on process design
LCGO Typical Process Conditions: Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Fluid: LCGO — NPS 1.5 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ
— P1 = 1 – 12 barg (17 - 170 psig) — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
— P2 = 0.5 – 6 barg (8 – 85 psig) SST trim
— T = 210 - 235°C (405 - 455°F) — ENVIRO-SEAL packing
— Q = Dependent on process design — Class IV shutoff
LCGO Typical Control Valve Selection: 22. Fractionator Naphtha Valve

— Lower Flow: NPS 3 to NPS 8 easy-e ET The fractionator naphtha valve, also known as the overhead
— Higher Flow: NPS 6 to NPS 10 Vee-Ball product valve, is usually on level control from the overhead
— Materials of Construction: WCC with 400-series SST or receiver. This valve does not usually have any impact on the
300-series SST or solid Alloy 6 trim operation of the crude fractionator unless a failure causes
the liquid level in the overhead receiver to over fill or empty.
In this case, the column pressure would be affected, and the
HCGO Typical Process Conditions: fractionator would experience an upset until the pressure
became stable again. Usually, level alarms on the unit allow
— Fluid: HCGO the operator to catch this before it becomes an upset.
— P1 = 2 – 2.5 barg (27 - 35 psig)
It is more likely that a poorly performing product valve could
— P2 = 0.6 – 2 barg (9 – 28 psig) cause stability problems to a downstream processing unit
— T = 350 - 455°C (660 - 850°F) in configurations where there is no surge tank between the
— Q = Dependent on process design units.
HCGO Typical Control Valve Selection: Typical Process Conditions:
— NPS 3 to NPS 8 V500 or NPS 3 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or EZ — Fluid: Naphtha
— Materials of Construction: C12 Body with 300-series — P1 = 9.5 – 18 barg (140 - 265 psig)
SST or solid stellite trim. C12 bodies commonly used — P2 = 5.1 – 12 barg (75 - 180 psig)
on HCGO applications due to high temperature and — T = 37 - 215°C (100 - 420°F)
corrosion resistance. Often, WC9 is an acceptable
alternative. — Q = Dependent on process design
— Class IV shutoff Typical Control Valve Selection:
— NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e ED, ET, or EZ
21. Fractionator Light End Valve
The overhead pressure control valve releases gases including SST or 300-series SST or solid Alloy 6 trim
H2, H2S, methane, ethane, propane, and butane. This stream — Class II or IV shutoff
is typically very small (less than 3% of feed).
The column pressure has a significant effect on fractionator 23., 25. Fractionator Stripping Steam Valves
operation. A valve failure that allows the column to over or
Each side-draw product stream usually feeds a product
under pressurize can cause an upset that might take hours
stripper. The stripper uses steam to separate any light
of recovery time. A problem valve can create pressure
components remaining in the product stream. Poor steam
oscillations that prevent the fractionator from optimal
valve performance can lead to variability in the quality
operation. Valve sizing is critical for this service. If the valve is
specifications for the product stream.
too large, the column pressure will be prone to rapid swings.
If the value is too small and has a large response time, it can Typical Process Conditions:
cause long slow swings.
— Fluid: Steam
— P1 = 7.5 – 27 barg (110 - 395 psig)
— P2 = 0.5 – 26 barg (8 – 374 psig)
— T = 260 - 370°C (500 - 700°F)
4-27

4.7 Hydrotreater
— NPS 1.5 to NPS 8 easy-e ED, ET, EZ, or ES
Other Names—Hydroprocesser, unifining, unifiner,
desulfurizer, hydrodesulfurizer (HDS)
stainless or 300-series stainless trim appropriate for
steam service. The purpose of hydrotreating operation is to remove
— Class IV shutoff contaminants and impurities in various refinery streams
by using hydrogen to bind with sulfur and nitrogen in the
24, 26. Fractionator Gas Oil Valve (HCGO & LCGO) presence of a catalyst. Hydrotreating helps meet low sulfur
specification in transportation fuels and provides low sulfur
These valves are used to control the bottoms level in the feed to downstream units.
strippers. These valves do not usually have any impact on the
The hydrotreating process removes undesirable materials
operation of the strippers unless a failure causes the liquid
from a feedstock by selective reactions with hydrogen
level of the bottoms to overfill or empty. Usually, level alarms
in a heated catalyst bed. Sulfur, nitrogen, and certain
on the unit allow the operator to catch this before it causes
metal contaminants are removed from the feed. Olefins
an upset. They can be used in conjunction with a Fisher Level-
and aromatics are converted to saturated hydrocarbons.
Trol liquid level controller.
Hydrotreating is often used to remove catalyst poisons from
24 LCGO Typical Process Conditions: a feedstock before downstream processing. It also is used
to remove contaminants from product streams to meet
— Fluid: LCGO environmental standards.
— P1 = 1.4 – 20 barg (20 – 290 psig)
The incoming feed is assumed to be naphtha for this
— P2 = 1.3 – 19 barg (19 – 270 psig) description. The untreated feed is combined with a recycle
— T = 71 - 260°C (160 - 500°F) hydrogen stream before flowing through a charge heater
— Q = Dependent on process design to reaction temperature. The feedstock is reacted with
hydrogen at elevated temperature in the range of 300-450°C
24 LCGO Typical Control Valve Selection: (500 – 750°F) and elevated pressures, in the range of 8 – 150
— NPS 2 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or NPS 6 to NPS 8 V500 barg (120 - 2200 psig) under the presence of hydrogenation
catalyst, typically cobalt-molybdenum, nickel-molybdenum,
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series or alumina. The reactor effluent is sent to a separator. The
SST or 300-series SST or solid Alloy 6 trim vapor from the separator, often amine treated, is recycled
— Class IV shutoff through a compressor back to the feed. Makeup hydrogen
26 HCGO Typical Process Conditions: is added to this stream as necessary. The liquid from the
separator is sent to a stripper. In the stripper, hydrogen
— Fluid: HCGO sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and light ends are sent
— P1 = 1.4 – 20 barg (20 – 290 psig) overhead as vapors. Naphtha is produced as the overhead
liquid product. Desulfurized distillate is the treated stripper
— P2 = 1 – 15 barg (15 - 220 psig)
bottom, treated naphtha is sent downstream to catalytic
— T = 150 - 425°C (300 - 795°F) reformer, cat cracker, and hydrocracker units.
There are several types of hydrotreating units including:
26 HCGO Typical Control Valve Selection: jet fuel hydrotreating, distillate hydrotreating, gasoline
hydrotreating, pyrolysis gas hydrotreating, cat feed and
— NPS 3 to NPS 6 V500 or NPS 2 to NPS 3 easy-e ES or ET reformer feed hydrotreating, and residual hydrotreating.
— Materials of Construction: C12 or WC9 or WCC body Depending on the type of crude being processed, the desired
with 300-series SST or solid Alloy 6 trim. products, and the size of the plant, a single refinery may have
— Class IV shutoff one or more of these types of hydrotreaters.
27. Decoking Valve Hydrotreater Application Overview

This valve controls the flow from the decoking jet pump,
which provides high pressure water for the final process 1. Unit Feed Valve
of coke cutting. There are three functions that this valve The unit feed valve is a challenging valve in this service, which
performs. The first function is bypass mode. When water can cause swings in the amount of conversion through the
is not needed at the coke drum it is directed back towards unit. If the swings are wide enough, this will actually limit
the suction tank. The second function is prefill mode. This unit throughput and lead to increased coke laydown on the
mode allows reduced flow and pressure water to fill up the catalyst, potentially shortening reactor life.
decoking equipment. The third and final function is the
cutting mode. This mode will provide the jet pump full flow Feed valves usually are set up as flow-control loops. They are
to the coke drum for coke cutting. configured to fail open so that a valve failure will protect the
furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses or has
Contact your local sales representative for a potential Fisher insufficient flow, the tube can quickly become so hot that
solution. the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences,
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be
4-28

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.7.1. Hydrotreater Locations
destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the SST or 300-series SST trim
firebox of the furnace. — ENVIRO-SEAL packing
Unit feed valves can lead to difficulties with controlling — May require NACE compliance
the outlet temperature of the furnace. Many process feeds — Class IV or V shutoff
slowly build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes.
Coking is a non-linear reaction, and in some processes even 2. Fuel Valve
coke build-up. If a flow valve provides inconsistent feed, the Depending on the furnace service and configuration this
temperature may swing and lead to excessive coke build- valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the
up. This shortens the furnace cycle time between decoking fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed
procedures, which normally require the process unit so that a control loop failure will not allow an excessive
downstream to shut down. amount of fuel to be dumped into a hot furnace. A fuel valve
failure will almost always shut down the processing unit
Feed valves can be bypassed when necessary. A combination
downstream. Although many fuel valves have bypass circuits,
of the measured flow and pass temperatures can be used to
refinery operations personnel are usually reluctant to run
regulate the bypass valve.
a furnace on bypass for any significant time due to safety
Typical Process Conditions: concerns.
— Fluid: Untreated feed from various upstream units The preferred control loop configuration for outlet
— P1 = 5.7 – 122 barg (85 – 1,775 psig) temperature is a cascade to the set point of the loop
controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such
— P2 = 2.8 - 87 barg (40 - 1265 psig) that the temperature control loop directly manipulates
— T = 38 - 425°C (100 - 800°F) the fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides
— Q = 2 – 265 m3/h (9 – 1165 gpm) inferior control performance to a cascade configuration as
it is extremely susceptible to valve deadband, such as that
Typical Control Valve Selection: caused by a sticking valve. This can be detected by excessive
— NPS 2 to NPS 3 HPT or HPS or NPS 2 to NPS 8 easy-e ET oscillation in the outlet temperature.
or EZ When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series loop or by a flow control loop, there will often be a pressure
4-29
COMPRESSOR
BYPASS VALVE
MAKE-UP
4 10 HYDROGEN
VALVE
MAKE-UP
HYDROGEN
UNIT
COMPRESSOR
FEED
1 VALVE RECYCLE GAS SUCTION VALVE 8
CHARGE COMPRESSOR
HEATER
FEED PURGE
RECYCLE
PURGE VALVE LIGHT
REACTOR ENDS
2
6
FUEL
VALVE
FUEL STRIPPER DEPRESSURIZED
GAS LIGHT-ENDS VALVE
VALVE
REACTOR
12
HYDROGEN
VALVE
RECEIVER
STRIPPER
STRIPPER
REFLUX 11 13 NAPHTHA VALVE
VALVE
COOLER
SOUR NAPHTHA
WATER
WASH
WATER SEPARATOR
3 STRIPPER
9
SEPARATOR
LET-DOWN
VALVE SOUR WATER
LET-DOWN VALVE
DESULFURIZED
GAS OIL
STRIPPER
BOTTOMS
E1159
VALVE
Figure 4.7.2. Hydrotreater Process Flow Diagram
control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also Typical Process Conditions:
fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure of
the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, operations — Fluid: Fuel gas
personnel will be more willing to run a fuel valve in bypass — P1 = 2.4 – 3.9 barg (35 - 55 psig)
as they still have a way to shut off the fuel quickly in an — P2 = 0.9 – 1.9 barg (15 - 25 psig)
emergency. — T = 38°C (100°F)
Since this valve is critical to unit operation, a FIELDVUE — Q = 0.498 – 1.38 MMscfd
DVC6200 instrument with PD tier diagnostics is
recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical to this Typical Control Valve Selection:
valve when it is supposed to fail close, it may be desirable — NPS 2 to NPS 3 easy-e EZ or ET
to include the position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE
DVC6200 instrument to provide position feedback to
SST trim(soft seated trim may be required for tight
the DCS, upon loss of power to the FIELDVUE DVC6200
shutoff)
instrument, assuring whether or not the valve actually
closed. — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
— May require NACE compliance if gas is sour
— Class IV or VI shutoff
4-30
3. Separator Let-Down Valve Flow Media Phases

The separator let-down valve controls the liquid level in Type: Cavitation
Upstream: Liquid
the high-pressure separator. Products from the reactor Downstream: Liquid
are cooled in a heat exchanger and led to a high pressure Description of Process: Like flashing, cavitation involves the thermodynamic
separator where ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are process of vaporization. Formation of bubbles occurs when the pressure at
removed. After leaving the reactor, excess hydrogen is the vena contracta falls below the vapor pressure. As pressure recovers, the
downstream pressure becomes greater than the liquid’s vapor pressure. This
separated from the treated product and recycled through the
causes the newly formed cavities to collapse and implode, creating cavitation
reactor after removal of hydrogen sulfide. The liquid product with noise and possible damage. As long of the pressure downstream stays
is passed into the stripping tower, where steam removes above the vapor pressure of the liquid, all of the vapor bubbles will collapse and
dissolved hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide. After cooling, the the final product further downstream will be 100% liquid.
product is run to finished product storage. This application Type: Two-Phase (G/L)
involves high pressure drops where flowing particulate, Upstream: Liquid and Gas
outgassing, cavitation, and flashing can cause damaging Downstream: Liquid and Gas
Description of Process: This is a flowing media that contains at least two
process or system vibration. different components, where one component is in the liquid phase and the
Typical Process Conditions: other is in the compressible (gas) phase. Both of these phases are present when
entering and exiting the valve. Although this should be easy to identify, it is still
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon with entrained hydrogen a severe service that presents many problems.
— P1 = 31 - 76 barg (450 - 1100 psig) Outgassing and flashing behave in similar manners and in
— P2 = 14 - 62 barg (200 – 900 psig) many cases outgassing is thought to be flashing. This is
— T = 43 – 290 °C (110 - 555°F) because outgassing and flashing both have a fluid that enters
a valve as a liquid and exits the valve as a liquid and gas.
— Q = 50 – 415 m3/h (215 - 1815 gpm) These two processes can impose the same types of damage,
Typical Control Valve Selection: but this is where the similarities end. Shown below are the
major differences that separate outgassing from flashing.
— See the following section on outgassing application
valve sizing and selection Outgassing
Fluid contains at least two substances of completely
Outgassing
different makeup (i.e. crude oil and natural gas).
Outgassing is one of several severe service applications Undergoes a depressurization process that causes the
that are encountered in refining applications. In order to entrained gas to be released separate from the liquid.
identify a process that is outgassing, it is important to have
an understanding of the other severe service applications Outgassing can occur at any point in the system. It only
that experience the same problems or symptoms. The table takes a minimal drop in pressure for the gas to come out
below shows the physical phases of flow-media and how they of suspension. If outgassing occurs prior to the throat
are classified. It also gives a description of what is causing of the valve, damage to the valve and trim would occur.
these phenomena to occur. This would occur if an outgassing application were
misdiagnosed as a flashing application.
Flow Media Phases The standard application of the ISA/IEC sizing equations
Type: Outgassing do not accurately account for this situation.
Upstream: Liquid
Downstream: Liquid and Gas Flashing
Description of Process: Outgassing is a process that involves a flow media
consisting of at least two different constituents. One is a liquid and the other One homogenous substance that changes from a liquid
is a gas that is entrained in that liquid. The two components begin to separate state to a gas state (i.e. water to steam).
upon the slightest change in pressure. The best example of this would be a
bottle of soda. The bottle is pressurized and appears to be a homogeneous Undergoes a thermodynamic process and becomes two
liquid but when a reduction in pressure occurs, i.e. opening the bottle, the CO2 phase at the vena contracta.
gas begins to come out of the liquid solution. The final product downstream is
Flashing occurs when the pressure of the liquid drops to
two elements, one liquid soda and the other carbon dioxide gas.
its vapor pressure. It is easier to predict this compared to
Type: Flashing outgassing and is modeled by the ISA/IEC Liquid Sizing
Upstream: Liquid
Downstream: Liquid and Vapor
Equations.
Description of Process: When the pressure within a single component system
drops to the vapor pressure of the liquid, the liquid begins to absorb heat Identifying Outgassing Applications
and changes to a vapor phase. This process is time dependent because it is a
thermodynamic process. The latent heat of vaporization must be absorbed, The ability to identify an outgassing application is important
which is not an instantaneous process. because outgassing is handled very differently than any other
application. Listed below are some good indicators that
outgassing is occurring.
Note A: Vapor Pressure
If the vapor pressure (PV) listed on the specifications
sheet is similar to that of the inlet pressure (P1). The
assumption is that this practice will compensate for the
gas that is known to be present downstream of the valve
4-31
although the gas is not the same composition as the Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with High Outlet Gas
upstream liquid. This is an incorrect assumption. Volume Ratio and There is No Valve Trim Preference
Note B: Critical Pressure Pressure Class
Process Conditions
If the vapor pressure listed on the spec sheet is greater CL150-600 CL1500
than the critical pressure listed. From a thermodynamic Contact your Whisper Trim I Whisper Trim III
perspective, this is impossible. When considering a Emerson sales Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, Levels A1, B1, and C1
pressure/temperature diagram, the vaporization line office to obtain a and C1 461 Sweep-Flo valve
copy of the “Fisher Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage DST-G trim
depicts the vapor pressure for a given temperature. The Outgassing Process V500 reverse flow control valve
saturation pressure terminates at the vapor line, above Data Sheet” 461 Sweep-Flo valve
which the fluid becomes supercritical. Hence, if the DST-G trim
control valve data sheet has PV>PC, then the customer
may be unknowingly trying to model an outgassing 4. Compressor Suction Valve
application. The amount of hydrogen delivered to the hydrotreater often
Note C: Gas/Vapor Percentage limits the unit throughput. The hydrogen/oil ratio is a major
parameter for determining the treating conversion of the
There are times when the customer’s valve data sheet unit. If the ratio is too low, an excessive amount of coke can
will specify the percentage of gas/vapor for their process. build upon the catalyst, shortening reactor life. If the ratio is
If the application data sheet indicates that the inlet too high, throughput on the unit is wasted.
conditions are liquid and the outlet conditions are liquid
and gas. The hydrogen flow can be set manually or through a bypass
if necessary. If swings in the hydrogen are wide enough, this
Note D: Application Indicator will not only limit unit throughput, but also lead to increased
If any of the previous stated indicators are present, check coke laydown on the catalyst, potentially shortening reactor
to see if it is being used in a level controller application life.
by checking the tag on the spec sheet. The tag may have Typical Process Conditions:
an “LC,” “LCV,” or sometimes “LV” to represent that it is a
level control valve. — Fluid: Hydrogen
— P1/P2 = Dependent on process design
Valve Sizing and Selection — T = Dependent on process design
Outgassing two-phase flow in control valve applications — Q = Dependent on process design
requires a special sizing procedure. The potential existence
of both a compressible (gas or vapor) element and non- Typical Control Valve Selection:
compressible (liquid) element in the flowing media prior — Valve selection is dependent on process conditions,
to the throttling orifice cannot be accurately modeled however many times butterfly valves are selected for
using the standard ANSI/ISA S75.01, IEC 6053421 or other these applications
proprietary liquid control valve sizing equations. Therefore, in
order to successfully arrive at a reasonable CV that is neither 5. Compressor Bypass
undersized nor oversized, contact your Emerson Sales office
to learn more. The primary purpose of compressor bypass valves is to
protect the most critical and expensive pieces of equipment
Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with Low Outlet Gas in the plant, the compressors. During a surge event, the valve
Volume Ratio and Shows Little Potential to Cavitate must respond quickly and accurately in order to recycle the
Pressure Class discharge flow back to the suction side of the compressor.
Process Conditions Failure of the valve to react quickly can result in severe
CL150-600 CL1500 and above
damage to the impellers of the compressor.
Contact your Emerson Whisper Trim I Whisper Trim III
sales office to obtain Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, Levels A1, B1, and Typical Process Conditions:
a copy of the “Fisher and C1 C1
Outgassing Process Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage NotchFlo DST — Fluid: Treated gas
Data Sheet” V500 reverse flow control valve DST trim
NotchFlo DST — P1 = 50 – 65 barg (700 – 945 psig)
DST trim — P2 = 32 – 60 barg (465 – 885 psig)
— T = 100 - 101°C (213 - 215°F)
Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with High Outlet Gas
— Q = m3/h (4.9 MMscfd, 509000 scfh)
Volume Ratio Where a Multi-Stage Solution is requested
Pressure Class Typical Control Valve Selection:
Process Conditions
CL150 and above — NPS 3 easy-e ET
Contact your Emerson sales office to obtain a copy of
DST-G trim — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
the “Fisher Outgassing Process Data Sheet” SST or 316/Alloy 6 trim
— NACE may be required
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex packing
4-32
6. Reactor Hydrogen Valve pressure swings that could affect the conversion reaction and
catalyst coking rate.
This valve is used to control the reactor bed temperature. The
reactor bed temperatures are another major parameter in Typical Process Conditions:
determining the unit treating conversion. If the temperatures — Fluid: Hydrogen and light hydrocarbons
are allowed to get too high, then the reactor catalyst life will
be shortened, as excessive amounts of coking will occur. — P1 = 42 – 74 barg (610 - 1080 psig)
Therefore, it is important that this valve functions properly. — P2 = 23 – 25 barg (330 - 365 psig)
Typical Process Conditions: — T = 38 - 60°C (100 - 140°F)
— Q = 7 – 8.5 MMscfh
— Fluid: Recycle hydrogen
— P1 = barg (878 - 1286 psig)
— P2 = barg (790 - 1224 psig) — NPS 2 to NPS 3 easy-e ET or EZ
— T = °C (139 - 215°F) — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
— Q = 12275 Nm3/h (10 – 10.14 MMscfd 458333 scfh) SST or 300-series SST trim
— Noise attenuation trim may be required
— NPS 2 HPS or NPS 2 to NPS 3 easy-e ET or EZ — May require NACE compliance
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series — Class V shutoff
SST or 300-series SST trim
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex or PTFE packing 9. Stripper Bottoms Valve
— Class V or VI shutoff
The bottom product valve is typically used to control the
level in the bottom of the column. It normally has no effect
7. Sour Water Letdown Valve on column operation unless it causes the level to change
The liquid phase in a separator is split into recoverable quickly and dramatically.
products and sour water. Sour water is collected in a Typical Process Conditions:
separator boot, since it is denser than oil. Sour water is
directed to a sour water flash drum (not depicted) where H2S — Fluid: Treated product
and NH3 are removed. — P1 = 8.5 – 12 barg (125 - 175 psig)
The sour water letdown valve can be exposed to mild — P2 = 5.2 – 10 barg (75 - 150 psig)
outgassing and flashing. Due to the entrained H2S and NH3, — T = 38 - 100°C (100 - 215°F)
the water can be both erosive and corrosive – attacking — Q = 60 – 200 m3/h (255 – 865 gpm)
both the body and trim materials. This valve is usually a level
control valve, to maintain a level of interface between the Typical Control Valve Selection:
sour water and recoverable product in the separator.
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e ET
Typical Process Conditions: — Materials of Construction: WCC with 400-series SST
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon with entrained hydrogen trim
— P1 = 13 – 48 barg (185 - 690 psig) — ENVIRO-SEAL packing
— P2 = 1.7 – 7.9 barg (25 – 115 psig) — Class IV shutoff
— T = 38 - 60°C (100 - 140°F) 10. Makeup Hydrogen Valve
— Q = 1.4 – 7.8 m3/h (6 -34 gpm)
This valve, along with the recycle purge valve, is used to
Typical Control Valve Selection: control hydrogen purity. Makeup hydrogen is high purity,
— See outgassing discussion as previously discussed in usually above 90% hydrogen. This valve is usually not critical
this section to short-term operation because the unit can run totally on
recycle gas for short periods.
8. Recycle Purge Valve Typical Process Conditions:
This valve, along with the makeup valve, is used to control — Fluid: Hydrogen
hydrogen purity. As the hydrogen is recycled through the — P1 = 40 – 125 barg (575 - 1850 psig)
unit, it eventually becomes dirty with light hydrocarbons
such as methane and ethane. A continuous purge is taken — P2 = 23 – 88 barg (330 - 1280 psig)
from the recycle gas and is replaced with makeup hydrogen — T = 38 – 96 °C (100 - 205°F)
to prevent the recycle gas from becoming too heavy. — Q = 36800 – 566350 m3/hr (1.3 - 20 MMscfh)
Generally this valve is not critical to unit operation since it is
possible to run the unit on total recycle without makeup or
purge for short periods of time. A sticking valve could cause
4-33
Typical Control Valve Selection: Many strippers also use what is known as a “hot vapor
bypass” valve to control pressure. In this case, some of the
— NPS 2 HPS or NPS 1.5 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ hot overhead vapors are bypassed around the overhead
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series condenser heat exchanger. The amount of bypass will control
SST trim the pressure. This eliminates the constant venting of process
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex packing gas, which usually goes to a low-value refinery waste fuel gas
— Class IV or V shutoff system. Unfortunately, the pressure response on a hot vapor
bypass valve is normally very sluggish due to slow process
11. Stripper Reflux Valve response time. Like the vent gas valve, this valve is a concern
for fugitive emissions, and the packing is likely to be tight.
The reflux valve is typically either a flow or column A sticking valve will cause wide, slow oscillations in column
temperature-control loop. It is used to adjust the purity of pressure. The product purities will likewise swing widely and
the overhead product. The higher the reflux rate, the purer slowly. The response of refinery operations personnel will
the overhead product will become. However, raising the usually be to over-purify.
reflux rate also will require more reboil heat and if too high A majority of strippers with hot-vapor bypass valves will use it
can flood the tower. in combination with a vent gas valve. In these cases, a single
A poorly operating reflux valve will have the same effects as a pressure control loop will manipulate both valves. At lower
bad feed valve—product purities will oscillate and the column pressures, the hot vapor bypass valve is used. As the pressure
will be difficult to control. This valve is critical to maintaining rises, there will be a transition point where the hot vapor
vapor/liquid balance in the column, ultimately affecting the bypass valve closes fully and the vent gas valve starts to open.
efficiency of the column. At high pressures, the vent gas valve controls the pressure.
This configuration often leads to pressure control problems,
Typical Process Conditions: as the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves will have different
— Fluid: Unstabilized naphtha control characteristics. Also, it is unlikely that one valve will
close precisely at the same time the other valve opens. If
— P1 = 11 – 16 barg (155 - 240 psig) the column is constantly making a transition between using
— P2 = 3.9 – 12 barg (60 – 180 psig) the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves, the pressure will
— T = 45 - 60°C (115 - 135°F) normally oscillate. This is a tuning problem rather than a
— Q = 4.5 – 20 m3/h(20 – 90 gpm) valve problem, but it should be kept in mind for column
design or valve resizing.
This valve controls the back pressure to the stripper and
— NPS 1.5 to NPS 3 easy-e ET, EZ or NotchFlo DST is very important in controlling the stability of the tower.
— Anti-cavitation trim may be required depending on Many columns use tray temperature to control overhead
service conditions composition, thus stable pressure is required to ensure
temperature changes reflect composition changes not
pressure changes.
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex packing Typical Process Conditions:
— Class IV or V shutoff — Fluid: Stripper offgas
— P1 = 8.3 – 9.1 barg (120 - 130 psig)
12. Stripper Light-Ends Valve
— P2 = 6.9 – 7.2 barg (100- 105 psig)
Stripper light-ends valves are used to control the column — T = 45 - 60°C (115 - 135°F)
pressure. Higher column pressures yield higher product — Q = 1,180 – 4,825 m3/h (1.0 – 4.1 MMscfd)
operating procedure is to minimize the pressure to lower Typical Control Valve Selection:
energy costs while maintaining product specifications. There
— NPS 1.5 to NPS 4 easy-e ET
is a lower column pressure limit because lower pressures
reduce the amount of vapor/liquid traffic the stripper can — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
handle and can increase the likelihood of flooding. SST or 300-series SST trim
vent gas from the system. Sizing of this valve is critical. If — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
the valve is too large, a small valve movement will cause a — Class IV shutoff
large pressure swing. If the valve is too small, the pressure
response will be very sluggish. It is likely that a valve that is 13. Stripper Naphtha Valve
too small will operate from completely closed to completely
open. In either scenario, an oscillating column pressure and This valve is typically used to control the level in the overhead
difficult column control are the result. A sticking pressure receiver. It normally has no effect on column operation unless
control valve will present the same problem. A sticking valve it causes the level to change quickly and dramatically. The
is a common concern on vent gas valves because the valve naphtha product is fed to downstream units.
packing will normally be tight to prevent fugitive emissions.
4-34
Typical Process Conditions: various process conditions need to be considered in control

valve and all process equipment selection.
— Fluid: Treated naphtha
— P1 = 10 – 15 barg (150 - 225 psig) Control Valves
— P2 = 8.8 – 14 barg (125 - 200 psig)
— T = 40 – 105 °C (105 - 220°F) 1. Feed Valve
— Q = 4 – 290 m3/h (18 – 1290 gpm)
The unit feed valve is a challenging valve in this service, which
Typical Control Valve Selection: can cause swings in the amount of conversion through the
unit. If the swings are wide enough, this will actually limit
— NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or EZ
unit throughput and lead to increased coke laydown on the
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series catalyst, potentially shortening reactor life.
Feed valves usually are set up as flow-control loops. They are
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex or PTFE packing
configured to fail open so that a valve failure will protect the
— Class IV shutoff furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses or has
4.8 Hydrocracker the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences,
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be
Other Names—Unicracker, H-Oil, LC-Fining, Hydrocracking destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the
Unit firebox of the furnace.
Hydrocracking breaks or “cracks” heavier hydrocarbons into Unit feed valves can lead to difficulties with controlling
gasoline, jet fuel, and diesel stocks. This is accomplished by the outlet temperature of the furnace. Many process feeds
using heat, catalyst and hydrogen under very high pressure. slowly build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes.
Coking is a non-linear reaction, and in some processes even
Hydrocracking is quite simply catalytic cracking in the a few extra degrees of temperature can lead to excessive
presence of hydrogen. In hydrocrackers, feed from the FCC, coke build-up. If a flow valve provides inconsistent feed, the
coker, and distillation columns are upgraded to middle temperature may swing and lead to excessive coke build-
distillates and gasoline blending components. Hydrocrackers up. This shortens the furnace cycle time between decoking
are capable of producing these products, without any procedures, which normally require the process unit
leftovers (coke, pitch, resid). However, not all refineries downstream to shut down.
have a hydrocracker since they require significant capital
investment due to the high pressure piping, vessels, valves, Feed valves can be bypassed when necessary. A combination
and instruments. of the measured flow and pass temperatures can be used to
regulate the bypass valve.
In the hydrocracker unit, incoming gas oil feed is heated
in a furnace to reaction temperature. It is combined with a Typical Process Conditions:
recycled hydrogen stream before flowing through the reactor
— Fluid: Heavy Gas Oil
with multiple catalyst beds. Additional recycled hydrogen is
added between each bed to control the cracking conversion. — P1 = 3.6 – 13 barg (50 - 190 psig)
The reactor effluent is sent to high-pressure, then low- — P2 = 3.0 – 12 barg (45 - 175 psig)
pressure separators. Extremely high pressures are required, — T = 80 - 325°C (180 - 620°F)
often over 170 barg (2500 psig), to crack benzene ringed
— Q = 75 - 315 m3/h (335 – 1,385 gpm)
compounds from the gas oils. The vapor from the separators
is recycled through a compressor back to the feed. Makeup Typical Control Valve Selection:
hydrogen is added to this stream as necessary. The liquid
from the low pressure separator is sent to a fractionator — NPS 4 to NPS 8 V300 or NPS 3 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or
where the reactor effluent is separated into component NPS 6 to NPS 10 easy-e EWD or EWT
product streams. — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
The unit depicted in Figure 4.8.1 is representative of a fixed
bed unit. Although fluidized beds are available, the fixed bed — NACE may be required
design represents around 75% of the world’s hydrocracking — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite or PTFE packing
units. — Class IV shutoff
Hydrocracker Application Review 2. Recycle Hydrogen Valve

Most hydrocrackers have the flexibility to produce a wide The amount of hydrogen delivered to the hydrocracker
range of final products. This allows the refinery to have often limits the unit throughput. The hydrogen/oil ratio
the flexibility to increase gasoline or diesel production in is an important parameter for determining the cracking
the summer months and distillates in the winter. Catalyst conversion of the unit. If the ratio is too low, an excessive
influences the ability to maximize one yield over another. amount of coke can build up on the catalyst, shortening
This also means that the process equipment in these units reactor life. If the ratio is too high, throughput on the unit is
needs to have flexibility – including the possibility of covering wasted.
a range of temperatures and material compatibility. These
4-35

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.8.1. Hydrocracker Location
The hydrogen flow can be set manually or through a bypass 3, 15. Fuel Valve
if necessary. If swings in the hydrogen parameters are wide
enough, this will not only limit unit throughput, but also Depending on the furnace service and configuration this
lead to increased coke laydown on the catalyst, potentially valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the
shortening reactor life. fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed
so that a control loop failure will not allow an excessive
Because this valve may be a manual or bypass valve, it is not amount of fuel to be dumped into a hot furnace. A fuel valve
called to move very often. Iron oxides can build up in the failure will almost always shut down the processing unit
presence of the light hydrocarbons. Regular maintenance is downstream. Although many fuel valves have bypass circuits,
important for this valve. Refinery operations personnel are usually reluctant to run
Typical Process Conditions: a furnace on bypass for any significant time due to safety
concerns.
— Fluid: Hydrogen and Light Hydrocarbons
The preferred control loop configuration for outlet
— P1 = 150 – 205 barg (2175 - 2975 psig) temperature is a cascade to the set point of the loop
— P2 = 145 - 200 barg (2105 - 2900 psig) controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such
— T = 65 - 110°C (150 - 230°F) that the temperature control loop directly manipulates
— Q = 6800 - 10,775 kg/h (15,000 - 23,755 lb/h) the fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides
inferior control performance to a cascade configuration as
Typical Control Valve Selection: it is extremely susceptible to valve deadband, such as that
— NPS 3 to NPS 10 HPT, easy-e EHT, HPAT, or EHAT
SST trim When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure of
— Class IV shutoff the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, operations
personnel will be more willing to run a fuel valve in bypass
as they still have a way to shut off the fuel quickly in an
emergency.
4-36
MAKE-UP 11
HYDROGEN
VALVE
MAKE-UP
HYDROGEN
COMPRESSOR
BYPASS VALVE
RECYCLE
PURGE VALVE
FRACTIONATOR
23 12
VENT GAS
VALVE
PURGE 20
RECYCLE COMPRESSOR GAS
HYDROGEN RECYCLE SUCTION
VALVE COMPRESSOR VALVE 22 VENT
GAS
2
REACTOR
FRACTIONATOR FRACTIONATOR
SOUR REFLUX VALVE LIGHT NAPHTHA VALVE
WATER
REACTOR
HYDROGEN COLD HIGH
VALVE PRESSURE LIGHT
SEPARATOR NAPHTHA
17 21
4 13 16
8
REACTOR 18
HYDROGEN HEAVY
VALVE NAPHTHA
SOUR WATER FRACTION- FRACTIONATOR
ATOR HEAVY NAPHTHA
5 SEPARATOR LET-DOWN
PUMP- VALVE
LETDOWN AROUND
OFF VALVE
GAS 19
COLD LOW DISTILLATE
PRESSURE
SEPARATOR FRACTIONATOR
14 SOUR DISTILLATE VALVE
WASH 10 WATER
WATER
FEED
VALVE CHARGE SOUR WATER
HOT HIGH LET-DOWN
HEATER SEPARATOR
PRESSURE
LETDOWN
SEPARATOR
FEED
1 FRACTIONATOR
6 HOT LOW HEATER
PRESSURE
SEPARATOR
3
FUEL SEPARATOR
GAS LETDOWN 9
FUEL VALVE
FUEL VALVE
7 SEPARATOR 15
LETDOWN FUEL
FRACTIONATOR GAS
E1160 BOTTOM VALVE
Figure 4.8.2. Hydrocracker Process Flow Diagram
Since this valve is critical to unit operation, FIELDVUE — NACE may be required if fuel gas is sour
DVC6200 with PD tier diagnostics is recommended. — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
Monitoring valve position is critical to this valve when it is
supposed to fail close, it may be desirable to include the
position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE DVC6200 to
provide position feedback to the DCS, upon loss of power to 4, 5. Reactor Hydrogen Quench Valve
the FIELDVUE DVC6200 instrument, assuring whether or not These valves are used to control the reactor bed
the valve actually closed. temperatures. These temperatures are another major
Typical Process Conditions: parameter in determining the unit cracking conversion. If the
temperatures are allowed to get too high, a runaway reaction
— Fluid: Fuel Gas may occur. Therefore, it is important that these valves
— P1 = 3.2 – 4.0 barg (45 – 60 psig) function properly.
— P2 = 0.14 – 2.4 barg (2 - 35 psig) These valves inject a cool hydrogen quench between the
— T = 38°C (100°F) reactor interbeds to maintain control of the exothermic
— Q = 1.0 – 6.5 MMscfd (1180 – 7670 m3/h) reaction. Tight temperature control is required to maximize
catalyst life.
An upset of this valve can shut the entire hydrocracker down.
— NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ or ET These valves are not required to move frequently, so they
— Materials of Construction: WCC with 400-series SST can be subject to sticking when iron oxides build up in the
trim process line and around the valve. A sticking valve will cause
the bed temperature oscillate. Depending on the severity of
4-37
the oscillations, this can lead to accelerated coking on the Typical Process Conditions:
affected bed.
— Fluid: Sour cracked hydrocarbon with entrained gas &
It is a good idea to oversize the actuator for this application particulate
to “push through” the potential build up. Historically, many — P1 = 126 - 166 barg (1,825 – 2,410 psig)
of these applications used a high pressure double ported
globe valve (HS) for this application. Some refiners have — P2 = 28 – 45 barg (405 - 650 psig)
successfully replaced their HS valve with a balanced trim — T = 51 – 54 °C (125 - 130°F)
design (HPD or EHD); however, due to the small cage holes, — Q = 192 - 195 m3/h (28,935 – 29,435 bpd)
build up can occur. One way to avoid the small hole cage
design, is to provide a special post guided high pressure valve CHPS Letdown Valve Typical Control Valve Selection:
design; however, this will require design assistance from your — See the following section on outgassing application
local Emerson sales office. valve sizing and selection
It is recommended that PD diagnostics be installed on this
application with alerts set up to notify operators of increased Outgassing
friction. In addition, the FIELDVUE digital valve controller can Outgassing is one of several severe service applications
be set up to “bump” travel every few days to keep the valve that are encountered in refining applications. In order to
from sticking when it is required to move significantly. identify a process that is outgassing, it is important to have
Typical Process Conditions: an understanding of the other severe service applications
that experience the same problems or symptoms. The table
— Fluid: Hydrogen and light hydrocarbons below shows the physical phases of flow-media and how they
— P1 = 140 - 200 barg (2030 - 2900 psig) are classified. It also gives a description of what is causing
— P2 = 135 - 175 barg (1960 - 2540 psig) these phenomena to occur.
— T = 85 - 100°C (185 - 210°F) Flow Media Phases
— Q = 10 – 65.9 MMscfd (11800 – 77755 m3/h) Type: Outgassing
Upstream: Liquid
Typical Control Valve Selection: Downstream: Liquid and Gas
— NPS 2 to NPS 4 HPT or HPD consisting of at least two different constituents. One is a liquid and the other
— Materials of Construction: WCC with 400-series or is a gas that is entrained in that liquid. The two components begin to separate
300-series SST trim upon the slightest change in pressure. The best example of this would be a
bottle of soda. The bottle is pressurized and appears to be a homogeneous
— NACE may be required liquid but when a reduction in pressure occurs, i.e. opening the bottle, the CO2
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing two elements, one liquid soda and the other carbon dioxide gas.
— Class IV shutoff Type: Flashing
Upstream: Liquid
6, 8. High-Pressure Separator Letdown Valve Downstream: Liquid and Vapor
This is one of the most severe control valve applications in a drops to the vapor pressure of the liquid, the liquid begins to absorb heat
refinery. and changes to a vapor phase. This process is time dependent because it is a
thermodynamic process. The latent heat of vaporization must be absorbed,
Hot High Pressure Separator (HHPS) Letdown Valve which is not an instantaneous process.
Typical Process Conditions: Type: Cavitation
Upstream: Liquid
— Fluid: Sour cracked hydrocarbon with entrained gas & Downstream: Liquid
particulate Description of Process: Like flashing, cavitation involves the thermodynamic
process of vaporization. Formation of bubbles occurs when the pressure at
— P1 = 129 - 169 barg (1865 - 2450 psig) the vena contracta falls below the vapor pressure. As pressure recovers, the
— P2 = 28 – 45 barg (405 - 680 psig) downstream pressure becomes greater than the liquid’s vapor pressure. This
causes the newly formed cavities to collapse and implode, creating cavitation
— T = 245 – 425 °C (470 - 800°F) with noise and possible damage. As long as the pressure downstream stays
— Q = 320 m3/h (48,225 bpd) above the vapor pressure of the liquid, all of the vapor bubbles will collapse and
the final product further downstream will be 100% liquid.
HHPS Letdown Valve Typical Control Valve Selection: Type: Two-Phase (G/L)
Upstream: Liquid and Gas
— See the following section on outgassing application Downstream: Liquid and Gas
valve sizing and selection Description of Process: This is a flowing media that contains at least two
different components, where one component is in the liquid phase and the
Cold High Pressure Separator (CHPS) Letdown Valve other is in the compressible (gas) phase. Both of these phases are present when
entering and exiting the valve. Although this should be easy to identify, it is still
a severe service that presents many problems..
Outgassing and flashing behave in similar manners and in

many cases outgassing is thought to be flashing. This is
because outgassing and flashing both have a fluid that enters
These two processes can impose the same types of damage,
4-38
but this is where the similarities end. Shown below are the Note D: Application Indicator
major differences that separate outgassing from flashing. If any of the previous stated indicators are present, check
to see if it is being used in a level controller application
Outgassing by checking the tag on the spec sheet. The tag may have
Fluid contains at least two substances of completely an “LC,” “LCV,” or sometimes “LV” to represent that it is a
different makeup (i.e. crude oil and natural gas). level control valve.
Undergoes a depressurization process that causes the
entrained gas to be released separate from the liquid. Valve Sizing and Selection
Outgassing can occur at any point in the system. It only Outgassing two-phase flow in control valve applications
takes a minimal drop in pressure for the gas to come out requires a special sizing procedure. The potential existence
of suspension. If outgassing occurs prior to the throat of both a compressible (gas or vapor) element and non-
of the valve, damage to the valve and trim would occur. compressible (liquid) element in the flowing media prior
This would occur if an outgassing application were to the throttling orifice cannot be accurately modeled
misdiagnosed as a flashing application. using the standard ANSI/ISA S75.01, IEC 6053421 or other
The standard application of the ISA/IEC sizing equations proprietary liquid control valve sizing equations. Therefore, in
do not accurately account for this situation. order to successfully arrive at a reasonable CV that is neither
undersized nor oversized, contact your Emerson sales office
Flashing to learn more.
One homogenous substance that changes from a liquid Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with Low Outlet Gas
state to a gas state (i.e. water to steam). Volume Ratio and Shows Little Potential to Cavitate
Undergoes a thermodynamic process and becomes two Pressure Class
Process Conditions
phase at the vena contracta. CL150-600 CL1500 and above
Flashing occurs when the pressure of the liquid drops to Contact your Emerson Whisper Trim I Whisper Trim III
its vapor pressure. It is easier to predict this compared to sales office to obtain Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, Levels A1, B1, and
outgassing and is modeled by the ISA/IEC Liquid Sizing a copy of the “Fisher and C1 C1
Outgassing Process Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage NotchFlo DST
Equations. Data Sheet” V500 reverse flow control valve DST trim
NotchFlo DST
Identifying Outgassing Applications DST trim
The ability to identify an outgassing application is important

because outgassing is handled very differently than any other Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with High Outlet Gas
application. Listed below are some good indicators that Volume Ratio Where a Multi-Stage Solution is requested
outgassing is occurring. Pressure Class
Process Conditions
Note A: Vapor Pressure CL150 and above
If the vapor pressure (PV) listed on the specifications DST-G trim
the “Fisher Outgassing Process Data Sheet”
gas that is known to be present downstream of the valve Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with High Outlet Gas
although the gas is not the same composition as the Volume Ratio and There is No Valve Trim Preference
upstream liquid. This is an incorrect assumption. Pressure Class
Process Conditions
CL150-600 CL1500
Note B: Critical Pressure
Contact your Whisper Trim I Whisper Trim III
If the vapor pressure listed on the spec sheet is greater Emerson sales Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, Levels A1, B1, and C1
than the critical pressure listed. From a thermodynamic office to obtain a and C1 461 Sweep-Flo valve
perspective, this is impossible. When considering a copy of the “Fisher Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage DST-G trim
pressure/temperature diagram, the vaporization line Outgassing Process V500 reverse flow control valve
Data Sheet” 461 Sweep-Flo valve
depicts the vapor pressure for a given temperature. The
DST-G trim
saturation pressure terminates at the vapor line, above
which the fluid becomes supercritical. Hence, if the
control valve data sheet has PV>PC, then the customer 7. Fractionator Bottom Valve
may be unknowingly trying to model an outgassing The bottom product becomes the vacuum distillation unit
application. charge.
Note C: Gas/Vapor Percentage This usually does not have any impact on the operation of the
There are times when the customer’s valve data sheet crude fractionator unless a failure causes the liquid level of
will specify the percentage of gas/vapor for their process. the bottoms to overfill or empty. Typically, level alarms on the
If the application data sheet indicates that the inlet unit allow the operator to catch this before it causes an upset.
conditions are liquid and the outlet conditions are liquid This valve could encounter higher viscosity materials, sludge,
and gas. and process media with entrained particles.
4-39
Typical Process Conditions: Typical Process Conditions:

— Fluid: Fractionator Bottoms — Fluid: Hydrogen
— P1 = 8.8 – 18 barg (125 - 260 psig) — P1 = 12 - 209 barg (175 - 3030 psig)
— P2 = 8.3 – 17 barg (120 – 250 psig) — P2 = 4 - 205 barg (60 – 2975 psig)
— T = 130 – 350 °C (270 - 665°F) — T = 38 - 49°C (100- 120°F)
— Q = 56 – 235 m3/h (8,420 – 35,500 bpd) — Q = 10 to 500 MMscfd (11800 – 589935 m3/h)
Typical Control Valve Selection: Typical Control Valve Selection:
— NPS 6 Vee-Ball or NPS 6 HPT — NPS 4 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or NPS 3 to NPS 6 HPT
— Materials of Construction: WCC or chrome-moly body — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
with 400-series SST or 300-series SST trim SST trim
— NACE may be required — Class IV or V shutoff
— ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite packing
— Class IV shutoff 12. Recycle Purge Valve
This valve, along with the makeup valve, is used to control
9., 10. Low Pressure Separator Valve hydrogen purity. As the hydrogen is recycled through the
unit, it eventually becomes dirty with light hydrocarbons
Using a low-pressure separator allows for additional removal
such as methane and ethane. A continuous purge is taken
of hydrogen and light hydrocarbons. The low-pressure
from the recycle gas and is replaced with makeup hydrogen
separator letdown valve controls the liquid level in the low–
to prevent the recycle gas from becoming too heavy.
pressure separator flowing to the fractionation tower. This
application involves moderate pressure drops where erosion, Generally this valve is not critical to unit operation since it is
flowing particulate, and cavitation or outgassing can cause possible to run the unit on total recycle without makeup or
severe valve damage if not properly selected. Normally, two purge for short periods of time. A sticking valve could cause
valves are used. Both will be piped with bypass valves and can pressure swings that could affect the conversion reaction and
be rapidly switched between to ensure continuous process catalyst coking rate.
operation in the event one of the valves requires repair.
Hot Low Pressure Separator (HLPS) Letdown Valve
Typical Process Conditions: — Fluid: Hydrogen and light hydrocarbons
— P1 = 50 – 125 barg (700 - 1807 psig)
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon with entrained gas & particulate
— P2 = 5 – 120 barg (100 - 1750 psig)
— P1 = 26 - 45 barg (375 – 655 psig)
— T = 60 - 64°C (140 - 147°F)
— P2 = 10 - 11 barg (145 - 160 psig)
— Q = 1 - 7 MMscfd (1180 – 8260 m3/h)
— T = 245 – 250 °C (475 - 485°F)
— Q = 304 – 463 m3/h (45,890 – 69,890 bpd) Typical Control Valve Selection:
HLPS Letdown Typical Control Valve Selection: — NPS 1 to NPS 2 HPS

— See outgassing discussion from high-pressure SST or 300-series SST trim
separator letdown valve section
— Micro-trim may be required to meet low flow rates
Cold Low Pressure Separator (CLPS) Letdown Valve — NACE may be required
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon with entrained gas & particulate — Class V shutoff
— P1 = 26 - 45 barg (375 – 655 psig)
— P2 = 10 - 11 barg (145 - 160 psig) 13., 14. Sour Water Letdown Valve
— T = 54 - 71°C (130 - 160°F) The liquid phase in a separator is split into recoverable
— Q = 304 – 463 m3/h (45,890 – 69,890 bpd) products and sour water. Sour water is collected in a
separator boot, since it is more dense than oil. Sour water is
CLPS Letdown Typical Control Valve Selection: directed to a sour water flash drum (not depicted) where H2S
— See outgassing discussion from high-pressure and NH3 are removed.
separator letdown valve section The sour water letdown valve can be exposed to mild
outgassing and flashing. Due to the entrained H2S and NH3,
11. Makeup Hydrogen Valve the water can be both erosive and corrosive – attacking
This valve, along with the recycle purge valve, is used to both the body and trim materials. This valve is usually a level
control hydrogen purity. Makeup hydrogen is high purity, control valve, to maintain a level of interface between the
usually above 90%. This valve is usually not critical to sour water and recoverable product in the separator.
operation because the unit can run completely on recycle gas
for short periods of time.
4-40
13 High Pressure Sour Water Letdown Typical Process 17. Fractionator Reflux Valve
Conditions:
The reflux valve is used to control the separation between
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon with entrained hydrogen the top product, usually naphtha, and the highest side-
— P1 = 125 - 165 barg (1815 - 2395 psig) draw product. The reflux valve can be either a flow or a
— P2 = 8.5 - 26 barg (125 - 380 psig) temperature controller.
— T = 50 - 55°C (125 - 130°F) A poorly performing or bypassed reflux valve will increase
— Q = 45 – 70 m3/h (200 - 305 gpm) the variability in the quality specifications of the overhead
product and the top side draw. A valve failure will most likely
13 High Pressure Sour Water Letdown Typical Control create an upset lasting from thirty minutes to a few hours,
Valve Selection: depending on the severity of the failure.
— See outgassing discussion from high-pressure Typical Process Conditions:
— Fluid: Depends on process design
14 Low Pressure Sour Water Letdown Typical Process — P1 = 6.8 – 18 barg (100 - 260 psig)
Conditions:
— P2 = 5.2 – 15 barg (75 - 220 psig)
— Fluid: Hydrocarbon with entrained hydrogen — T = 38 - 60°C (100 - 140°F)
— P1 = 7.9 – 45 barg (115 – 650 psig) — Q = 13 – 310 m3/h (1,960 – 46,800 bpd)
— P2 = 3.3 – 11 barg (50 – 160 psig)
— T = 55 - 57°C (130 - 135°F)
— Q = 1.3 – 70 m3/h (6 - 305 gpm) — NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or EZ
14 Low Pressure Sour Water Letdown Typical Control SST or 300-series/Alloy 6 trim
Valve Selection:
— See outgassing discussion from high-pressure — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
16. Fractionator Pump-Around Valve
18. Fractionator Heavy Naphtha Valve
A crude fractionator will always have at least one pump-
around heat exchanger loop for controlling the heat balance. The stripper bottoms valves are used to control the bottoms
Most fractionators will have more than one pump-around level in the strippers. These valves do not usually have any
loop. The pump-around loop is used to extract heat from the impact on the operation of the strippers unless a failure
column, creating the separation between the product draws causes the liquid level of the bottoms to overfill or empty.
immediately above and below the pump-around loop. The Usually, level alarms on the unit allow the operator to catch
pump-around valves are usually flow controllers. this before it causes an upset.
A poorly performing or bypassed pump-around valve will Typical Process Conditions:

increase the variability in the quality specifications of the — Fluid: Naphtha
product draws. A valve failure will most likely create an upset
— P1 = 4.6 – 18 barg (65 – 260 psig)
lasting from thirty minutes to a few hours, depending on the
severity of the failure. — P2 = 3.9 – 16 barg (55 - 230 psig)
— T = 38 - 190°C (100 - 375°F)
— Q = 17 – 240 m3/h (2568 – 36330 bpd)
— Fluid: Depends on process design
— P1 = 8.0 - 12 barg (115 - 175 psig)
— P2 = 5.6 – 9.8 barg (80 – 140 psig) — NPS 4 HPBV or NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or NPS 4 Vee-
Ball
— T = 175 – 225 °C (350 - 440°F)
— Q = 150 – 600 m3/h (22,650 – 90,575 bpd)
or 300-series SST trim
Typical Control Valve Selection: — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
— NPS 4 to NPS 8 High Performance Butterfly Valve with — Class IV shutoff
Control-Disk or NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or ED
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series 19. Fractionator Distillate Valve
SST or 300-series SST trim The stripper bottoms valves are used to control the bottoms
— ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite packing level in the strippers. These valves do not usually have any
— Class IV shutoff impact on the operation of the strippers unless a failure
caused the liquid level of the bottoms to overfill or empty.
Usually, level alarms on the unit allow the operator to catch
this before it causes an upset.
4-41
Typical Process Conditions: It is more likely that a poorly performing product valve could
cause stability problems to a downstream processing unit
— Fluid: Distillate (or other product depending on in configurations where there is no surge tank between the
process design) units.
— P1 = 3.7 – 13 barg (54 - 190 psig)
— P2 = 3.4 – 8.2 barg (49 - 119 psig)
— T = 38 – 285 °C (100 - 546°F) — Fluid: Light Naphtha
— Q = 40.4 – 492 m3/h (6100 – 74270 bpd) — P1 = 2.5 – 17 barg (35 – 245 psig)
— P2 = 1.8 – 16 barg (26 - 230 psig)
— T = 38 – 94 °C (100 - 200°F)
— NPS 1.5 to 6 easy-e EZ or ET or NPS 4 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball — Q = 20 – 180 m3/h (3020 – 27,170 bpd)
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 316/Alloy 6
trim Typical Control Valve Selection:
— NACE may be required — NPS 8 to NPS 16 easy-e ET/EUT or NPS 2 to NPS 12
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex or Graphite packing HPBV
— Class III or IV shutoff — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
SST trim
20. Fractionator Vent Gas Valve — Noise attenuation trim may be required
The overhead pressure control valve releases gases including
H2, H2S, methane, ethane, propane, and butane. This stream — Class IV shutoff
is normally very small (1 to 3 % of feed).
22. Compressor Suction Valve
The column pressure has a significant effect on fractionator
operation. A valve failure that allows the column to over or The amount of hydrogen delivered to the hydrocracker often
under pressure can cause an upset that might take hours limits the unit throughput. The hydrogen/oil ratio is a major
of recovery time. A problem valve can create pressure parameter for determining the conversion of the unit. If the
oscillations that prevent the fractionator from being ratio is too low, an excessive amount of coke can build upon
operated optimally. Valve sizing is critical for this service. If the catalyst, shortening reactor life. If the ratio is too high,
the valve is too large, the column pressure might be prone to throughput on the unit is wasted.
rapid swings. If the valve is too small and has a large response
The hydrogen flow can be set manually or through a bypass
time, it could cause long, slow swings.
if necessary. If swings in the hydrogen are wide enough, this
Typical Process Conditions: will not only limit unit throughput, but also lead to increased
coke laydown on the catalyst, potentially shortening reactor
— Fluid: Vent Gas life.
— P1 = 1.1 – 42.4 barg (16 - 615 psig)
— P2 = 0.25 – 40.3 barg (4 - 584 psig)
— T = 38 – 98 °C (100- 208°F) — Fluid: Hydrogen
— Q = 680 - 1005 kg/hr 1500 – 2212 lb/h — P1/P2 = Dependent on process design
— T = Dependent on process design
— NPS 1 to NPS 6 easy-e EZ or ET
or 300-series SST trim — Valve selection is dependent on process conditions,
— NACE may be required however many times butterfly valves are selected for
these applications
— Class IV shutoff 23. Compressor Bypass
21. Fractionator Light Naphtha Valve The primary purpose of compressor bypass valves is to
protect the most critical and expensive pieces of equipment
The overhead product valve is usually on level control from in the plant, the compressors. During a surge event, the valve
the overhead receiver. This valve does not usually have any must respond quickly and accurately in order to recycle the
impact on the operation of the crude fractionator unless discharge flow back to the suction side of the compressor.
a failure causes the liquid level in the overhead receiver to Failure of the valve to react quickly can result in severe
over fill or empty. In this case, the column pressure would be damage to the impellers of the compressor.
affected and the fractionator would experience an upset until
the pressure became stable again. Usually, level alarms on
the unit allow the operator to catch this before it becomes an
upset.
4-42

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.9.1. Catalytic Reformer Unit Location
Typical Process Conditions: The catalytic reforming process upgrades low-octane

naphtha feedstocks to high octane reformate for the gasoline
— Fluid: Treated Gas blending pool. Heated naphtha is reacted with hydrogen in
— P1/P2 = Dependent on process design the presence of a catalyst to reform the naphtha components
— T = Dependent on process design into a stream that is rich with high octane aromatic and
— Q = Dependent on process design branched hydrocarbons, usually using a platinum catalyst.
The incoming naphtha is pretreated in a hydrotreater to
Typical Control Valve Selection: protect the catalyst used in this process, which can be
poisoned by sulfur and nitrogen. The unit is also a net
— Valve selection is dependent on process conditions,
hydrogen producer, as the reactions strip hydrogen away
however many times a globe valve with noise
from saturated hydrocarbons to create the aromatics.
attenuation trim is selected
Prior to the evolution of catalytic reforming, lead was used
4.9 Catalytic Reformer Unit as an additive to increase octane in gasoline. After it was
discovered that lead created air pollution and became a
Other Names—Reformer, cat reformer, platformer, CCR monitored pollutant, catalytic reformers were developed.
(continuous catalytic reformer). Other less common licenses Cat reformers change long carbon chains into aromatics,
include: rheniforming, powerforming, magnaforming, which, like lead, also increase octane. However, a common
ultraforming, houdriforming, octanizing. aromatic produced by cat reformers is benzene. Benzene is
a known carcinogen, and now is also highly regulated. This
The catalytic reformer unit uses heat, catalyst and moderate means that today’s reformers have to be closely monitored
pressure to convert crude and coker naphtha into a either by controlling the feed into the reformer, or extracting
high octane blendstock called reformate. The process is benzenes from the reformate after the process is complete.
endothermic, requiring multiple reactors and heaters in
between each reactor to reheat the process. This process There are two general types of cat reformers: fixed bed and
rearranges paraffinic and cyclic hydrocarbon molecules into continuous. In a fixed bed reformer, there are reactors in
products that are higher in aromatic content. This unit is series with fixed catalyst beds. Originally, most units were
also a net hydrogen producer that is used elsewhere in the built with three reactors and separate heaters. However,
refinery. these three reactors need to run simultaneously to provide
the best conversion to reformate. Because the catalyst
becomes inactive over time, this 3-bed unit required annual
4-43
COMPRESSOR
BYPASS
VALVE
NET
RECYCLE
HYDROGEN
HYDROGEN RECYCLE VALVE
VALVE COMPRESSOR
NET
HYDROGEN
FEED VENT
VALVE GAS
CHARGE CHARGE
HEATER 1 HEATER 3
STABILIZER
FEED VENT GAS
VALVE
RECEIVER
STEAM
STABILIZER STABILIZER
REFLUX LIGHT ENDS
VALVE VALVE
FUEL FUEL
VALVE VALVE
LIGHT
ENDS
STABILIZER
REBOIL
REACTOR 1 REACTOR 3 VALVE
CHARGE CHARGE SEPARATOR

HEATER 2 HEATER 4 STABI-
VAPOR
LIZER
VALVE
FUEL FUEL
VALVE VALVE
REFORMATE
REACTOR 2 REACTOR 4 STABILIZER

FUEL REFORMATE
GAS VALVE
SEPARATOR
SEPARATOR
E1163 LIQUID VALVE
Figure 4.9.2. Fixed 4-Bed Catalytic Reformer Process Flow Diagram
maintenance to clean and regenerate the catalyst. Overtime, effluent is separated into vent gases, light end liquids, and
refiners realized that the fixed-bed reformer could be high octane reformate product streams. Makeup hydrogen is
upgraded to a 4-bed system. This allowed them to change used only to start up the unit.
out catalysts one reactor at a time, eliminating the lengthy
The second type of cat reformer is a continuous catalytic
annual shutdown.
reformer (CCR). It will be used as the basis for this text.
A fixed 4-bed cat reformer is depicted in Figure 4.9.2. However, you will notice many of the valve applications are
However, the valve applications identified will not be similar to the fixed bed version. The continuous catalytic
discussed in this text. reformer was developed in 1971 to improve efficiency,
extend run life, and reduce cat reformer maintenance. In
In a fixed 4-bed reformer, the incoming naphtha feed is this design, catalyst is constantly fed into the first stage of
heated in a furnace to reaction temperature. It is combined a stacked reactor, and flows down through three stages.
with a recycle hydrogen stream before flowing through the Simultaneously, treated naphtha feed is heated and enters
first of four reactors. This process repeats, and after the the first stage of the reactor, exits the first stage, and is
fourth reactor the effluent is sent to a separator. Vapor from reheated before moving on to the next stage. The spent
the separators is recycled through a compressor back to catalyst enters a separate regenerator where coke is removed
the feed, or it becomes export hydrogen. Liquid from the and catalyst is reconditioned through treatment with oxygen
separator is sent to a stabilizer. In the stabilizer, the reactor
4-44
COMPRESSOR
SUCTION
VALVE
COMPRESSOR
BYPASS STABILIZER
11 VENT GAS
VALVE
VALVE
RECYCLE OVERHEAD
HYDROGEN NET HYDROGEN RECEIVER
VALVE 5 VALVE
3 8 9 13
FEED
VALVE COMPRESSOR
FEED FROM
HYDROTREATER STABILIZER STABILIZER
REFLUX LIGHT ENDS
2
VALVE VALVE
HEAT EXCHANGER
REACTOR EFFLUENT
STEAM STEAM
REGENERATED CATALYST
7 10
REBOILER REBOILER
HEATER
REACTOR
EFFLUENT
VALVE
SEPA-
RATOR
1
STABILIZER
HEAT REFORMATE
EXCHANGER VALVE
SEPARATOR
STACK REACTOR
4 6 LIQUID
VALVE
REGENERATOR 12
FUEL
VALVE
FUEL
E1164 GAS
Figure 4.9.3. Continuous Catalytic Reformer Process Flow Diagram
and chlorides. This continuous regeneration of catalyst allows Typical Process Conditions:
up to six years between maintenance shutdowns. A diagram
of the CCR is depicted in Figure 4.9.3. Downstream of the — Fluid: Hydrocarbon and hydrogen
reactor, the fixed bed and continuous cat reformers are — P1 = 21 – 45 barg (305 - 650 psig)
nearly identical – in fact, some refiners have changed their — P2 = 12 – 14 barg (175 - 205 psig)
fixed bed reformer to a CCR and left most of the downstream — T = 38 - 46°C (100 - 115°F)
infrastructure intact.
— Q = 430 – 490 m3/h (1,805 – 2,150 gpm)
A continuous catalytic reformer can be split into two
sections: reformer and regenerator. Due to the tightly Typical Control Valve Selection:
licensed nature of the regenerator section in a CCR, this text — NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or EWT
will only discuss the reformer valve applications.
The majority of the valves used in this process unit are SST/Alloy 6 trim
general service valve styles, but they are still very critical — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
to the operation of the unit. Because the feed to this unit is
pretreated, NACE should not be required.
2. Feed Valve
1. Reactor Effluent Valve
A problem valve in this service can cause swings in the
This valve controls the product off of the final stage of the
amount of conversion through the unit. If the swings are
catalytic reactor unit. This valve is usually in a level loop.
wide enough, this will actually limit unit throughput and
lead to increased coke laydown on the catalyst, potentially
shortening reactor life.
Feed valves are usually set up as flow control loops. They are
configured to fail open so that a valve failure will protect the
4-45
furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses or has Typical Process Conditions:
the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences, — Fluid: Hydrogen
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be — P1 = 7.8 – 14 barg (115 - 205 psig)
destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the — P2 = 6.0 – 7.7 barg (85 – 110 psig)
firebox of the furnace. — T = 88 - 94°C (190 - 200°F)
Problem valves can lead to difficulties with controlling the — Q = 31150 – 232200 m3/h (1.1 – 8.2 MMscfh)
outlet temperature of the furnaces. Also, many process feeds
slowly build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes. Typical Control Valve Selection:
Coking is a non-linear reaction, and in some processes even — NPS 12 to NPS 30 Control-Disk
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300 series
coke build-up. If a flow valve provides inconsistent feed, the
SST soft seated trim
temperature will also swing and will usually lead to excessive
coke buildup. This will shorten the furnace cycle time — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
between decoking procedures, which will normally require — Class VI shutoff
the process unit downstream to shut down.
4. Fuel Valve
Feed valves can easily be bypassed when necessary. A
combination of the measured flow and any available pass Depending on the furnace service and configuration, this
temperatures can be used to regulate the bypass valve. valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the
fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed
Typical Process Conditions: so that a control loop failure will not allow an excessive
amount of fuel to be dumped into a hot furnace. A fuel valve
— Fluid: Treated naphtha
failure will almost always shut down the processing unit
— P1 = 11 – 13 barg (160 – 190 psig) downstream. Although many fuel valves have bypass circuits,
— P2 = 9.4 – 11 barg (135 – 160 psig) refinery operations personnel are usually reluctant to run
— T = 91 - 105°C (195 - 220°F) a furnace on bypass for any significant time due to safety
concerns.
— Q = 175 – 475 m3/h (765 – 2100 gpm)
The preferred control loop configuration for outlet
— NPS 3 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or NPS 3 to NPS 6 V500 controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series that the temperature control loop directly manipulates
SST or 300-series SST trim the fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing it is extremely susceptible to valve deadband, such as that
— Class IV shutoff caused by a sticking valve. This can be detected by excessive
3. Recycle Hydrogen Valve
When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
The amount of hydrogen delivered to the reformer helps loop or by a flow control loop, there will often be a pressure
to control conversion and catalyst degradation caused by control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also
coking. The hydrogen/oil ratio is a major parameter for fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure of
determining the catalyst life of the unit as well as maintaining the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, operations
on-spec product. If the ratio is too low, an excessive amount personnel will be more willing to run a fuel valve in bypass
of coke can build up on the catalyst, shortening reactor life. as they still have a way to shut off the fuel quickly in an
If the ratio is too high, throughput of the unit is wasted as emergency.
yields drop. Since this valve is critical to unit operation, a FIELDVUE
The hydrogen flow can be set manually or through a bypass DVC6200 instrument with PD tier diagnostics is
if necessary. If swings in the hydrogen are wide enough, this recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical to this
will not only limit unit throughput, but also lead to increased valve when it is supposed to fail close. it may be desirable
coke laydown on the catalyst, potentially shortening reactor to include the position transmitter option in the FIELDVUE
life. DVC6200 instrument to provide position feedback to
the DCS, upon loss of power to the FIELDVUE DVC6200
Precise control of this valve is essential in extending instrument, assuring whether or not the valve actually
catalyst and reactor life, therefore a FIELDVUE DVC6200 closed.
instrument with PD tier is recommended for this application.
Traditionally, a high performance butterfly valve has been This is one of the few applications in a reformer unit that may
used in this service, but due to the need for good control require NACE compatible trim, in the event that the refiner’s
in this application, a Control-Disk valve is an appropriate fuel gas is sour.
solution.
4-46
Typical Process Conditions: 6. Separator Liquid Valve

— Fluid: Fuel gas The separator liquid valve controls the separator level and
— P1 = 2.5 – 5.0 barg (35 – 75 psig) is also the feed valve of the stabilizer. It normally does not
— P2 = 0.2 – 2.6 barg (3 – 40 psig) affect the recovery of the recycle gas. A problem valve can
create stability problems for the stabilizer.
— T = 30 - 120°C (85 - 250°F)
— Q = 495 – 28200 m3/h (17,524 – 995,924 scfh) These valves are usually set up as flow or level control loops.
An upstream unit or process often controls the valve.
Unstable feed flow will make the stabilizer difficult to control.
— Lower Flow Rates: NPS 1 to NPS 3 easy-e EZ A problem valve will often cause the feed flow to oscillate.
— Higher Flow Rates: NPS 6 to NPS 10 easy-e ET or EWT As a result, the column will alternate between too little and
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series too much reboil heat. Depending upon the size and number
SST or 300-series SST trim of trays in the stabilizer, the effect of a swing in the feed will
take anywhere from several minutes to more than an hour
— Noise attenuation trim may be required to reach the ends of the column. Sometimes, the reboil and
— NACE may be required reflux controls will amplify the swings. The final result is that
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing meeting product purity targets will become more difficult.
— Class IV or V shutoff Refinery operations personnel will normally respond by over-
purifying the products, wasting energy to compensate for
the bad separator liquid control valve.
5. Compressor Bypass Valve
There may be one stage or multiple stages of compressors
in a reformer unit. In this example, we are considering a — Fluid: Complex hydrocarbons
single stage compressor. This recycle control valve is used to — P1 = 51 – 56 barg (740 – 815 psig)
protect the recycle hydrogen compressor from the effects — P2 = 6.1 – 48 barg (90 – 695 psig)
of surge that can occur during startup, shutdown, and
process upsets. The performance of this valve is crucial to the — T = 46 – 49°C (115 - 120°F)
operation and efficiency of the compressor. — Q = 210 – 455 m3/h (925 – 2,005 gpm)
These valves must operate quickly, accurately, and reliably Typical Control Valve Selection:
to protect the compressor and the process. Typically, the
— NPS 3 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or NotchFlo DST
combination of fast action and accuracy is missing in installed
anti-surge valves, which may also utilize an unreliable — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
instrumentation scheme. Noise attenuation trim can be both SST or 300-series SST trim
beneficial and detrimental to this installation. It is required to — Anti-cavitation or multi-stage trim may be required
address potential vibration during normal operation and to — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
prevent pipe fatigue issues caused by vibration. The solution
to this challenge is to use a Fisher Optimized Anti-Surge — Class IV of V shutoff
Valve. This assembly combines fast action, accuracy, and
reliability in one package. The valve trim is designed to meet 7., 10. Stabilizer Steam Valve
specific compressor design requirements, along with an The reboil valve controls the amount of heat put into the
actuation system designed for stroking speed and accurate column by the reboiler. In many cases steam is used as a heat
control. The ODV FIELDVUE instrument is designed with anti- source. Steam valves are usually very reliable. The service
surge specific tuning and control algorithms, as well as the is very clean, and fugitive emissions are not a concern.
capability to predict issues like sticking or friction, and other However, a problem valve will make the column difficult to
anti-surge specific diagnostics. control precisely. This will be especially true if the column
Typical Process Conditions: feed is subject to frequent changes.
— Fluid: Hydrogen and hydrocarbon Not all reboilers use steam as a heat source. To save
energy, many refineries integrate the units so that higher-
— P1 = 8.6 – 50 barg (125 - 725 psig)
temperature process streams are used to provide heat for
— P2 = 5.7 – 26 barg (80 – 380 psig) lower temperature processes. In these cases, the reboil valve
— T = 82 - 120°C (180 - 250°F) may foul more easily and might create fugitive emissions
— Q = 135700 – 351640 m3/h (115 – 298 MMscfd) concerns.
Typical Control Valve Selection: This valve is important because the reboiler drives the vapor
back up through the column. This affects column efficiency.
— NPS 6 to NPS 20 easy-e ET or EWT Reboiler steam will have a direct effect on overhead reflux
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series flow.
or 300-series SST trim
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
— Class IV or V shutoff
4-47
Typical Process Conditions: instrument is recommended for this application since it

directly affects product quality.
— Fluid: Steam
— P1 = 10 – 41 barg (145 - 595 psig) Typical Process Conditions:
— P2 = 8.8 – 41 barg (125 - 595 psig) — Fluid: Light hydrocarbons
— T = 185 - 400°C (365 - 750°F) — P1 = 13 – 26 barg (190 – 375 psig)
— Q = 24,750 – 74,890 kg/h (54,560 – 165,100 lb/h) — P2 = 9.3 barg (135 psig)
Typical Control Valve Selection: — T = 38 - 200°C (100 - 390°F)
— Q = 55 m3/h (8,330 bpd)
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e ED or ET or NPS 8 to NPS 12
HPBV Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series — NPS 2 to NPS 6 easy-e EZ or ET
SST or high temp 300-series SST trim, appropriate for
steam service
SST trim
— Graphite packing
8. Net Hydrogen Valve
11. Stabilizer Vent Gas Valve
This valve normally has no effect on reformer operation. If the
The pressure control valves are used to control the stabilizer
valve is sticking badly, it is possible for it to create pressure
pressure. Higher stabilizer pressures will yield better product
swings in the recycle hydrogen supplied to the reformer. If
it becomes stuck, it can eventually cause the reformer to
operating procedure is to minimize the pressure to lower
pressure up or down depending on the valve’s last position.
energy costs while maintaining product specifications. There
In many refineries, the reformer supplies enough hydrogen is a low limit because lower pressures reduce the amount
to operate most of the process units that are net hydrogen of vapor/liquid traffic the stabilizer can handle, which also
users. Due to the increased regulations for cleaner makes the stabilizer more likely to flood.
transportation fuels, refiners have had to add other hydrogen
The simplest way to control pressure is to continuously
processing units. An example is Pressure Swing Adsorption
vent gas from the system. Sizing of a vent valve is critical. If
(PSA), which supplements purified hydrogen feeds for other
the valve is too large, a small valve movement will cause a
units in the refinery. PSA is a unit that takes hydrogen rich
large pressure swing. If the valve is too small, the pressure
product streams and removes the impurities to extract ultra-
response will be very sluggish. It is likely that a valve that is
pure hydrogen. This will be discussed in depth in section
too small will operate from completely closed to completely
4.14, Pressure Swing Adsorption.
open. Additionally, a sticking valve is a common concern on
Typical Process Conditions: vent gas valves because the valve packing will normally be
tight to prevent fugitive emissions.
— Fluid: Hydrogen and light hydrocarbons
— P1 = 44 – 45 barg (635 - 655 psig) Many stabilizers also use what is known as a “hot vapor
bypass” valve to control pressure. In this case, some of the
— P2 = 43 barg (625 psig) hot overhead vapors are bypassed around the overhead
— T = 38 - 43°C (100 - 110°F) condenser heat exchanger. The amount of bypass will control
— Q = 106200 – 177000 m3/h (90 - 150 MMscfd) the pressure. This eliminates the constant venting of process
gas, which usually goes to a low-value refinery waste fuel gas
Typical Control Valve Selection: system. Unfortunately, the pressure response on a hot vapor
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e ET bypass valve is normally very sluggish due to slow process
response time. Like the vent gas valve, this valve is a concern
for fugitive emissions, and the packing is likely to be tight.
A sticking valve will cause wide, slow oscillations in column
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing pressure. The product purities will likewise swing widely and
— Class IV shutoff slowly. The response of refinery operations personnel will
usually be to over-purify.
9. Stabilizer Reflux Valve A majority of stabilizers with a hot vapor bypass valve will
The reflux valve is typically either a flow or column use it with a vent gas valve. In these cases, a single pressure
temperature-control loop. It is used to adjust the purity of control loop will manipulate both valves. At lower pressures,
the overhead product. The higher the reflux rate, the more the hot vapor bypass valve is used. As the pressure rises,
pure the overhead product will become. However, raising there will be a transition point where the hot vapor bypass
the reflux rate also will require more reboil heat and will valve closes fully and the vent gas valve starts to open. At
eventually flood the tower. high pressures, the vent gas valve controls the pressure. This
configuration often leads to pressure control problems, as
A poorly operating reflux valve will have the same effects as a the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves will have different
bad feed valve. Product purities will oscillate, and the column control characteristics. Also, it is unlikely that one valve
will be difficult to control. A PD tier FIELDVUE DVC6200
4-48
will close precisely at the same time the other valve opens. Typical Process Conditions:
If the stabilizer is constantly making a transition between
using the hot vapor bypass and vent gas valves, the pressure — Fluid: Light hydrocarbons
will normally oscillate. This is a tuning problem rather than — P1 = 6.8 – 9.0 barg (100 - 130 psig)
a valve problem, but it should be kept in mind for column — P2 = 1.8 barg (26 psig)
design or valve resizing. — T = 74 - 120°C (165 - 245°F)
Typical Process Conditions: — Q = 27140 m3/h (23 MMscfd)
— Fluid: Vent Gas Typical Control Valve Selection:
— P1 = 9.3 – 9.7 barg (135 - 140 psig) — NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e EWT
— P2 = 8.1 – 8.8 barg (115 - 125 psig) — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
— T = 38°C (100°F) SST trim
— Q = 7445 – 12507 m3/h (262,917 - 441,667 scfh) — Noise attenuation trim may be required
Typical Control Valve Selection: — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
— Class V Shutoff
— NPS 4 to NPS 6 Vee-Ball or NPS 3 to NPS 6 easy-e ET
SST or 300-series SST soft seated trim 4.10 Fluidized Catalytic
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing Cracking
— Class IV or VI shutoff
Other Names—FCC, cat cracker, fluid unit
12. Stabilizer Reformate Valve Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is a process with the
objective of cracking heavy oil into gasoline and distillate
This valve will have no effect on the stabilizer operation and to increase the yield of light (C3/C4) olefins. The unit
unless it causes level problems. There is no consequence continuously circulates a fluidized catalyst that allows rapid
for any downstream unit because the reformate is sent to a cracking reactions to occur. These reactions are typically
component blend tank in the gasoline blender unit. This valve carried out in an up-flowing reactor/riser where the liquid
can be run in manual or bypass without significant problems. oil stream contacts the hot catalyst. The oil vaporizes and
The bottom product valve is typically used to control the is cracked as it moves with the catalyst up the riser/reactor.
level in the bottom of the column. It normally has no effect The reactions occur in a matter of seconds and the product
on column operation unless it causes the level to change is a mixture of light hydrocarbons that are separated into the
quickly and dramatically. desirable products.
Typical Process Conditions: The first FCC unit came into operation in 1942 and went
through a series of advancements that improved the reaction
— Fluid: Reformate time and product selectivity and yield. These advancements
— P1 = 8 – 8.3 barg (117 - 120 psig) helped develop the side-by-side FCC design noted in Figure
— P2 = 4.1 barg (60 psig) 4.10.1. These include the converter section on the left, the
fractionation section in the middle, and vapor recovery
— T = 38 – 60 °C (100 - 140°F)
unit on the right. The side-by-side configuration consists
— Q = 2092 gpm 71712 bpd of a reactor vessel situated slightly above and next to the
Typical Control Valve Selection: catalyst regeneration section. This breakthrough, combined
with advancements in catalyst technology, has dramatically
— NPS 8 to NPS 10 easy-e EWT improved yield and reaction selectivity.
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series There are several major licensors of the FCC process. While
SST or 300-series SST trim there are differences in each process design, most of the
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing terminology and applications are the same.
— Class IV Shutoff The production capacity of FCC units can range from 10,000
b/d to nearly 200,000 b/d. Depending upon the design,
13. Stabilizer Light-Ends Valve an FCC can convert atmospheric gas oils, vacuum gas oils,
The overhead product valve is typically used to control the coker gas oils, hydrocracker bottoms, and lube extracts
level in the overhead receiver. It normally has no effect on into distillates and other products. These products include
column operation unless it causes the level to change quickly fuel gas, C3/C4 LPG and olefins, gasoline, light cycle oil,
and dramatically. heavy cycle oil, and slurry oil. While gasoline is the most
commonly produced product, an FCC can be operated to
maximize production of gasoline, olefins, or light cycle oil by
adjustment of operating parameters. Each mode of operation
is discussed in the subsequent text.
4-49

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.10.1. Alkylation Unit Location
Maximum Gasoline Mode products become hydrogen deficient. The higher severity
operation also overcracks a fair amount of gasoline to C3/C4
This is the most common mode of FCC operation and is
products.
aimed at maximizing gasoline production of a specific octane
number. This mode of operation consists of an intermediate It should be noted that there is a related FCC process called
cracking temperature of 510°C - 540°C (950°F - 1005°F) Residual Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (RFCC). This type of unit
combined with a high catalyst/oil ratio and high catalyst can process varying atmospheric and vacuum based residues
activity and selectivity. The reaction time is short as well, but along with varying degrees of gas-oils. While the feedstocks
must rely on high conversion in the riser section. may vary, the process and end products are similar.
Maximum Distillate Mode As can be expected, North America makes up nearly 50% of
the world’s FCC capacity with the rest of the capacity heavily
If the goal is to maximize production of light to middle centered in Western Europe and Asia. However, that trend is
distillates, the operation of the FCC changes when compared likely to shift over time due to the lack of gasoline demand in
to maximum gasoline mode. The cracking severity is reduced Europe and the increased chemical feedstock demand in the
reaction at less than 510°C (950°F) along with a reduction Middle East and Asia. The trends indicate that there will be
in the catalyst/oil ratio. This, in turn, reduces the first pass additional FCC capacity added globally, but it will be used for
conversion in the riser, which restricts recracking of light more than just gasoline production.
cycle oil. Because a substantial portion of the feedstock
remains unconverted, recycle of heavy cycle oil from the FCC Process Overview
fractionator is required.
The FCC process converts higher molecular weight
Maximum Light Olefin Mode hydrocarbons to lighter, more usable products through
contact with a powdered catalyst. The historic purpose of
When high propylene (C3) and butylene (C4) yields and
this process has been to produce gasoline, distillate, and
improved gasoline octane levels are desired, the cracking
C3/C4 olefins from low-value gas oils and heavy product
temperature is raised above 540°C (1005°F). This case is
streams.
sometimes referred to as maximum LPG mode.
The reaction process is accomplished by using a fluidized
No matter the operation mode, as the severity (temperature)
catalyst that allows rapid cracking to occur in a vapor phase.
increases, the production of coke and light ends increases.
This is commonly carried out in an upflowing vertical reactor
Along with this, gasoline octane levels increase and the liquid
4-50
TO
FRACTIONATOR
6
FLUE
GAS
STEAM TO
DISTRIBUTORS
REACTOR
REGEN
VENT TO
ATMOSPHERE 7
5
STEAM TO
REACTOR
4 INLET
AIR
AIR
PUMP 2
FUEL
RECIRCULATION
GAS
CHARGE
FEED HEATER
FEED
E1205-1
Figure 4.10.2. FCC Converter Section Process Flow Diagram
in which a liquid oil stream contacts the hot powdered Converter Section
catalyst. At this point, the oil vaporizes and cracks to lighter
products as it moves up the reactor and carries the catalyst In the reactor, the main conversion of the heavier feedstock
along with the stream. This process takes only a few seconds. to lighter components occurs. The feedstock flows to the
Coke will deposit on the catalyst making it less active. After reactor riser where it is contacted with hot catalyst. This
the reaction, the catalyst and product vapors are separated cracks the feedstock into a number of different components.
in a disengaging vessel. Here, the catalyst is regenerated for The product vapors flow from the reactor to the main
additional use via burning the coke off the catalyst. fractionator for further separation.
The vapors that are separated from the catalyst are then The spent catalyst flows via the stripper to begin the
quenched and subjected to further fractionation to separate regeneration process. In the stripper, the hydrocarbon
the lighter and heavier components. The lighter components vapors from within and around the catalyst are displaced by
are then further separated to produce varying cuts of steam. The catalyst is moved by steam to the spent catalyst
gasoline, distillate, and olefins. distributor and then into the regeneration section.
In the regenerator, coke is burned off the catalyst with hot
FCC Application Review air in a fluidized bed. The catalyst is introduced into the bed
Depending upon the capacity of the unit and the type of end by the spent catalyst distributor with hot air introduced at
products being produced, the number of control valves in a the bottom. The generated flue gas exits from the top of the
FCC unit will vary between 175 up to 250 units. The majority regenerator where it is typically subjected to further sulfur
of the valves will be Class 600 and less. There will be a great recovery and other cleaning prior to release.
deal of variability in the selection between globe and rotary Figure 4.10.2 shows the common layout of the converter
valves due to the erosive nature of the fluids in a number of section of the FCC and the commonly associated control
applications. valves.
In the subsequent text, a summary of each of the key areas
of the FCC and the critical control valves in these key areas 1. Charge Oil Flow Control Valve
is discussed. These selections are based upon what can be This valve controls the flow of feedstock into the charge
typically expected, there may be some variations due to heater and then to the reactor. Proper flow control is
rotary versus globe valve selection criteria. important for maintaining outlet temperature from the
charge heater, which, as a result, can affect the reaction
performance. Poor control can result in excessive buildup on
the tubes in the charge heater, thus reducing its efficiency. A
medium sized ball valve is generally used in this application.
4-51
Typical Process Conditions: 4. Inlet Air to Regenerator Control Valve

— Fluid: Charge oil This valve controls the flow of air to the regenerator to burn
— P1 = 18 – 24 barg (260 – 350 psig) the coke off the catalyst. Poor performance can lead to
— P2 = 6 – 15 barg (85 – 220 psig) pressure swings, which, as a result, can affect the pressure
balance between the reactor and regenerator. This can
— T = 70°C – 80°C (160°F – 175°F) potentially result in reactor products flowing into the
— Q = 150 – 1500 m3/hr (660 – 6600 gpm) regenerator, which can cause catalyst flow reversal. This
Typical Control Valve Selection: can potentially lead to mechanical damage to the vessel or
internal components. A large butterfly valve is commonly
— NPS 6 to NPS 14 Vee-Ball V500, CV500, easy-e ET, or used in this application.
EWT
— Class IV shutoff — Fluid: Air
— P1 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig)
2. Charge Pump Spillback Control Valve — P2 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig)
This recirculation valve is used to prevent cavitation in the — T = 150°C – 220°C (300°F – 430°F)
charge pump. The pressure drop can be high enough to — Q = 300,000 – 600,000 Nm3/hr (10.5 – 21 MMscfh)
warrant the use of anti-cavitation trims, but some facilities Typical Control Valve Selection:
utilize a rotary valve with hardened trim to resist the
cavitation damage. A rotary or globe valve with hardened — NPS 36 to NPS 48 A11
trim or a globe valve with anti-cavitation trim are commonly — WCC body and trim
used solutions in this application.
5. Inlet Air Vent to Atmosphere Control Valve
— Fluid: Charge oil
— P1 = 18 – 24 barg (260 – 350 psig) This valve, potentially referred to as the “snort valve,” is
— P2 = 1.5 – 2 barg (20 – 30 psig) utilized to protect the inlet air compressor from surge during
startup, shutdown, and normal operation. A number of
— T = 70°C – 80°C (160°F – 175°F) configurations can be used in this application ranging from
— Q = 75 – 225 m3/hr (330 – 1000 gpm) globe, angle, and rotary valves. Globe and angle valves are
Typical Control Valve Selection: most commonly used, but a butterfly valve or V260A rotary
control valve may be used in isolated situations. In the event
— NPS 3 or NPS 4 V500, easy-e ET, or NotchFlo DST of a process upset, this valve must provide fast, accurate
— WCC Body and 316/Alloy 6 trim control to maintain the pressure balance between the reactor
and regenerator.
— Anti-cavitation trim may be required
— Class V shutoff Typical Process Conditions:
— Fluid: Air
3. Charge Oil Heater Fuel Gas Control Valve
— P1 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig)
This valve controls the flow of fuel to the furnace to heat — P2 = 1 barg (1 psig)
the charge oil before injection into the reactor. Proper flow — T = 30°C – 40°C (85°F – 105°F)
control is important for maintaining discharge temperature
of the charge oil. A small globe or ball valve is generally used — Q = 80 – 220 m3/hr (2,800 – 7,800 scfh)
in this application. It should be noted that not all units will Typical Control Valve Selection:
utilize a separate charge heater.
— NPS 16 to NPS 24 easy-e EW or FB
— WCC body and trim
— Fluid: Fuel gas — Noise attenuation trim may be required
— P1 = 3 – 13 barg (45 – 190 psig) — Class V shutoff
— P2 = 3 – 7 barg (45 – 100 psig)
— T = 30°C – 40°C (85°F – 105°F) 6. Stripping Steam to Distributors Control Valve
— Q = 250 – 300 m3/hr (1100 – 1320 gpm) There will typically be separate valves that control steam flow
Typical Control Valve Selection: to the upper, middle, and lower distributors. These valves
control the flow of stripping steam to the reactor to remove
— NPS 2 easy-e EZ or V300 the hydrocarbons from the catalyst prior to regeneration. A
— WCC body and trim small to medium sized globe valve will be used in all three
cases.
4-52
TO VAPOR
RECOVERY
TO VAPOR
RECOVERY
FRACTIONATOR
9 LCO
LCO STRIPPER
FROM
HCO
REACTOR 7 6
4
11
10
1
5
TO STEAM
REACTOR
TO STORAGE
E1206
Figure 4.10.3. FCC Fractionation Section
Typical Process Conditions: Main Fractionation System

— Fluid: Steam The main fractionation system condenses superheated
— P1 = 5 – 7 barg (75 – 100 psig) reaction products from the FCC reactor to separate liquid
— P2 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig) hydrocarbons. The unit also serves to recover the waste heat
— T = 200°C – 220°C (390°F – 430°F) from the reactor products.
— W = 700 – 5000 kg/hr (1545 – 11000 lb/hr) The overhead wet gas is compressed and sent to the vapor
recovery unit. Some of the raw gasoline is pumped to the
Typical Control Valve Selection: primary absorber and serves as lean oil. Heavy naphtha from
— NPS 1.5 to NPS 6 easy-e ET the upper portion of the column can be used as absorber oil
in the secondary absorber in the vapor recovery unit. The
light cycle oil from the middle sections of the column can be
— Noise attenuation trim may be required removed for further use and the heavier bottom components
— Class IV or V shutoff are recycled to the reactor.
The heat recovered from the condensing vapors at the top
7. Steam to Reactor Flow Control Valve of the column is used to preheat fresh feed into the reactor
This valve controls the flow of steam to the upper portion while also providing heat for the stripper and debutanizer
of the reactor. A small globe valve is typically used in this reboilers in the vapor recovery unit.
application. Figure 4.10.3 shows the layout of the fractionation section
Typical Process Conditions: and the commonly associated control valves.
— Fluid: Steam 1. Fractionator Bottoms to Reactor Control Valve

— P1 = 6 – 9 barg (85 – 130 psig)
This valve recycles some of the bottoms slurry back to the
— P2 = 2 – 4 barg (30 – 60 psig) reactor for further processing. While used for level control in
— T = 200°C – 220°C (390°F – 430°F) the fractionator, it possesses the potential to create a great
— W = 2000 – 36,000 kg/hr (4,400 – 79,400 lb/hr) deal of erosion in the control valve due to entrained catalyst.
A Fisher V500 valve is installed in many applications, but a
Typical Control Valve Selection: Fisher 461 control valve is the most rugged solution.
— NPS 4 to NPS 6 NPS easy-e ET
4-53
Typical Process Conditions: 4. Lean Cycle Oil Pump Spillback Control Valve
— Fluid: Slurry with entrained catalyst This valve controls recycle flow around the lean cycle oil
— P1 = 5 – 8 barg (75 – 115 psig) stripper bottoms pump to prevent the pump from cavitation
— P2 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig) damage. As a result, a valve that can eliminate the formation
of cavitation to prevent damage to the valve is necessary.
— T = 280°C – 360°C (535°F – 680°F) A globe valve with anti-cavitation trim is commonly used
— Q = 30 – 115 m3/hr (130 – 500 gpm) in this application. Sludge and other heavier components
Typical Control Valve Selection: may be present, thus, a NotchFlo DST solution would be the
appropriate selection.
— NPS 2 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball, V500, or 461
— C5 or 316SST body and Alloy 6 trim
— Class IV or V shutoff — Fluid: Lean cycle oil
— P1 = 20 – 22 barg (290 – 320 psig)
2. Main Column Reflux Control Valve — P2 = 2 – 3 barg (30 – 45 psig)
This valve controls the liquid reflux flow from the overhead — T = 200°C – 220°C (390°F – 430°F)
vapor back to the main column. Poor performance of this — Q = 40 – 175 m3/hr (175 – 770 gpm)
valve can impact the quality of the overhead product, thus Typical Control Valve Selection:
accurate control is required. Depending upon the inlet
pressure, cavitation protection may be required. A globe or — NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or NotchFlo DST
rotary valve is generally used in this application. — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
Typical Process Conditions: — Anti-cavitation trim may be required
— Fluid: Distillate — Class V shutoff
— P1 = 6 – 9 barg (85 – 130 psig)
5. Lean Cycle Oil to Storage Control Valve
— P2 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig)
— T = 40°C – 60°C (105°F – 140°F) This valve controls the flow of lean cycle oil to storage or to
its intended downstream location. The flow stream can be
— Q = 80 – 380 m3/hr (350 – 1700 gpm) somewhat viscous so a ball valve is commonly used, but a
Typical Control Valve Selection: globe valve is an acceptable choice as well.
— NPS 4 to NPS 8 V500, easy-e ET, or NotchFlo DST Typical Process Conditions:
— WCC or 316SST body and 316/Alloy 6 trim — Fluid: Lean cycle oil
— Anti-cavitation trim may be required — P1 = 20 – 22 barg (290 – 320 psig)
— Class IV or V shutoff — P2 = 9 – 18 barg (130 – 260 psig)
— T = 40°C – 50°C (105°F – 120°F)
3. Main Column Reflux Spillback Control Valve
— Q = 60 – 300 m3/hr (265 – 1320 gpm)
This valve recycles flow around the main column reflux Typical Control Valve Selection:
pumps to prevent the pump from cavitating. Therefore, a
valve selection that can withstand the cavitation or eliminate — NPS 3 to NPS 6 Vee-Ball, V500, or easy-e ET
its formation is necessary. A globe valve with anti-cavitation — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
trim is commonly used in this application.
6. Steam to Lean Cycle Oil Stripper Control Valve
— P1 = 6 – 9 barg (85 – 130 psig) This valve controls steam flow to the bottom of the lean cycle
— P2 = 2 – 3 barg (30 – 45 psig) oil stripper. Proper flow control is necessary to achieve the
desired product from the bottom of the stripper. A small
— T = 40°C – 60°C (105°F – 140°F) globe valve is generally utilized in this application.
— Q = 100 – 140 m3/hr (440 – 615 gpm)
— Fluid: Steam
— NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or NotchFlo DST — P1 = 9 – 17 barg (130 – 245 psig)
— WCC or 316SST body and 316/Alloy 6 trim — P2 = 1 – 3 barg (15 – 45 psig)
— Anti-cavitation trim may be required — T = 200°C – 235°C (390°F – 455°F)
— Class V shutoff — W = 900 – 4000 kg/hr (2000 – 8,800 lb/hr)
4-54
Typical Control Valve Selection: selection will vary depending upon the point of withdrawal
from the column. A rotary valve, Fisher 461, or a globe or
— NPS 2 to NPS 3 easy-e ET angle valve with unbalanced trim is used.
— Class IV or V shutoff — Fluid: Varying hydrocarbons
— P1 = 6 – 8 barg (85 – 115 psig)
7. Heavy Cycle Oil Pump-around Control Valve — P2 = 4 – 5 barg (60 – 75 psig)
This valve controls the flow of heavy cycle oil back to the — T = 170°C – 200°C (340°F - 390°F)
fractionation tower. Proper flow control is necessary to — Q = 200 – 2400 m3/hr (880 – 10,600 gpm)
ensure the proper product specification in the column. A
rotary valve is commonly used in this application due to the
viscous nature of the fluid, but a large globe valve may also — NPS 8 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball, V500 or CV500, NPS 8 to
be used. NPS 12 A-body or large easy-e
Typical Process Conditions: — WCC or 316 SST body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
— Fluid: Heavy cycle oil
— P1 = 10 – 17 barg (145 – 245 psig) 10. Main Column Bottoms Circulation Control Valve
— P2 = 4 – 13 barg (60 – 190 psig)
This valve circulates flow from the bottom of the column to
— T = 220°C – 270°C (430°F – 520°F)
the reboiler and back to the column to facilitate separation.
— Q = 300 – 1200 m3/hr (1320 – 5,300 gpm) Accurate control is required in this application to ensure the
Typical Control Valve Selection: proper product specification. Because of the high-viscosity
slurry, a rotary valve is commonly used. Entrained catalyst
— NPS 8 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball V500, CV500, easy-e ET or may be present in the flow stream and can damage the valve.
EWT
— C5 or 316 SST body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
— Class IV shutoff — Fluid: Hydrocarbon slurry
— P1 = 6 – 8 barg (85 – 115 psig)
8. Heavy Cycle Oil Pump-around Spillback Control — P2 = 4 – 5 barg (60 -75 psig)
Valve — T = 270°C – 360°C (520°F - 680°F)
This valve bypasses flow around the heavy cycle oil pump- — Q = 150 – 300 m3/hr (660 – 1320 gpm)
around pump to prevent the pump from cavitating. This Typical Control Valve Selection:
valve experiences relatively high pressure differentials
that can result in the formation of damaging cavitation. A — NPS 6 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball or V500
control valve that can eliminate the formation of cavitation is — C5 or 316 SST body and Alloy 6 trim
commonly used.
11. Main Column Bottoms Pump Spillback Control
— Fluid: Heavy cycle oil
Valve
— P1 = 10 – 17 barg (145 – 245 psig)
— P2 = 3 – 4 barg (45 – 60 psig) This valve recycles flow around the main column bottoms
pump to prevent the pump from cavitating. While there is
— T = 190°C – 220°C (375°F - 430°F)
potential for cavitation formation in the valve, because of
— Q = 75 – 200 m3/hr (330 – 880 gpm) the high-viscosity slurry, a rotary valve with hardened trim is
Typical Control Valve Selection: typically utilized.
— NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or NotchFlo DST Typical Process Conditions:

— C5 or 316 SST body and trim — Fluid: Hydrocarbon slurry
— Anti-cavitation trim may be required — P1 = 7 – 9 barg (100 – 130 psig)
— Class V shutoff — P2 = 3 – 5 barg (45 – 75 psig)
— T = 270°C – 360°C (520°F – 680°F)
9. Main Column Pumparound Control Valve — Q = 150 – 700 m3/hr (660 – 3100 gpm)
There can be a number of variations in this application. Some Typical Control Valve Selection:
units may use only one pump-around system, but others
may incorporate several. Each is used as a type of reflux to — NPS 4 to NPS 8 V500
improve the separation of the products. Poor performance — C5 or 316 SST body and Alloy 6 trim
of this valve results in variations of the product quality, — Class IV shutoff
thus reliability and performance are key factors. The valve
4-55
3 FUEL GAS
ABSORBER
ABSORBER
FROM
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
FRACTIONATOR
LEAN OIL
5
4
1 2
6
STRIPPER
11
RICH OIL
TO FRAC
FROM HP SEPARATOR 9
FRACTIONATOR
WET GAS
DEPROPANIZER
COMPRESSOR
12
DEBUTANIZER
8 C3
C4
10
GASOLINE
E1207
Figure 4.10.4. FCC Vapor Recovery Section
Vapor Recovery Unit Other units may be present, i.e. depentanizer; however, this
depends upon the overall desired final products.
The vapor recovery unit is used to reject fuel gas, recover
C3 and C4 liquid products and produce debutanized 1. First Stage Wet Gas Recycle Control Valve
gasoline within the required vapor pressure levels. The main
fractionator overhead vapors are compressed in the wet gas This valve is used to protect the first stage of the wet gas
compressor, which is typically a two-stage device. The high compressor from the effects of surge that can occur during
pressure gas and liquids from the low pressure knock out startup, shutdown, and process upsets. The performance
drum are cooled and combined with liquid from the primary of this valve is critical to the operation and efficiency of the
absorber and flow to the high pressure separator. compressor. There is the potential for coke buildup on the
internals of the valve, thus it is critical that a multi-stage trim
Liquid from the high pressure separator is pumped to the top is not present in this application. A globe valve with Whisper
of the stripper. The stripper removes C2s and lighter products Trim is commonly used in this application.
that go to the primary absorber. The C3 and heavier products
are removed in the stripper bottoms. Typical Process Conditions:
In the primary absorber, vapor from the high pressure — Fluid: Wet gas
separator flows to the bottom of the absorber while raw — P1 = 6 – 10 barg (85 – 145 psig)
gasoline and lean oil from the debutanizer flow to the top of — P2 = 2 – 4 barg (30 – 60 psig)
the absorber. The liquids absorb C3 and heavier components
from the vapor. The gases leaving the top of the primary — T = 110°C – 130°C (230°F - 265°F)
absorber are sent the secondary absorber. — W = 85,000 – 350,000 kg/hr (185,000 – 770,000 lb/
hr)
In the secondary absorber, heavy naphtha from the main
fractionator is used to recover any liquids left in the vapor Typical Control Valve Selection:
stream. Fuel gas leaves the top of the absorber and is typically
— NPS 8 to NPS 16 easy-e ET or EW
subjected to further treatment in an amine treatment unit.
The bottoms return to the main fractionator. — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
Liquid from the bottom of the stripper flows to the
debutanizer. The overhead liquids can be treated and sent — Class V shutoff
to storage or further separation of C3 and C4 products can
occur. Further separation of the bottoms products is possible, 2. Second Stage Wet Gas Recycle Control Valve
but will vary from plant to plant.
This valve is used to protect the second stage of the wet gas
Figure 4.10.4 shows the layout of the vapor recovery system compressor from the effects of surge that can occur during
and the commonly associated control valves. This depiction startup, shutdown, and process upsets. The performance
includes a depropanizer, which may or may not be present. of this valve is critical to the operation and efficiency of the
compressor. Potential for coke buildup is present on the
4-56
internals of the valve, thus the use of a multi-stage trim must 5. Lean Oil to Secondary Absorber Control Valve
not be present in this application. A globe valve with Whisper
Trim is commonly used in this application. This valve is used to control the flow of lean oil (heavy
naphtha) to absorb heavier components in the secondary
Typical Process Conditions: absorber. Proper flow control is necessary to capture as much
— Fluid: Wet gas of the heavier components as possible. A rotary or globe
valve can be successfully used in this application.
— P1 = 13 – 21 barg (190 – 305 psig)
— P2 = 6 – 10 barg (85 – 145 psig) Typical Process Conditions:
— T = 110°C – 130°C (230°F - 265°F) — Fluid: Lean oil (heavy naphtha)
— W = 85,000 – 350,000 kg/hr (185,000 – 770,000 lb/ — P1 = 18 – 24 barg (260 – 350 psig)
hr) — P2 = 13 – 18 barg (190 – 260 psig)
— NPS 10 to NPS 16 easy-e ET or EW — Q = 30 – 150 m3/hr (130 – 660 gpm)
— Noise attenuation trim may be required — NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or V500
— Class V shutoff — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
3. Primary Absorber Feed Control Valve
This valve controls the flow of overhead liquids from the 6. Rich Oil from Secondary Absorber Control Valve
main fractionator to the primary absorber. Accurate control
is needed in this application to ensure proper vapor to liquid This valve controls the liquid level in the secondary absorber
ratio in the absorber. A globe or rotary valve is commonly enabling proper capture of the heavier components in the
used in this application. gas stream from the primary absorber. A globe or rotary
valve can be used successfully in this application.
— Fluid: Rich oil
— P1 = 13 – 21 barg (190 – 305 psig)
— P1 = 12 – 18 barg (175 – 260 psig)
— P2 = 12 - 18 barg (175 – 260 psig)
— P2 = 4 – 6 barg (60 – 90 psig)
— T = 40°C – 60°C (105°F - 140°F)
— T = 60°C – 80°C (140°F - 175°F)
— Q = 200 – 850 m3/hr (880 – 3750 gpm)
— Q = 50 – 150 m3/hr (220 – 660 gpm)
— NPS 8 to NPS 12 easy-e EW or V300
— NPS 3 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or V500
4. Primary Absorber Bottoms Control Valve
7. Stripper Feed Control Valve
This valve controls the liquid level in the primary absorber.
Accurate control is required in this application to ensure the This valve controls level in the high pressure separator and
proper interaction of liquid and vapor streams. A globe or flow to the stripper to remove C2 and lighter components.
rotary valve is commonly used in this application. Accurate level control in the high pressure separator is
necessary to prevent liquid carryover into the primary
Typical Process Conditions: absorber. A globe or rotary valve can be used in this
application.
— P1 = 12 – 19 barg (175 – 275 psig) Typical Process Conditions:
— P2 = 11 – 17 barg (160 – 245 psig) — Fluid: Light hydrocarbons
— T = 40°C – 60°C (105°F - 140°F) — P1 = 18 – 24 barg (260 – 350 psig)
— Q = 250 – 950 m3/hr (1100 – 4200 gpm) — P2 = 15 – 23 barg (220 – 330 psig)
— Q = 200 – 2000 m3/hr (880 – 8800 gpm)
— NPS 8 to NPS 12 easy-e ET, EW, or V300
— Class IV shutoff — NPS 6 to NPS 16 easy-e ET, NPS 6 to NPS 8 V500, or
NPS 6 to NPS 12 CV500
4-57
8. Stripper Bottoms to Debutanizer Control Valve 11. Depropanizer Overhead Control Valve
This valve controls the level of light hydrocarbons in the This valve controls the overhead vapor flow into the reflux
stripper column. This operation is critical to removal of C2 drum to facilitate separation of C3 and C4 components.
and lighter components. A rotary or globe valve can be used A medium sized rotary valve is generally utilized in this
in this application. application.
— Fluid: Light Hydrocarbons — Fluid: Propane
— P1 = 15 – 20 barg (220 – 290 psig) — P1 = 16 – 18 barg (230 – 260 psig)
— T = 120°C – 130°C (250°F - 265°F) — T = 50°C – 60°C (120°F - 140°F)
— Q = 250 – 2000 m3/hr (1100 – 8800 gpm) — Q = 50,000 – 100,000 Nm3/hr (1.7 – 3.5 MMscfh)
— NPS 6 to NPS 16 easy-e ET, NPS 6 to NPS 12 CV500 or — NPS 12 to NPS 16 8532 or V300
V500 — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim — Class IV shutoff
12. Depropanizer Reflux Control Valve
9. Debutanizer Overhead Control Valve
This valve controls the propane reflux back into the
This valve controls the flow of the vapor driven off in the depropanizer. Proper control is required in this application to
dubutanizer to be quenched and subjected to further ensure adequate separation of the C3 and C4 components in
separation to capture C3 and C4 components. A medium- the depropanizer. A medium sized globe or rotary valve can
sized rotary valve is commonly used in this application. be utilized in this application.
— Fluid: C3 and C4 hydrocarbons — Fluid: Propane
— T = 60°C – 80°C (140°F - 175°F) — T = 50°C – 60°C (120°F - 140°F)
— Q = 30,000 – 120,000 Nm3/hr (1 – 4 MMscfh) — Q = 1000 – 2000 m3/hr (4400 – 8800 gpm)
— NPS 10 to NPS 12 8580 or V300 — NPS 8 to NPS 10 easy-e ET or NPS 8 V500
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim — WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim
— Class IV shutoff — Class IV shutoff
10. Debutanizer Bottoms Level Control Valve

4.11 Alkylation Unit
This valve controls the liquid level in the debutanizer ensuring
Other Names—Alky, HF, Sulfuric Acid Unit, SAAU, HFAU, Alky
proper separation of the lighter components from the
Unit
heavier components. A rotary valve is commonly used in this
application. The alkylation unit is used to convert light olefins, usually
propylene or butylene, produced by a FCC or delayed coker
unit into a gasoline blending component called alkylate.
— Fluid: Gasoline Alkylate is one of the more valuable blending components
— P1 = 12 – 14 barg (175 – 205 psig) for gasoline because it has a high octane rating coupled
with a low Reid vapor pressure. It consists of branched chain
— P2 = 8 – 10 barg (115 – 145 psig) paraffinic hydrocarbons (isoheptane and isooctane).
— T = 100°C – 110°C (210°F - 230°F)
There are two types of alkylation units: hydrofluoric acid (HF)
— Q = 70 – 350 m3/hr (310 – 1540 gpm) alkylation and sulfuric acid alkylation. Both will be discussed
Typical Control Valve Selection: in this section. Alkylation is a catalyzed reaction that uses
acid as the catalyst – this is not a solid catalyst that we see
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 V500 or NPS 6 to NPS 10 V300 in most other refining applications. This liquid catalyst is
— WCC body and 316/Alloy 6 trim efficient, but hazardous. There have been many attempts
— Class IV shutoff made over the years to use a solid acid catalyst, but this has
resulted in reduced conversion and deactivated catalyst.
4-58

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.11.1. Alkylation Unit Location
The overall process is similar between an HF alky unit and a washes, is sent to a depropanizer. The depropanizer overhead
sulfuric acid alky unit. The major differences are the reactor is a propane product, and the bottom stream is returned to
style and the reaction temperature. Either type of alkylation the process.
plant consists of seven sections: chiller, reactor, acid
separator, caustic wash, and three distillation columns. The reactor effluent is sent to a settler, where acid is removed
from the hydrocarbon. The acid is recycled to the reactor.
In an HF Alky unit (Figure 4.11.2), isobutane feed, olefin feed, The hydrocarbon continues through caustic and water
and recycled isobutane are chilled (using refinery cooling washes before entering the deisobutanizer (DIB) tower. Any
water), then fed into an acid reactor. Acid is fed into this makeup isobutane is generally added as feed to the DIB
reactor in a separate stream. The alkylation reaction takes tower. The DIB overhead stream is mostly isobutane and is
place in this unit, and the resulting product is then sent returned to the reactor. The DIB bottom stream becomes
to a series of separators and acid strippers to split out the the feed to the debutanizer. The debutanizer overhead is a
resulting product streams, including propane, N-butane, and butane product stream. The debutanizer bottom stream is
alkylate. Simultaneously, the acid is separated in the reactor the alkylate product for gasoline blending.
and recycled through the unit. After separating the propane,
n-butane, and alkylate product, any unreacted isobutane is Alkylation Application Review
recycled back to the acid reactor.
In an alkylation unit, tight process control is required
In a sulfuric acid alky unit (Figure 4.11.3), the isobutane- to maintain temperature, acid strength and isobutane
olefin mixture, along with sulfuric acid and refrigerant, is sent concentration. If temperature drops too low, sulfuric acid will
to a cascade reactor. In the presence of the acid, the olefins become viscous and will inhibit complete mixing of acid and
and isobutane react, forming the alkylate compounds and olefins. If the temperature is too high, compounds other than
generating heat. There are several systems for removing isoheptane and isooctane will be formed, decreasing the
the heat. The process illustrated uses an auto-refrigeration overall alkylate quality.
system where some of the isobutane is vaporized to provide
cooling. The vapors are routed through a compression Acid strength is also important to maintain. If the acid is
section and are condensed before being returned to the diluted with water, the acid can pick up tar and become less
reactor. reactive. It is known that as the process unit operates over
time, acid concentration decreases. When the concentration
Any propane that is produced in the reactor is concentrated drops below 89%, it loses efficiency. In addition, weaker acids
in the refrigeration system and, after caustic and water
4-59
DEPROPANIZER
ACCUMULATOR
PROPANE
RECIRCULATION
VALVE
10
DEPROPANIZER
9 ACIDIC
PROPANE
3 DEPROPANIZER VALVE
FEED VALVE
ACID SETTLER
FUEL GAS
VALVE
ACID FEED 8
VALVE PROPANE RECYCLE
REFLUX ACID
VALVE VALVE
11
ACID RERUN COLUMN

OLEFIN
FEED
VALVE
ACID ACCUMULATOR
4 5
ACID STRIPPER
1
OLEFIN ACCUMULATED ACID REFLUX

FEED ACID VALVE VALVE
DRIER
ISOBUTANE
RECYCLE
VALVE
PROPANE CAUSTIC
13 15
TREATER
ISOBUTANE
FEED VALVE DEISOBUTANIZER
FEED VALVE
ISOBUTANE
ACCUMULATOR
DEISOBUTANIZER
2 12
PROPANE
ISOBUTANE 18 PRODUCT
FEED VALVE
DRIER CAUSTIC
BUTANE
VALVE
BUTAINE CAUSTIC
DEBUTANIZER
DEBUTANIZER
TREATER
ACCUMULATOR
14
16
DEBUTANIZER BUTANE
FEED VALVE RECIRCULATION
VALVE
N-BUTANE
17
ALKYLATE
ALKYLATE
E1550
PRODUCT VALVE
Figure 4.11.2. Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation Process Flow Diagram

can lead to additional undesired side reactions, decreasing at a high concentration, they will react with each other
alkylate quality. rather than with the isobutane. Typically, about ten times the
amount of isobutane is used to prevent this from happening.
The preservation of isobutane concentration is essential to
proper operation of the unit. Both propylene and butylene
are reactive in the presence of the acid catalyst – even with
each other. If the isobutane concentration is not maintained
4-60
Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation Control Typical Control Valve Selection:

Valve Selection — NPS 1 to 3 easy-e ES or ED
Hydrofluoric acid, whether in the form of dry liquid, gas, or — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
water solution, is a strong acid that rapidly attacks many SST trim
substances - including ordinary glass. While seemingly — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
contrary, carbon steel is the most widely used material for — Class IV shutoff
most control valve bodies. A thin film of purplish-colored
fluoride compound builds up on iron and steel surfaces 3. Acid Feed Valve
exposed to HF acid. This plating is fairly hard and durable. In
the right circumstances, it protects the metal against further This valve controls the acid being fed to the reactor. It is
attack by the acid, so that the corrosion is self-limiting. The important that it is always operational to provide conversion
main concern with fluoride plating is that it takes up more from olefins to alkylate in the reactor. Due to the high (pure)
space than the thin surface layer of metal that it replaced. For acid content, the valve construction will be all Monel.
this reason, cage guided valves are generally not specified Typical Control Valve Selection:
due to the narrow clearances between trim parts. However,
some sites have had success with both the GX and cage- — NPS 4 to NPS 10 Vee-Ball
guided constructions in these applications for globe valve — Materials of Construction: Monel valve body with
trims, Monel grades N04400 and N05500 alloys are generally monel trim and TCM seal
accepted as optimum. Fisher valves provide additional
clearance for these applications to account for the buildup of — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
fluoride. — Class III shutoff or better
Rotary valves can be specified for hydrofluoric alkylation 4. Accumulated Acid Valve
acid service. In these applications a rotary valve (Vee-Ball)
may replace the larger globe valves (A-Bodies or split globe This valve controls the acid level in the acid accumulator.
bodies) on current specifications or as replacements in Spent acid is constantly circulating from the acid
existing applications. accumulator to the rerun column. An upset in this valve could
cause a leakage of hydrofluoric acid, which would be a major
Most HF acid applications are at or around ambient
environmental and health risk.
temperature. However, there may be a few applications at
elevated temperatures (66°C [150°F] or higher). In those Typical Control Valve Selection:
instances, a site or process licensor may require a solid nickel
alloy body in addition to the alloy trim. — NPS 1 to 2 easy-e EZ
— Materials of Construction: Monel valve body with
Note that typical process conditions are not provided in this monel trim
section as these are dictated by the process licensor.
1. Olefin Feed Valve — Class IV shutoff
The amount of flow and composition of this stream establish 5, 8. Acid and Propane Reflux Valves
the isobutane and acid makeup requirements. Therefore, it
is desirable to have this flow and composition as steady as The reflux valve is typically either a flow or column
possible. Extremely erratic valve movement, such as sticking, temperature-control loop. It is used to adjust the purity of
could make the reactor conversion cycle. However, because the overhead product. The higher the reflux rate, the purer
the reactor is continuously mixed, the effect of any small the overhead product will become. However, raising the
swings in flow will probably go unnoticed. reflux rate will also require more reboil heat and eventually
will flood the tower.
Traditionally, this has been a large double ported A-body.
A poorly operating reflux valve will have the same effects as a
Typical Control Valve Selection: bad feed valve. Product purities will oscillate and the column
— NPS 4 to NPS 10 Vee-Ball will be difficult to control. This valve has a direct impact on
the efficiency of the column.
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with Monel trim
and TCM seal Traditionally, the propane reflux valve has been a high
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing performance butterfly valve. Good control of this valve is
required to produce high quality alkylate, and upgrading to a
— Class III shutoff or better
Control-Disk valve may aid in this conversion rate.
2. Isobutane Feed Valve Acid Reflux Typical Control Valve Selection:
This valve does not see any acid, and therefore is not subject — NPS 1 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ
to the hydrofluoric acid service requirements. It is used to — Materials of Construction: Monel valve body with
continuously supplement the required isobutane into the monel trim
alkylation reactor. — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
4-61
Propane Reflux Typical Control Valve Selection: 9. Fuel Gas Valve

— NPS 8 to NPS 12 Control-Disk Depending on the furnace service and configuration this
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series valve will normally be part of a loop that controls either the
SST trim fuel flow or pressure. These valves are specified as fail closed
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing so that a control loop failure will not allow an excessive
amount of fuel to be dumped into a hot furnace. A fuel valve
— Class IV shutoff failure will almost always shut down the processing unit
downstream. Although many fuel valves have bypass circuits,
6., 14., 15. Depropanizer feed, Debutanizer feed, refinery operations personnel are usually reluctant to run
and Deisobutanizer Feed Valves a furnace on bypass for any significant time due to safety
concerns.
These valves control the feed going into the depropanizer,
the debutanizer, and deisobutanizer columns. Feed valves are The preferred control loop configuration for outlet
usually set up as flow or level control loops. An upstream unit temperature is a cascade to the set point of the loop
or process often controls the valve. controlling the fuel valve. Many furnaces will be set up such
that the temperature control loop directly manipulates
Unstable feed flow will make the column difficult to control.
the fuel valve. This direct connection usually provides
A problem valve will often cause the feed flow to oscillate. As
a result, the column’s reboil heat will fluctuate. Depending
it is extremely susceptible to valve deadband, such as that
on the size and number of trays in the column, the effect of
a swing in the feed will take anywhere from several minutes
to more than an hour to reach the ends of the column.
Sometimes, the reboil and reflux controls will amplify the When the fuel valve is manipulated by the temperature
swings. The final result is that meeting product purity targets loop or by a flow control loop, there will often be a pressure
becomes more difficult. Refinery operations personnel will control valve upstream of the fuel valve. This valve will also
normally respond by over-purifying the products, wasting fail closed and will have the same consequences as a failure of
energy to compensate for the problematic feed control valve. the fuel valve. However, with this configuration, operations
personnel will be more willing to run a fuel valve in bypass
as they still have a way to shut off the fuel quickly in an
— NPS 8 to NPS 12 Vee-Ball emergency.
— Materials of Construction: WCC valve body with monel Since this valve is critical to unit operation, a FIELDVUE
trim and TCM seal DVC6200 digital valve controller with predictive diagnostics
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing (PD) is recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical
— Class III shutoff or better to this valve when it is supposed to fail close. It may be
desirable to include the position transmitter option in the
7.,16. Propane and Butane Recirculation Valves FIELDVUE DVC6200 instrument to provide position feedback
to the DCS, upon loss of power to the FIELDVUE DVC6200
In order to prevent column flooding, the alkylation unit is instrument, assuring whether or not the valve actually
built with accumulators. This allows a refiner to operate their closed.
unit as efficiently as possible and convert as many light olefins Typical Control Valve Selection:
to alkylate as possible. These valves control the recirculation
back to the depropanizer and debutanizer columns. — NPS 1 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ
7. Propane Recirculation Typical Control Valve — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
Selection: SST trim, sour fuel gas may require NACE trim
materials
— NPS 4 easy-e EZ or NPS 6 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball — ENVIRO-SEAL duplex or PTFE packing
— Materials of Construction: WCC valve body with monel — Class IV shutoff
trim
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing 10. Acidic Propane Valve
This valve controls the propane product before acid has been
16. Butane Recirculation Typical Control Valve removed from the process fluid. It is a level valve drawing
Selection: propane stream from the depropanizer accumulator. It is
— NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ likely to be used in conjunction with a Level-trol controller for
HF Acid service.
— Materials of Construction: WCC valve body with monel
trim Typical Control Valve Selection:
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing — NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ
— Class IV shutoff — Materials of construction: WCC body with monel trim,
for HF Alky service
4-62
11. Recycle Acid Valve. to a treatment plant where the fluid is cleaned and n-butane
is sent to the refinery fuel gas system.
This valve draws the acid off of the bottom of the
depropanizer accumulator and recycles it to the combined Typical Control Valve Selection:
inlet stream. — NPS 1 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ
Typical Control Valve Selection: — Materials of Construction: WCC body with Monel trim
— NPS 1 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
— Materials of construction: WCC or Monel body with — Class IV shutoff
monel trim, for HF Alky service
Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Control Valve
Selection
When alloy 20 material is specified for sulfuric acid alkylation,
12. Propane Product Valve please note that Emerson complies with ASTM A990 material
specification for pressure boundary castings.
This valve will have no effect on the process operation
unless it causes level problems. There is no consequence 1. Olefin Feed Valve
for any downstream unit because the propane is routed to
the refinery fuel system. This valve can be run in manual or The amount of flow and composition of this stream establish
bypass without significant problems. the isobutane and acid makeup requirements. Therefore, it
is desirable to have this flow and composition as steady as
Typical Control Valve Selection: possible. Extremely erratic valve movement, such as sticking,
— NPS 1 to NPS 3 easy-e ED could make the reactor conversion cycle. However, because
the reactor is continuously mixed, the effect of any small
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series swings in flow will probably go unnoticed.
SST trim
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex or PTFE packing Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Class II shutoff — NPS 2 to NPS 6 GX, easy- e EZ or ET
13. Isobutane Recycle Valve SST trim
Because the concentration of isobutane is kept high in the — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
combined feed to prevent side reactions, this recycle valve — Class IV shutoff
is important to the overall process operation. A significant
amount of isobutane will be unreacted in the process, so this 2. Makeup Isobutane Valve
is a substantial stream to maintain.
The Alkylation unit requires approximately 16 MBPD of
Typical Control Valve Selection: isobutane to react with the 10 MBPD of olefin feed. The
— NPS 4 easy-e EZ or NPS 4 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball isobutane feed to the reactor is a combination of makeup
and recycle isobutane recovered in the DIB and depropanizer
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with Monel trim towers. The makeup isobutane is usually added to the
— ENVIRO-SEAL duplex or PTFE packing DIB tower and sent with the recycle material to the feed
— Class IV shutoff coalescer.
17. Alkylate Product Valve
— NPS 2 to NPS 4 GX or easy-e EZ
This valve will have no effect on the process operation unless
it causes level problems. There is no consequence for any
SST trim
downstream unit because the alkylate is sent to the gasoline
blending pool. This valve can be run in manual or bypass — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
without significant problems. — Class IV shutoff
3. Makeup Acid Valve
— NPS 6 to NPS 10 Vee-Ball
The acid strength effects the octane rating of the alkylate, as
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series well as the likelihood of an acid runaway reaction. Increasing
SST trim the recycle acid strength will increase octane, but it also
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing increases operating costs. Lowering the acid strength will
— Class IV shutoff increase the chance of a runaway reaction. However, as long
as this valve is not swinging wildly, the effect on the reactor
18. Caustic Butane Valve conversion will be slow to appear as this is a makeup flow and
is mixed with the recycled acid before going to the reactor.
This valve is usually in a level loop, drawing the caustic butane
fluid off of the debutanizer accumulator. The butane is sent
4-63
DEISO-
BUTANIZER
REFLUX VALVE 11
ECONOMIZER
OLEFIN COM- 7
PRESSOR
1 FEED
VALVE
BUTANE
ANTI-SURGE
VALVE
RECEIVER COMPRESSOR
DEISOBUTANIZER
BYPASS
4
8 12
TO DEPROPANIZER DEBUTANIZER
DEISO-
REFLUX VALVE
BUTANIZER
VALVE
DEISOBUTANIZER
STEAM REBOIL VALVE
DEBUTANIZER
9
STEAM 10
13
STEAM
MAKE-UP
CASCADE DEISO- DEBUTANIZER
ISOBUTANE
REACTOR BUTANIZER STEAM REBOIL
FEED VALVE
BOTTOM VALVE VALVE
14
ACID CAUSTIC WATER
SETTLER WASH WASH
2
ALKYLATE
VALVE
ACID RECYCLE
CAUSTIC WASH
WASH WATER
MAKE-UP VALVE VALVE
ACID VALVE 5 6
3
SPENT SPENT WASTE
E1166 ACID ACID CAUSTIC WATER
Figure 4.11.3. Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process Flow Diagram
Typical Control Valve Selection: with antisurge-specific tuning and control algorithms, as well
as the capability to predict issues like sticking or friction, and
— NPS 1 to NPS 4 GX or easy-e EZ other antisurge specific diagnostics.
— Materials of Construction: Alloy 20 or Hastelloy C body
with alloy 20 or Hastelloy C trim Typical Control Valve Selection:
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing — NPS 6 to NPS 10 easy-e ET or EWT
— Class IV shutoff — Materials of construction: Dependent on process
design
4. Compressor Bypass — Noise attenuation trim may be required
There may be one stage or multiple stages of compressors — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
in an alkylation unit. In this example we are considering a — Class IV or V shutoff
single stage compressor. This bypass control valve is used
to protect the compressor from the effects of surge than 5. Caustic Wash Valve
can occur during startup, shutdown, and process upsets.
The performance of this valve is crucial to the operation and This valve is typically not adjusted very often. All that
efficiency of the compressor. is required is that enough caustic is being delivered to
neutralize the leftover acidic material. It is important for
These valves must operate quickly, accurately, and reliably neutralizing acid and keeping corrosion to a minimum
to protect the compressor and the process. Typically, downstream
the combination of fast action and accuracy is missing in
installed antisurge valves, which may also utilize an unreliable Typical Control Valve Selection:
instrumentation scheme. Noise attenuation trim is required — NPS 1 to NPS 4 GX or easy-e EZ or NPS 2 to NPS 4 Vee-
to address potential vibration during normal operation and to Ball
prevent associated pipe fatigue issues.
— Materials of Construction: Compatible with caustic
The solution to this issue is to use a Fisher Optimized fluid
Antisurge Valve. This assembly combines fast action, — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
accuracy, and reliability in one package. The valve trim is
designed to meet specific compressor design requirements, — Class IV shutoff
along with an actuation system designed for stroking speed
and accurate control. The ODV FIELDVUE unit is designed
4-64
6. Water Wash Valve 9, 13. Deisobutanizer & Debutanizer Steam Reboil

Valves
These valves are similar to the caustic valves in that they are
not adjusted very often and only need to have enough flow to The reboil valves control the amount of heat put into the
neutralize any remaining acidic components. deisobutanizer and debutanizer columns by the reboiler. In
many cases, steam is used as a heat source. Steam valves are
usually very reliable. The service is very clean and fugitive
— NPS 1 to NPS 4 GX or easy-e EZ emissions are not a concern. However, a problem valve will
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series make the column difficult to control precisely. This will be
SST trim especially true if the column feed is subject to frequent
changes.
— Class IV shutoff Not all reboilers use steam as a heat source. To save energy,
many refineries have integrated their units so that higher
7, 12. Deisobutanizer and Debutanizer Reflux Valves temperature process streams are used to provide heat for
lower temperature processes. In these cases, the reboil
The reflux valves are typically either a flow or column valve will foul more easily and might have fugitive emissions
temperature-control loop. They are used to adjust the purity concerns.
of the overhead product. The higher the reflux rate, the Typical Control Valve Selection:
purer the overhead product will become. However, raising
the reflux rate will also require more reboil heat and will — NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e ED
eventually flood the tower. — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
A poorly operating reflux valve will have the same effects as a SST or high temp 300-series SST trim, appropriate for
bad feed valve. Product purities will oscillate and the column steam service
will be difficult to control. — Graphite packing
7. DIB Reflux Typical Control Valve Selection: — Class III shutoff
— NPS 1 to NPS 4 GX or easy-e EZ 10. Deisobutanizer Bottom Valve

SST trim The bottom product valve is typically used to control the
level in the bottom of the DIB. It normally has no effect on
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing column operation unless it causes the level to change quickly
— Class IV shutoff and dramatically.
12. Debutanizer Reflux Typical Control Valve Typical Control Valve Selection:
Selection:
— NPS 3 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball or V500
— NPS 3 to NPS 6 Vee-Ball or Control-Disk — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series SST trim, appropriate for potentially high viscosity
SST trim fluid. Alloy 6 or ceramic trim may be required.
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
— Class IV shutoff — Class IV shutoff
8. Deisobutanizer Valve 11. Butane Product Valve

This is one of the more important valves in the alky unit. This This valve has little impact on the overall process unit. It
stream is recycled as part of the isobutane feed to the reactor controls the light butane product from the debutanizer. The
and has an effect on the reactor conversion. butane is usually sent to the refinery fuel gas system.
This valve is typically used to control the level in the overhead Typical Control Valve Selection:
receiver. It normally has no effect on column operation unless
it causes the level to change quickly and dramatically. — NPS 1 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ
SST trim
— NPS 2 to NPS 6 easy-e ET or EZ, or NPS 3 to NPS 6 Vee- — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
Ball — Class IV shutoff
SST trim 14. Alkylate Valve
The bottom product valve is typically used to control the
— Class IV shutoff level in the bottom of the column. It normally has no effect
on column operation unless it causes the level to change
quickly and dramatically.
4-65

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.12.1. Amine Unit Location
Typical Control Valve Selection: The most widely used process to remove acid gases
from natural gas is the alkanolamine process. The term
— NPS 6 to NPS 10 Vee-Ball alkanolamine encompasses the family of specific organic
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series compounds or monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine
SST trim (DEA), and triethanolamine (TEA). Recently, newer amine
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing units use methyl diethanolamine (MDEA).
— Class IV shutoff This is a continuous operation liquid process. Using
absorption, acid-gas components are removed via amine
4.12 Amine Unit and the addition of heat. The schematic flow diagram (figure
4.12.2) shows the basic process.
Other Names—Amine contactor, amine scrubber, amine After any free liquids are removed from the gas in an inlet
treater scrubber, the gas passes to the absorber section. Here it rises
Amine units are used to clean up the various sour light-gas counter-currently in close contact with the descending amine
streams created by the refinery cracking and treating units. solution. Purified gas flows from the top of the absorber.
The objective of an amine unit is to strip hydrogen sulfide Lean amine enters the tower at the top where it flows across
(H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and other environmental poisons trays downward, against the flow of the gas. At the bottom,
from sour light gas streams. This prepares the light gas the acid-gas-rich amine (aka rich amine) leaves the absorber
streams to be used in other processing units, to be sold as through a dump valve (rich amine letdown valve) that is
products, or to be burned as fuel gas. actuated by a liquid-level controller. The rich amine then goes
The term “amine unit” can be misleading. Rarely is amine to the flash tank, operating at a reduced pressure, where a
treating considered to be a standalone unit in a refinery. In great portion of the physically absorbed gases are flashed off.
many cases, each processing unit will have a small amine From there the rich amine goes through various processes to
scrubber located within its unit boundaries or will share a be regenerated by removing the H2S and CO2 from the amine
scrubber with a few other units. Several of these scrubbers solution and starts the cycle over again as lean amine.
will receive and return amine to a central regenerator located
within one of the units.
4-66
LEAN AMINE
FROM OFF GAS
REGENERATOR VALVE
2 9
SCRUBBED
SOUR GAS
GAS LEAN
4 AMINE VALVE
SCRUBBED GAS
VALVE FLASH
GAS
AMINE REGENERATOR
10
ABSORBER
FLASHED GAS
1 5 STEAM
VALVE
STEAM REBOILER
SOUR VALVE
GAS
SOUR GAS
VALVE FLASH
TANK
RICH AMINE
LETDOWN 3
VALVE AMINE STORAGE
7
VALVE
LEAN
FLASH TANK AMINE TO
BOTTOMS 6
ABSORBER
VALVE
AMINE
STORAGE
E1546-1
AMINE MAKE-UP
VALVE
Figure 4.12.2. Amine Unit Process Flow Diagram
1. Sour Gas Valve Typical Process Conditions:

This valve supplies the incoming sour gas to the amine — Fluid: Sour gas
unit. It is a combination of the sour gas streams from the — P1 = 5.8 – 7.8 barg (85 - 115 psig)
process unit (or units) being scrubbed by the amine unit. It is — P2 = 1 – 6.6 barg (15 - 95 psig)
somewhat unique in the refinery, since the inlet stream is in a
vapor state. — T = 38°C (100°F)
— Q = 10,350 - 14580 kg/h (22,820 – 32,145 lb/h)
configured to fail open so that a valve failure will protect the Typical Control Valve Selection:
furnace radiant section tubes. If a radiant tube loses or has — NPS 2 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or EZ
the metal can melt. This can have disastrous consequences, — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
as most process feeds make excellent fuels. A furnace can be SST/Alloy 6 trim
destroyed very quickly if a ruptured tube is dumping into the — NACE required
firebox of the furnace. — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
Problem valves can lead to difficulties controlling the outlet — Class IV shutoff
temperature of the furnaces. Also, many process feeds slowly
build layers of coke on the inside of the radiant tubes. Coking 2. Scrubbed Gas Valve
is a non-linear reaction and in some processes even a few
extra degrees of temperature can lead to excessive coke As lean amine picks up the sour gas component in the inlet
build-up. If a flow valve is oscillating, the temperature will stream, light, clean hydrocarbons are removed from the
also swing and will usually lead to excessive coke buildup. process stream. This valve has little effect on the rest of the
This will shorten the furnace cycle time between decoking process unit. The resulting process stream is usually sent to
procedures, which normally requires the process unit the refinery’s fuel gas system.
downstream to shut down. Typical Process Conditions:
Feed valves can easily be bypassed when necessary. A — Fluid: Scrubbed gas
combination of the measured flow and any available pass
temperatures can be used to regulate the bypass valve. — P1 = 38 – 45 barg (550 – 650 psig)
— P2 = 36 – 43 barg (525 - 625 psig)
— T = 50 - 65°C (120 - 150°F)
— Q = 885 – 1180 m3/h (750,000 – 1,000,000 scfh)
4-67
Type: Cavitation
— NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e ET Upstream: Liquid
Downstream: Liquid
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series/ Description of Process: Like flashing, cavitation involves the thermodynamic
Alloy 6 trim process of vaporization. Formation of bubbles occurs when the pressure at
the vena contracta falls below the vapor pressure. As pressure recovers, the
— NACE required downstream pressure becomes greater than the liquid’s vapor pressure. This
— Noise attenuation may be required causes the newly formed cavities to collapse and implode, creating cavitation
with noise and possible damage. As long as the pressure downstream stays
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing above the vapor pressure of the liquid, all of the vapor bubbles will collapse and
— Class IV shutoff the final product further downstream will be 100% liquid.
Type: Two-Phase (G/L)
3. Rich Amine Letdown (Scrubber Bottoms) Valve Upstream: Liquid and Gas
Downstream: Liquid and Gas
This application is demanding because the process fluid Description of Process: This is a flowing media that contains at least two
different components, where one component is in the liquid phase and the
(rich amine) has entrained gas in solution. As the fluid passes other is in the compressible (gas) phase. Both of these phases are present when
through the control valve, it takes a pressure drop due to the entering and exiting the valve. Although this should be easy to identify, it is still
pressure differential between the tower and the flash tank. As a severe service that presents many problems..
this pressure drop takes place in the valve, large amounts of
outgassing (entrained gas coming out of solution) occurs. Outgassing and flashing behave in similar manners and in
many cases outgassing is thought to be flashing. This is
Typical Process Conditions: because outgassing and flashing both have a fluid that enters
— Fluid: H2S Rich Diethylamine (Fat DEA) These two processes can impose the same types of damage,
— P1 = 45 - 155 barg (650 - 2250 psig) but this is where the similarities end. Shown below are the
— P2 = 8.8 - 12 barg (127 - 175 psig) major differences that separate outgassing from flashing.
— T = 55 - 75°C (130 - 165°F)
Outgassing
— Q = 78 - 286 m3/h (345 – 1260 gpm)
Fluid contains at least two substances of completely
Typical Control Valve Selection: different makeup (i.e. crude oil and natural gas).
— See the following section on outgassing application Undergoes a depressurization process that causes the
valve sizing and selection entrained gas to be released separate from the liquid.
Outgassing can occur at any point in the system. It only
Outgassing takes a minimal drop in pressure for the gas to come out
Outgassing is one of several severe service applications of suspension. If outgassing occurs prior to the throat
that are encountered in refining applications. In order to of the valve, damage to the valve and trim would occur.
identify a process that is Outgassing, it is important to have This would occur if an outgassing application were
an understanding of the other severe service applications misdiagnosed as a flashing application.
that experience the same problems or symptoms. The table The standard application of the ISA/IEC sizing equations
below shows the physical phases of flow-media and how they do not accurately account for this situation.
are classified. It also gives a description of what is causing
these phenomena to occur. Flashing
One homogenous substance that changes from a liquid
Flow Media Phases
state to a gas state (i.e. water to steam).
Type: Outgassing
Upstream: Liquid Undergoes a thermodynamic process and becomes two
Downstream: Liquid and Gas phase at the vena contracta.
consisting of at least two different constituents. One is a liquid and the other
Flashing occurs when the pressure of the liquid drops to
is a gas that is entrained in that liquid. The two components begin to separate its vapor pressure. It is easier to predict this compared to
upon the slightest change in pressure. The best example of this would be a Outgassing and is modeled by the ISA/IEC Liquid Sizing
bottle of soda. The bottle is pressurized and appears to be a homogeneous Equations.
liquid but when a reduction in pressure occurs, i.e. opening the bottle, the CO2
two elements, one liquid soda and the other carbon dioxide gas.
Identifying Outgassing Applications
Type: Flashing The ability to identify an outgassing application is important
Upstream: Liquid because outgassing is handled very differently than any other
Downstream: Liquid and Vapor application. Listed below are some good indicators that
drops to the vapor pressure of the liquid, the liquid begins to absorb heat
outgassing is occurring.
and changes to a vapor phase. This process is time dependent because it is a
thermodynamic process. The latent heat of vaporization must be absorbed,
Note A: Vapor Pressure
which is not an instantaneous process. If the vapor pressure (PV) listed on the specifications
gas which is known to be present downstream of the
valve although the gas is not the same composition as
the upstream liquid. This is an incorrect assumption.
4-68
Note B: Critical Pressure Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with High Outlet Gas
If the vapor pressure listed on the spec sheet is greater Volume Ratio Where a Multi-Stage Solution is requested
than the critical pressure listed. From a thermodynamic Pressure Class
perspective, this is impossible. When considering a Process Conditions
CL150 and above
pressure/temperature diagram, the vaporization line
depicts the vapor pressure for a given temperature. The DST-G trim
the “Fisher Outgassing Process Data Sheet”
saturation pressure terminates at the vapor line, above
which the fluid becomes supercritical. Hence, if the
control valve data sheet has PV>PC, then the customer Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with High Outlet Gas
may be unknowingly trying to model an outgassing Volume Ratio and There is No Valve Trim Preference
application. Pressure Class
Process Conditions
CL150-600 CL1500 and above
Note C: Gas/Vapor Percentage
Contact your Whisper Trim I Whisper Trim III
There are times when the customer’s valve data sheet Emerson sales Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, Levels A1, B1, and C1
will specify the percentage of gas/vapor for their process. office to obtain a and C1 461 Sweep-Flo Valve
If the application data sheet indicates that the inlet copy of the “Fisher Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage DST-G trim
Outgassing Process V500 reverse flow control valve
conditions are liquid and the outlet conditions are liquid Data Sheet” 461 Sweep-Flo Valve
and gas. DST-G trim
Note D: Application Indicator

4. Lean Amine Valve
If any of the previous stated indicators are present, check
to see if it is being used in a level controller application Lean Amine is added to the scrubber to hold an amine/gas
by checking the tag on the spec sheet. The tag may have ratio. A scrubber is much like a distillation column. Too much
an “LC,” “LCV,” or sometimes “LV” to represent that it is a vapor or liquid traffic can cause the scrubber to flood. When
level control valve. this happens, the sulfur compounds are no longer completely
stripped from the sour gas. If a scrubber is being operated
Valve Sizing and Selection close to loading constraints, and the lean amine valve is
Outgassing two phase flow in control valve applications sticking badly, then this could cause the scrubber to flood.
requires a special sizing procedure. The potential existence Typical Process Conditions:
of both a compressible (gas or vapor) element and non-
compressible (liquid) element in the flowing media prior — Fluid: Lean Amine
to the throttling orifice cannot be accurately modeled — P1 = 8 - 160 barg (115 – 2,320 psig)
using the standard ANSI/ISA S75.01, IEC 6053421 or other — P2 = 6.4 - 125 barg (95 – 1,815 psig)
proprietary liquid control valve sizing equations. Therefore, in
— T = 55 - 60°C (130 - 140°F)
order to successfully arrive at a reasonable CV that is neither
undersized nor oversized, contact your Emerson sales office — Q = 6 – 210 m3/h (25 – 925 gpm)
to learn more. Typical Control Valve Selection:
Valves and Trims for Rich Amine Applications — NPS 2 to NPS 4 HPAS or HPT or NPS 1 to NPS 2 easy-e
Pressure Class EZ
Process
Conditions CL150-600 CL1500 — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series/
Alloy 6 trim
Contact your Flow down standard style, Flow down standard style,
Emerson sales hardened trim hardened trim — NACE may be required
office to obtain a Hardened Whisper Trim I Hardened Whisper Trim III
copy of the “Fisher Hardened Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, and C1
— Micro-trim may be required depending on flow rate
Outgassing Levels A1, B1, and C1 S17400 Solid alloy 6 cage — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
Process Data Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage Whisper Trim III Level A1
Sheet” Solid alloy 6 cage Whisper
— Class IV Shutoff
Trim I
5. Flashed Gas Valve
Valves and Trims for Outgassing Applications with Low Outlet Gas After rich amine enters the flash tank, the absorbed gases
Volume Ratio and Shows Little Potential to Cavitate
are flashed off. Although this gas may contain some sulfur,
Pressure Class it is usually sent to the refinery fuel gas system after further
Process Conditions
CL150-600 CL1500 and above processing.
Contact your Whisper Trim I Whisper Trim III Typical Process Conditions:
Emerson sales Whisper Trim III Levels A1, B1, Levels A1, B1, and C1
office to obtain a and C1 NotchFlo DST — Fluid: Light hydrocarbon gas
copy of the “Fisher Cavitrol III trim, 1 stage DST trim
Outgassing Process V500 reverse flow control valve — P1 = 7.9 – 12.1 barg (115 - 175 psig)
Data Sheet” NotchFlo DST — P2 = 6.9 – 7.6 barg (100 – 110 psig)
DST trim
— T = 58 - 65°C (137 - 148°F)
— Q = 38 – 1451 m3/h (32,000 - 1,230,000 scfh)
4-69
Typical Control Valve Selection: 8. Amine Make-up Valve

— NPS 1.5 to NPS 2 easy-e ET or EZ The amine generally degrades as it is circulated to the
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series/ scrubbers. Lab tests are run occasionally to check the
Alloy 6 trim strength of the amine. When it becomes low, fresh amine is
— Noise Attenuation trim may be required added to the system to restore the circulating amine. This
valve is not critical, as the amine system can run for long
— ENVIRO-SEAL packing periods of time without makeup.
Poor operation of the scrubber can easily double or triple the
6. Rich Amine Flash Tank Bottoms Valve cost of amine to the refinery on an annual basis.
The bottom product of the flash tank is a sulfur rich amine
liquid. This fluid is sent to the separator (amine regenerator) — Fluid: Lean amine
where the H2S and CO2 are separated from the amine — P1 = 25 – 160 barg (360 – 2,320 psig)
carriers.
— P2 = 24 – 155 barg (350 – 2,250 psig)
Typical Process Conditions: — T = 55 - 60°C (130 - 140°F)
— Fluid: Rich amine — Q = 0.7 - 480 m3/h (3 - 2115 gpm)
— P1 = 8.0 - 12 barg (115 - 175 psig) Typical Control Valve Selection:
— P2 = 5.6 - 10 barg (80 – 145 psig)
— NPS 2 to 6 HPT or NPS 1 to NPS 3 easy-e EZ
— T = 58 - 65°C (135 - 150°F)
— Q = 225 – 490 m3/h (990 – 2160 gpm) SST or 300-series SST trim
Typical Control Valve Selection: — PTFE packing
— NPS 6 V500 or NPS 4 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or EWT — Class IV shutoff
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series/
Alloy 6 or solid Alloy 6 trim
9. Off Gas Valve
— NACE may be required This valve controls the back pressure to the distillation
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing column and is very important in controlling the stability
of the tower. Since many columns use tray temperature to
— Class IV Shutoff
control overhead composition, stable pressure is required
to ensure that temperature changes reflect composition
7. Amine Storage Valve changes.
This valve, along with the amine makeup valve, is used to Typical Process Conditions:
hold the regenerator bottom level. If a scrubber shuts down,
some of the circulating amine will be sent to storage. Also, if — Fluid: Sulfur gas
fresh amine is being added to the system, the excess amine — P1 = 7.3 – 43 barg (105 – 625 psig)
will be eliminated through this valve. — P2 = 2.5 – 42 barg (35 – 610 psig)
The valve typically is used to control the level in the bottom — T = 39 - 115°C (100 - 240°F)
of the column. It normally has no effect on column operation — Q = 18,350 – 43,980 kg/h (40,455 - 96,960 lb/h)
unless it causes the level to change quickly and dramatically.
— NPS 1 to 4 easy-e ET or EZ
— Fluid: Lean amine
— P1 = 8 - 10 barg (115 – 145 psig) SST trim
— P2 = 7.5 – 9 barg (110 – 130 psig) — NACE required
— T = 55 - 60°C (130 - 140°F) — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
— Q = 80,000 – 90,000 kg/h (176,370 – 198,415 lb/h) — Class V shutoff
10. Steam Reboiler Valve
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e EWT or NPS 4 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series The reboil valve controls the amount of heat put into the
SST or 300-series SST trim column by the reboiler. In many cases, steam is used as a heat
source. Steam valves are usually very reliable. The service is
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing very clean, therefore fugitive emissions are not a concern.
— Class IV shutoff However, a problem valve will make the column difficult to
control precisely. This will be especially true if the column
feed is subject to frequent changes.
4-70

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.13.1. Sulfur Recovery Unit Location
Not all reboilers use steam as a heat source. To save energy, restrict the amount of H2S and other sulfur compounds that
many refineries have integrated their units so that higher- can be released to the environment. The sulfur recovery unit
temperature process streams are used to provide heat for (SRU) is used to convert H2S to elemental sulfur through a
lower-temperature processes. In these cases, the reboil valve series of reactors. The Claus process is most commonly used
will foul more easily and might create fugitive emissions to recover sulfur from various refinery gases that contain high
concerns. concentration (more than 25%) of H2S.
Typical Process Conditions: The feed sources for an SRU are acid gases from the amine
unit(s) and sour gas from the sour water strippers. The
— Fluid: Steam acid and sour gases are burned in a reaction furnace in
— P1 = 15 - 30 barg (215 – 435 psig) the presence of enough air and /or oxygen to combust
— P2 = 12 - 19 barg (175 – 275 psig) approximately one third of the incoming H2S plus any
— T = 150 - 230°C (300 - 445°F) remaining hydrocarbons and ammonia. The combustion
products are cooled in the waste heater boiler / thermal
— Q = 4,400 – 6,200 kg/h (9,700 – 13,670 lb/h) sulfur condenser. After the thermal reaction and
Typical Control Valve Selection: condensation, there are three catalytic reactor stages. Each
reactor stage consists of a reheater, catalytic converter,
— NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ and condenser. The elemental sulfur recovered from each
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400 series condenser is run down into a sulfur pit. The final tail gas
SST trim, appropriate for steam service stream can be sent to an incinerator or, depending on local
— Graphite packing environmental regulations, a tail gas treating unit.
— Class IV shutoff The SRU is usually viewed by refinery operations personnel
as an “overhead” or utility unit. However, because of the
4.13 Sulfur Recovery Unit environmental regulations, this unit is extremely important
to total refinery production. Most refineries have multiple
Other Names—SRU, Claus unit SRUs so that a shutdown does not stop the entire refinery.
If an SRU does shut down, the refinery typically has to back
The crude oil processed by refineries contains varying off on production to keep from producing more acid gas
amounts of sulfur. The sulfur is removed during processing, than can be processed by the remaining SRUs. Also, the
mostly as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Environmental regulations SRU capacity in many refineries dictates what types and
4-71
how much high sulfur crudes can be processed. A small Alloy 6 trim
incremental gain in capacity for these refiners can yield — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or graphite packing
significant profit.
— NACE required
The need for recovering sulfur is increasing globally. In the — Class V shutoff
US, sulfur content in crude oil input to refineries has increased
from approximately 0.9 wt% to 1.4 wt%. However, in that 3. Fuel Gas Valve
same time frame, sulfur content allowed in transportation
fuels has reduced from 450 ppm to 15 ppm and will continue This valve is typically used only during startup. It may be
to decrease to 10 ppm by 2020. Other countries are seeing necessary to use fuel gas when there are significant amounts
the same trends as sweet (low sulfur) crude becomes less of ammonia in the sour gas or significant amounts of
available. hydrocarbons from either gas source.
Sulfur Recovery Unit Application Review
— Fluid: Fuel gas
Control valves in the sulfur recovery unit will be prone to
— P1 = 2.0 – 5.7 barg (30 – 85 psig)
corrosion from sulfur. Fluids with high concentrations of
sulfur also require very stable temperature control, due to — P2 = 1.0 – 4.6 barg (15 - 65 psig)
the potential for solidification. Many refiners have added — T = 34 - 38°C (95 - 100°F)
steam jackets to both their control valves and process — Q = 580 – 1,420 Nm3/h (0.49 – 1.2 MMscfd)
equipment to prevent sulfur solidification.
1. Acid Gas from Amine Valve — NPS 2 to NPS 3 GX or NPS 1.5 to NPS 4 easy-e ET or EZ
These valves belong to the various amine contactors located — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
throughout the refinery. The SRU normally has no direct SST or 300-series SST trim
control on the amount of acid gas coming to the SRU. — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or duplex packing
Typical Process Conditions: — May require NACE compliance if gas is sour
— Fluid: Acid gas
— P1 = 0.24 - 2.8 barg (3.5 - 41 psig) 4. Oxygen Valve
— P2 = 0.14 - 2.7 barg (2.0 - 39 psig)
This is an optional process stream for an SRU. It is sometimes
— T = 45 - 90°C (115 - 195°F)
used to boost the capacity of an SRU when another SRU is
— Q = 505 - 7670 Nm3/h (0.43 - 6.5 MMscfd) down.
— NPS 14 Vee-Ball, NPS 8 to NPS 16 Control-Disk, or High — Fluid: Oxygen
Performance Butterfly
— P1 = 2.0 barg (30 psig)
— P2 = 1.0 barg (15 psig)
SST trim
— T = 43°C (110°F)
— NACE required
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE or graphite packing Typical Control Valve Selection:
— Class VI shutoff — NPS 2 to NPS 4 easy-e EZ
— Materials of Construction: 300-series SST or Monel
2. Sour Gas from Sour Water System (SWS) Valve body and trim
These valves belong to the various sour water strippers — ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing
located throughout the refinery. The SRU normally has no — Oxygen service cleaning may be required
direct control on the amount of sour gas coming to the SRU. — Class VI shutoff
5. Main Air Valve
— Fluid: Sour Gas
— P1 = 0.9 - 2.7 barg (13 – 40 psig) The main air valve sets a bulk air flow rate to the thermal
reactor. It is only adjusted to keep the trim air valve in the
— P2 = 0.8 - 2.6 barg (12 – 38 psig)
middle of its control range. Many units use butterfly valves
— T = 85 - 86°C (185 - 187°F) in this service because of low pressure drop requirements,
— Q = 1,420 – 7,435 Nm3/h (1.2 – 6.3 MMscfd) making flow control difficult at best. One way to increase
throttling range is to use a Control-Disk valve in this
application.
— NPS 6 to NPS 8 easy-e EWT or NPS 8 to NPS 10 Vee-Ball
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series/
4-72
REHEATER
STEAM
VALVE
STEAM
#7
REHEATER
STEAM
VALVE
REHEATERS
#8
ACID GAS FROM REHEATER

AMINE VALVE STEAM
VALVE
GAS FROM
AMINE
TREATING #1 #9
SOUR GAS FROM

SOUR WATER
STRIPPER
GAS FROM VALVE
SOUR WATER
STRIPPERS #2
FUEL GAS
VALVE
FUEL GAS
#3
BOILER /
OXYGEN THERMAL REACTOR CONDENSER
VALVE FINAL
CONDENSER
OXYGEN TO TAIL GAS
#4 TREATING OR
INCINERATOR
MAIN AIR
VALVE
MAIN AIR
#5
#10
TRIM AIR
VALVE
TRIM AIR SULFUR

#6 PIT
E1549
Figure 4.13.2. Sulfur Recovery Unit Process Flow Diagram

— Fluid: Air — Fluid: Air
— P1 = 0.13 – 2.2 barg (1.9 - 32 psig) — P1 = 2.6 – 2.8 barg (38 – 41 psig)
— P2 = 0.07 – 2 barg (1 - 30 psig) — P2 = 2.2 – 2.7 barg (32 – 39 psig)
— T = 50 - 120°C (120 - 250°F) — T = 110 - 230°C (230 - 445°F)
— Q = 5,780 – 16,520 Nm3/h (4.9 - 14 MMscfd) — Q = 462 - 1770 Nm3/h (0.39 – 1.5 MMscfd)
— NPS 10 to NPS 16 Control-Disk or NPS 12 to NPS 16 — NPS 4 to NPS 8 easy-e ET or NPS 3 to NPS 6 GX
Vee-Ball — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 400-series
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with soft seal SST or 300-series SST trim
standard trim — Graphite or PTFE packing
— PTFE packing — Class IV or V shutoff
— Class VI shutoff
7., 8. , 9. Reheater Steam Valves
6. Trim Air Valve
These valves are used to control the reaction temperature
This valve is typically tied to a tail gas analyzer and is used to to the Claus reactors. If valve performance is erratic, it can
set the total air flow rate precisely to the thermal reactor. The result in swings in the sulfur conversion, possibly causing an
valve also receives feedforward inputs on the sour gas and environmental excursion or putting more load on the tail gas
acid gas flow rates. treater.
4-73

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.14.1. Pressure Swing Adsorption Unit Location
Typical Process Conditions: Typical Control Valve Selection:

— Fluid: Steam — NPS 4 to NPS 8 Vee-Ball
— P1 = 41 - 48 barg (595 - 695 psig) — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series
— P2 = 10 – 47 barg (145 – 680 psig) SST trim
— T = 255 - 260°C (490 - 500°F) — ENVIRO-SEAL graphite packing
— Q = 700 – 1,910 kg/h (1,545 – 4,210 lb/h) — Class IV shutoff
— NPS 1 to NPS 2 easy-e EZ or ES
4.14 Pressure Swing Adsorption
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 300-series Other Names—PSA, hydrogen purification
SST trim, appropriate for use with steam service Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is a process in which a
— Graphite packing feed gas is separated into a product gas, usually hydrogen,
— Class IV shutoff and an off-gas. This is done by alternately pressurizing and
depressurizing large vessels containing an adsorption media
10. Liquid Sulfur Product Valves in a complex sequence. As a result, valves in PSA service see
high cycle counts, bi-directional flow, and must achieve tight
These level valves handle the molten sulfur from the bi-directional shutoff.
condensers. It is essential that these valves stay over 135°C
The PSA process is based on the principle that adsorbents
(275°F) to keep the sulfur flowing, so steam jackets are often
are capable of adsorbing more impurities at a higher gas-
used.
phase partial pressure than at a lower partial pressure. The
Typical Process Conditions: impurities are adsorbed in a fixed-bed adsorber at high
pressure and then rejected as the system pressure “swings”
— Fluid: Molten sulfur to a lower level. Hydrogen is not adsorbed. The ability to
— T = 165°C (330°F)
4-74
completely adsorb impurities allows the production of a PSA BASIC FLOW SCHEME
hydrogen product with very high purity (99.9%). HYDROGEN
HIGH PURITY (>99.9 VOL � %)
CONSTANT FLOW
The basic flow scheme of the PSA process is shown in figure CONSTANT PRESSURE (HIGH)
4.14.3. The process operates at ambient temperature on a

cyclic basis. The PSA process is a semi-batch-type process PSA UNIT
that uses multiple adsorbers to provide constant feed, FEED GAS 4 - 20 ADSORBERS
product, and offgas flows. The high purity hydrogen product CONSTANT FLOW
CONSTANT PRESSURE (HIGH)
VALVE-SKID
leaves the system close to the feed gas pressure. The off- CONTROL SYSTEM
gas (impurities and the hydrogen losses) is available at low

pressure as fuel.
OFFGAS
In refining, high purity hydrogen is commonly required for CONSTANT FLOW
CONSTANT PRESSURE (LOW)
sulfur removal and improvement of hydrocarbon products. MIXING
CONSTANT COMPOSITION
While sulfur restrictions on gasoline and diesel become E1154 DRUM
increasingly stringent, the demand for hydrogen continues to Figure 4.14.2. PSA Basic Flow Scheme
grow.
Figure 4.14.3. Four Bed PSA Process Flow Diagram
interval with modern Fisher valve technologies designed for

Maintaining constant hydrogen supply is a challenge in PSA applications.
the preparation for production of clean fuels. Additionally,
hydrogen management practices impact operating costs, PSA Process Overview
refinery margin and CO2 emissions considerably. An efficient
hydrogen management plan must address issues that A PSA installation consists of four major parts:
encompass the entire refinery in an organized and inclusive
way. Effective hydrogen management has improved refinery 1. Adsorber vessels made from carbon steel and filled with
profitability by millions of dollars annually and helps to avoid adsorbent
the capital cost of new hydrogen production. Profitability 2. Valve and piping skid, including all valves and
improvements and better hydrogen management have been instrumentation, prefabricated and tested in the workshop
achieved by extending the PSA control valve maintenance
4-75
3. Control system, which is normally located in a remote Purge at Low Pressure PURGE
control room and contains the cycle controls (Step 4 to 5)
4. Mixing drum to minimize the composition variation of the The bed is cleaned at low
off-gas pressure using hydrogen rich
A packaged system approach is often used. The process stream that was obtained
valves and piping are shop mounted on a steel frame and from another adsorber
transported to the site as one or more pieces for quick and during the step of co-current
simple installation. depressurization. Impurities
are subsequently removed
The PSA process is a semi-batch process that uses multiple into the offgas stream.
adsorbers to provide constant feed, product, and off-gas
flows. A complete pressure-swing cycle consists of the E1152
OFFGAS
following five basic steps:

1. Adsorption PRODUCT
DEPRES-
Repressurization (Step 5 to 1)
SURIZING
2. Co-current Depressurization BED To prepare the bed again for
3. Counter-current Depressurization adsorption it is repressurized with
hydrogen rich gas obtained from a
4. Purge at low pressure depressurizing adsorber and pure
hydrogen product.
5. Repressurization
These basic steps apply to all PSA units regardless of the
number of adsorber vessels.
E1153
Adsorption (Step 1 to 2) PRODUCT
Feed gas is allowed to pass PSA Control Valve Application Review

co-currently through the
clean adsorbent bed. Here The PSA unit is the backbone of many industries, providing
the impurities are selectively uninterrupted vapor processing to meet the demand for
adsorbed, while pure hydrogen high purity hydrogen. Unfortunately, process facilities are
product at high pressure exits often impacted by control valve problems, which decrease
from the adsorbent bed. the efficiency of the PSA unit. The PSA unit is a demanding
process for control valves. The constant production of vapor
requires an extremely high number of cycles, which can
lead to damaging effects on the PSA process equipment.
FEED
Valves and actuators are expected to stroke as often as once
E1149 every three minutes. Depending on the type and size of the
PSA unit, the quantity and type of control valves will vary,
PRESSURIZATION
Co-current creating diverse control valve issues. Control valve shutoff is
BED Depressurization (Step 2 a major concern because it affects PSA unit efficiency. If valve
to 3) leakage causes contamination from one PSA bed to another,
industrial gas purity can be compromised. Improper selection
After adsorption, the bed has of control valves can be the limiting factor in achieving PSA
been saturated with impurities purity and longevity requirements.
and regeneration is needed.
For recovering the hydrogen 1A – 1D. Feed Valves
trapped in the void spaces,
co-current depressurization These valves provide the feed gas into the clean adsorbent
E1150 makes hydrogen to pass into bed. This valve is either wide open or fully closed, so
the repressurizing beds. throttling control is not important. However, it is important
that the valve reliably opens or closes when required to do so.
Countercurrent
Depressurization (Step 3 to 4) — Fluid: Hydrogen and light hydrocarbons
— P1 = 11 barg (160 psig)
Final depressurization is counter-
current and it is able to blow down — dP = 0.03 bar (0.45 psig)
impurities into the offgas stream. — T = -28 - 45°C (-18 - 115°F)
— NPS 6 8580 with FieldQ actuator
E1151
OFFGAS — No valve positioner is used on this valve, but a stroking
4-76
H2
4A 4B 4C 4D
3A 3B 3C 3D
BED 1 BED 2 BED 3 BED 4
2A 2B 2C 2D
OFFGAS
1A 1B 1C 1D
FEED GAS
E1548 FOUR BED PSA SCHEMATIC
Figure 4.14.4. Four Bed PSA Process Flow Diagram with valve numbers
speed requirement of 2 seconds or less 3A – 3D. Providing Purge Valves

— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 316 SST These valves provide a hydrogen rich purge stream from one
disk with reinforced PTFE seal adsorber to a second adsorber to remove off gas from the
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing second adsorbent bed.
— Class VI shutoff Typical Process Conditions:
2A – 2D. Dump/Purge Valves — Fluid: Hydrogen
These valves are opened during the depressurization — P1 =2.1 – 6.6 barg (30 – 95 psig)
handling the off gas from the adsorbent bed. To remove the — dP = 0.66 – 5.5 bar (10 – 80 psi)
off gas, a hydrogen rich stream is purged to the adsorbent — T = -28 – 45°C (-18 - 115°F)
bed from another adsorber.
— NPS 3 GX
— Fluid: Off gas — Stroking speed requirement of 2 seconds or less
— P1 = 0.54 – 2.1 barg (8 – 30 psig) — Materials of Construction: WCC body with 316L SST
— dP = 0.02 – 1.6 bar (0.3 – 23 psi) Ion Nitrided plug and PTFE seat
— T = -28 - 45°C (-18 - 115°F) — Live-loaded PTFE packing
Typical Control Valve Selection: — Class VI shutoff, bi-directional flow
— NPS 10 8580 with FieldQ actuator 4A – 4D. Equalization Valves
— Stroking speed requirement of 2 seconds or less
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 316 SST
disk with reinforced PTFE seal — Fluid: Hydrogen
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing — P1 = 11 barg (160 psig)
— Class VI shutoff, bi-directional flow — dP = 0.12 – 5.2 bar (1.7 – 75 psi)
— T = -28 – 45°C (-18 - 115°F)
4-77

STEAM HYDROGEN
GAS REFORMER SWING
ADSORPTION
REFINERY
AMINE UNIT FUEL GAS
SULFUR SULFUR
GAS PLANT RECOVERY
LPG BUTANES

HYDROTREATER
CATALYTIC GASOLINE
REFORMER BLENDING
CRUDE HEAVY NAPHTHA
ATMOSPHERIC
OIL HYDROTREATER
CRUDE ALKYLATION
DISTILLATION
DIESEL
HYDROTREATER
DESALTER
HYDROCRACKER
DISTILLATE
FLUID BLENDING
GAS OIL
CATALYTIC
HYDROTREATER
CRACKER
VACUUM
DISTILLATION
HYDROTREATER

BLENDING
E1161 COKE
Figure 4.15.1. Blending Unit Locations

4.15 Blending Unit
— NPS 3 8580 with FieldQ actuator
Other Names—Blender
— Stroking speed requirement of 2 seconds or less
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 316 SST Products made in various refining units are blended in
disk and reinforced PTFE (RPTFE) seal appropriate ratios to meet final product specifications of
gasoline, diesel, or other products that are shipped out of the
refinery via pipelines, trucks, trains, or barges.
— Class VI shutoff, bi-directional flow
A blending unit creates a finished refinery product stream.
5A-5D. Product/Repressurization Valves The most common type is a gasoline blender. However,
blenders are also used for other products, such as diesel or jet
These valves control the pure hydrogen product processed fuel.
in the PSA unit. Hydrogen from the PSA unit is used in many
refining processes. A gasoline blender can create several different products from
the same available components. For example, most refineries
Typical Process Conditions: produce three octane grades of unleaded gasoline. There are
— Fluid: Hydrogen different specifications on gasoline vapor pressure depending
on whether it is summer or winter. Also, different regional
— P1 = 11 barg (160 psig) environmental requirements exist depending on where the
— dP = 0.12 – 5.22 bar (1.7 – 75 psi) gasoline is to be marketed. Each of these considerations
— T = -28 – 45°C (-18 - 115°F) requires a different mix of the gasoline components
produced by the refinery.
For a given gasoline product there will be a calculated recipe
— NPS 3 8580 with FieldQ actuator for how much of each component should go into the product
— Stroking speed requirement of 2 seconds or less tank. The flow controller from each component tank will be
— Materials of Construction: WCC body with 316 SST set accordingly.
disk and reinforced PTFE (RPTFE) seal Note that the most frequent problems encountered within
— ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE packing blenders are not usually caused by control valves. Inaccurate
— Class VI shutoff lab, faulty on-line analyzer results, or biased flow indications
4-78
pose far greater problems. In addition, there are lineup

valves used to connect tanks that are either opened or
closed. The lineup valves, whether manually or automatically
manipulated, have the potential for ruining an entire tank (or
tanks) of product if not set to the correct position. #1
The consequence of poor blending can be severe. Product

specification giveaway can easily cost $0.05 to $0.10/BBL of
gasoline, or $150M to $300M per year for every 10 MBPD of
gasoline produced.
Blending Unit Application Review #2
1.,2.,3.,4. Component Valves

The example above is based on 20 MBPD of gasoline
production. These valves are manipulated by flow control
PRODUCT
loops. The flows are set according to product recipe #3
STORAGE TANK
requirements. Many blenders have advanced control
algorithms to monitor the flow through these valves.
A sticking valve is usually of no consequence to blending
operation as long as the average flow target is met. A stuck
valve is a bigger problem if it goes unnoticed and the blend is
#4
being done manually.
COMPONENT
Once discovered, the control valve can be blocked in and COMPONENT
VALVES
bypassed. However, the amount of flow for that component STORAGE TANKS
must be recalculated to make up for the deviation from flow E0935
setpoint by the end of the blend for that product tank. Most Figure 4.15.2. Blending Unit Process Flow Diagram
blend control packages can pick up and correct this particular
problem.
— Fluid: Gasoline
— P1 = 4.8 – 5.9 barg (70 - 85 psig)
— P2 = 3.4 – 4.1 barg (50 - 60 psig)
— T = 27 - 38°C (80 - 100°F)
— Q = 200 – 665 m3/h (880 – 2930 gpm)
— NPS 2 to NPS 6 Control-Disk or NPS 3 to NPS 6 Vee-Ball
SST trim
— PTFE packing
4-79
5
Terminology
This section will go through

common terminology for key
applications and solutions in
the refining industry.
Topic Page
5.1 Refining Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.2 Process Control Terminology. . . . . . . . . 5-5
5.3 Sliding-Stem Control Valve Terminology . . 5-7
5.4 Rotary Control Valve Terminology . . . . . . 5-9
5.5 Control Valve Functions and
Characteristics Terminology . . . . . . . . 5-9
5 - Terminology
5.1 Refining Terminology temperature or pressure at which the reaction takes place or
speed it up.
Acid Gas: Gas stream containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and/ Catalytic cracking: A central process in refining in which
or carbon dioxide (CO2). heavy gas oil range feeds are subjected to heat in the
Adsorbents: Special materials like activated charcoal, presence of a catalyst and large molecules crack into smaller
alumina or silica gel, used in an adsorption process that molecules in the gasoline and surrounding ranges.
selectively cause some compounds, but not others, to attach Catalytic reforming: The process in refining in which
themselves mechanically as liquids. naphthas are changed chemically to increase their octane
Adsorption: A separation process in which gas molecules numbers. Paraffins are converted to iso-paraffins and
condense or liquid molecules crystallize onto a solid that has naphthenes are converted to aromatics. The catalyst is
a porous surface. The pore size dictates the selectivity of the platinum and sometimes palladium.
solid for a particular solute. Catalyst Activity: A catalyst sample is reacted, under
Alkylate: The product of an alkylation process. Alkylate standard cracking conditions with a standard feedstock. The
Bottoms: A thick, dark-brown oil containing high-molecular- yield of gasoline obtained is a measure of the activity of the
weight polymerization products of alkylation reactions. catalyst, i.e., its tendency to convert feedstock to gasoline.
Alkylation: A polymerization process uniting olefins and Coke: A product of the coking process in the form of solid,
isoparaffins, particularly, the reacting of butylene and densely packed carbon atoms. Various forms of coke
isobutane, with sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid as a catalyst, include green coke , a run of the mill coke from most cokers;
to produce a high-octane, lowsensitivity blending agent for sponge coke, the same as green coke and notable by its
gasoline. fine, sponge-likestucture; calcinable coke, a high grade of
coke that is suitable for making industrial product; needle
Amines: Chemical solvent for the removal of H2S and coke, avery high grade of coke characterized by crystalline
CO2 from natural gas streams. Common amines include structure. Also, deposits of carbon that settle on catalysts in
monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA). cat crackers, cat reformers, hydrocrackers, and hydrotreaters
Aromatics: Cyclic hydrocarbons in which five, six, or seven and degrade their effectiveness.
carbon atoms are linked in a ring structure with alternating Coker: A refinery process in which heavy feed such as flasher
double and single bonds. Common aromatics in refinery bottoms cycle oil from a cat cracker or thermal crack gas oil
streams are benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene. cooked at high temperatures. Cracking creates light oils; coke
Asphalt: A heavy, semi-solid petroleum product that form in the reactors and needs to be removed after they fill
gradually softens when heated and is used for surface up.
cementing. Typically, brown or black in color, it is composed Condensate: The relatively small amount of liquid
of high carbon-to-hydrogen hydrocarbons plus some oxygen. hydrocarbon, typically C4’s through naphtha or oil gas that
It occurs naturally in crude oil or can be distilled or extracted. gets produced in the oil patch with an unassociated gas. Also,
Also, The end product used for area surfacing consisting of the liquid formed when a vapor cools.
refinery asphalt mixed with aggregate.
Conversion: A measure of quantity of feed converted into
Barrel: A standard of measurement in the oil industry: lighter products. Conversion is calculated by subtracting
equivalent 42 US gallons, 35 Imperial gallons, or 159 liters. the percent yield of material heavier than gasoline from
Benzene (C6H6): A chemical consisting a six-carbon ring 100. Standard conversion is based on a 430°F TBP cut point
connected by with double and single bonds. Benzene has gasoline.
excellent octane characteristics but it is carcinogenic and Cracked gas: The C4 stream coming from a cat cracker,
therefore it’s content in gasoline is limited severely by coker or thermal cracker, containing olefins in addition to the
regulation. Benzene is used in a large number of chemical saturated paraffins.
processes including styrene and detergents.
Cracked gas plants: The set of column and treaters in
Blending: One of the final operations in refining in which refinery that handle separation and treating of the cracked,
two or more components are mixed to obtain a specified olefinic gases.
range of properties in the finished product.
Cracking: The breaking down of higher molecular-weight
Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid will boil. hydrocarbons to lighter components by application of heat.
(See end point and initial boiling point.) Cracking in the presence of a catalyst improves product yield
Bottoms: In general, the higher boiling residue that is and quality over those obtained in simple thermal cracking.
removed from the bottom of a fractionating column. Cycle Gas Oil: This designation is given to all liquid products
Bubble cap tray: The trays in a fractionator consisting of a from the cracking process boiling above gasoline.
plate with hole and bubble caps. The latter cause the vapor Debutanizer: A tower in which butane is removed by
coming from the bottom to come in intimate contact with distillation from a hydrocarbon stream.
the liquid sitting on the tray.
De-coking: The process of removing coke from catalyst in
Catalyst: A substance present in a chemical reaction that a cat cracker, cat reformer, hydrocracker, or hydrotreater.
will promote or cause the reaction, but not take part in it Usually heated air will oxidize the coke to carbon monoxide
by chemically changing itself. Sometimes used to lower the or carbon dioxide.
5-2
5 - Terminology
Delayed coker: A process unit in which residue is cooked will have a cylindrical vessel through which one stream
until it cracks to coke & light products. can flow and a set of pipes or tubes in series in the cylinder
through which the other can flow. Heat transfers through the
Deisobutanizer: A distillation column in which isobutane is
tubes by conduction.
removed from a petroleum fraction.
Heating oil: Any distillate or residual fuel.
Diesel: 1. An internal combustion engine in which ignition
occurs by injecting fuel in a cylinder where air has been Heavy Gas Oil: A distillate product composed of material
compressed and is at a very high temperature, causing self- having a cut point of 345°C to 425°C (650°F to 800°F). The
ignition. 2. Distillate fuel used in a diesel engine. heavy gas oil is then sent to the catalytic cracker as feed.
Distillate: A product of distillation, or the fluid condensed HF alkylation: Alkylation using hydrofluoric acid as a
from the vapor driven off during distillation. Gasoline, catalyst.
naphtha, kerosene, and light lubricating oils are examples of
distillates. Hydrocarbon: Any organic compound comprised of
hydrogen and carbon, including crude oil, natural gas, and
Distillation: A physical separation process in which different coal.
hydrocarbon fractions are separated by means of heating,
vaporization, fractionation, condensation, and cooling. Hydrocracking: The breaking of hydrocarbon chains
into smaller compounds in the presence of hydrogen
Endothermic Reaction: A reaction in which must be and a catalyst. The end result is high quality gasoline and
added to maintain reactants and products at a constant isobutene, which is then used in the alkylation plant.
temperature.
Hydrodesulfurization: A sub-process of hydrotreating. Used
Exothermic Reaction: A reaction in which heat is evolved. primarily to remove sulfur from the crude feedstock and
Alkylation, polymerization, and hydrogenation reactions are finished products utilizing a selected catalyst in a hydrogen
exothermic. environment.
Fixed bed: A place in a vessel for catalyst through or by which Hydrogeneration: Filling in with hydrogen the “free” places
feed can be passed for reaction; as opposed to a fluid bed, around the double bonds in an unsaturated hydrocarbon
where the catalyst moves with the feed. molecule.
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC): The most popular design of Hydrotreating: A process used to saturate olefins and
cat cracking in which a powdery catalyst that flows like a fluid improve hydrocarbon streams by removing unwanted
is mixed with the feed and the reaction takes place as the materials such as nitrogen, sulfur, and metals utilizing a
feed/ catalyst is in motion. selected catalyst in a hydrogen environment.
Fractionation: A counter-current operation in which a vapor Isomerization: The rearrangement of straight-chain
mixture is repeatedly brought in contact with liquids having hydrocarbon molecules to form branched-chain products.
nearly the same composition as the respective vapors, Pentanes and hexanes, which are difficult to reform, are
liquids are at their boiling points; hence part of the vapor is isomerized by the use of aluminum chloride or precious-
condensed and part of the liquid is vaporized during each metal catalysts to form gasoline-blending components of
contact. In a series of contact treatments, the vapor finally high octane value. Normal butane may be isomerized to
becomes rich in low boiling components, and the liquid provide a portion of the isobutane feed needed for alkylation
becomes rich in high-boiling components. processes.
Fractionator: A closed cylindrical tower arranged with Isomers: Two compounds composed of the identical atoms,
trays through which distilled gas/liquid is caused to bubble. but with different configurations, giving different physical
The trays retain a portion of the condensed liquid and thus properties.
separate the heavier fractions of the gas/liquid from the
lighter fractions of gas/liquid. Also called stabilizer column, Kerosene: A middle-distillate product composed of
fractionating tower, or bubble tower. material of 150°C to 285°C (300°F to 550°F). The exact cut is
determined by various specifications of the finished kerosene.
Fuel oil: Usually residual fuel but sometimes distillate fuel.
Light Ends: Hydrocarbon fractions in the butane and lighter
Furnace oil: A distillate fuel made of cracked or straight run boiling range.
light gas oils, primary for domestic heating because of its
ease of handling and storing. Light Gas Oil:A distillate product composed of material
having a cut point of 230°C to 345°C (450°F to 650°F).
Gas Oil: That material boiling within the general range of
150°C to 400°C (300°F to 750°F). This range usually includes Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): Liquified light-end gases
kerosene, diesel fuel, heating oils, and light fuel oils. Actual used for home heating and cooking. This gas is usually 95
initial and final cut points are determined by specifications of percent propane, and the remainder consists of equal parts
the desired products. of ethane and butane.
Gasoline: A light petroleum product in the range of Middle Distillates: Atmospheric pipe-still cuts boiling in the
approximately 25° C to 205° C (80°F to 400°F) for use in spark range of 150°C to 370°C (300°F to 700°F). The exact cut is
ignited internal combustion engines. determined by the specifications of the products.
Heat exchanger: An apparatus of transferring heat from one Naphtha: A pipe-still cut in the range of 70°C to 215°C (160°F
liquid or vapor stream to another. A typical heat exchanger to 420°F), Pentanes (C5) are the lower boiling naphthas,
5-3
5 - Terminology
at approximately 70°C (160°F). Naphthas are subdivided Reid vapor pressure (RVP): The pressure necessary to
according to the actual pipe-still cuts into light, intermediate, keep a liquid from continually vaporizing as measure in an
heavy and very heavy virgin naphthas. The quantity of apparatus design by Reid himself. Use as a standard measure
the individual cut varies with the crude. A typical pipe-still for gasoline specification.
operation would yield:
Riser: A pipe used to carry the catalyst to a higher level under
C5- 70°C (160°F) - Light virgin naphtha the lifting force of an aerating medium such as air, steam, or
oil vapors. The unit has two risers: spent catalyst and reactor.
70°C to 140°C (160°F to 280°F) - Intermediate virgin naphtha
Residue: The bottoms from a crude oil distilling unit, vacuum
140°C to 165°C (280°F to 330°F) - Heavy virgin naphtha
flasher, thermal cracker, or visbreaker. See long residue and
165°C to 215°C (330°F to 420°F) - Very heavy virgin naphtha short residue.
Naphthas, the major constituents of gasoline, generally must Sats gas plant: The sets of columns and treaters in a refinery
be further processed to make suitable quality gasoline. that handle separation and treatment of the saturated gases.
Naphthenic acids: Organic acids occurring in petroleum that Sour or Sweet Crude: A general classification of crudes
contain a naphthene ring and one or more carboxylic acid according to sulfur content. Various definitions are available:
groups. Naphthenic acids are used in the manufacture of
Sour Crude: A crude that contains sulfur in amounts greater
paint driers and industrial soap.
than 0.5 to 1.0 percent or that contains 0.05 ft3 or more of
Natural Gas: Naturally occurring gas consisting hydrogen sulfide (H2S) per 100 gallon. The exception is West
predominantly of methane, sometimes in conjunction with Texas crude, which is always considered sweet regardless of
crude (associated gas), sometimes alone(unassociated gas). content. Although of high sulfur content, this crude does not
contain highly active sulfur compounds.
Octane number: An index measured by finding a blend
of iso-octane and normal heptane that knocks under the Sweet Crude: A sweet crude contains little or no dissolved
identical conditions as the gasoline being evaluated. It is a hydrogen sulfide and relatively small amounts of mercaptans
measure of the resistance to ignition of the fuel without the and other sulfur compounds.
aid of a spark plug. The higher the octane number, the more Spent Catalyst: Catalyst after use in the cracking reaction.
resistance to pre-or self-ignition. Specifically it refers to catalyst leaving the reactor stripper.
Petroleum coke: (See coke). Sponge oil: The liquid used in an absorption plant to soak up
Polymerization: The combination of two or more the constituent to be extracted.
unsaturated molecules to form a molecule of higher Stabilization: A fractionation operation conducted for the
molecular weight. Propylenes and butylenes are the primary purpose of removing high-vapor-pressure components.
feed material for refinery polymerization processes, which
use solid or liquid phosphoric acid catalysts. Stabilizer: A fractionator use to remove most of the light
ends from straight run gasoline or natural gasoline to make
Quench: Hitting a very hot stream coming out of a reactor, them less volatile.
with a cooler stream to stop immediately the reaction
underway. Steam methane reformer: A primary source of hydrogen in
a refinery, this operating units converts methane and steam
Reactor: The vessel in which the chemical reaction takes to hydrogen, with by product carbon monoxide and carbon
place. dioxide.
Reboiler: A heat exchanger used towards the bottom of a Stripping: An operation in which the significant or desired
fractionator to re-heat or even vaporize a liquid and introduce transfer of material is from the liquid to the vapor phase.
it several trays higher to get more heat into the column to
improve separation. Sweet crude: Crude typically containing 0.5% (by weight) or
less sulfur.
Reflux: A heat exchanger, which takes vapor from the upper
parts of a fractionator, cools it to liquefy it and reintroduces it Sweetening: The removal of sulfur compounds or their
lower column. The purpose is to assure sufficient downward conversion to innocuous substances in a petroleum product
liquid flow meeting the rising vapor to improve separation. by any of several processes (doctor treating, caustic and
water washing, etc.).
Reformate: A high octane, primary product of reforming
naphtha. Tail Gas: Light gases (C1 to C3 and H2) produced as
byproducts of refinery processing.
Reforming: See catalytic reforming or steam methane
reformer. Thermal Cracking: The breaking of hydrocarbon molecules
into smaller compounds. Coking and visbreaking are severe
Regenerator: The vessel in the catalytic process where a forms of thermal cracking.
spent catalyst is brought back up to strength before being
recycled back to the process. An example is the cat cracker Topped crude: Crude that has been run through a distilling
regenerator where coke is burned off the catalyst. unit to remove the gas oil and lighter streams. The so-called
simple refineries that do this sell the long residue as residual
Regenerated Catalyst: Catalyst after the carbon has been fuel.
burnt off. Specifically, it refers to catalyst after it has passed
through the regenerator.
5-4
5 - Terminology
Topping: Removal by distillation of the light products from Controller: A device that operates automatically by use of
crude oil, leaving in the still all the heavier constituents. some established algorithm to regulate a controlled variable.
The controller input receives information about the status of
Unsaturated: A class of hydrocarbons similar to paraffins the process variable and then provides an appropriate output
and naphthenes but that has double bonds or triple bonds signal to the final control element.
replacing the missing hydrogen.
Control Loop: (See Closed Loop.)
Vacuum distillation: Distillation under reduced pressure
in order to keep the temperature low and prevent cracking. Control Range: The range of valve travel over which a control
Most often used to distill lubricant feedstock. valve can maintain the installed valve gain between the
normalized values of 0.5 and 2.0.
Vapor pressure: (See Reid vapor pressure).
Control Valve: (See Control Valve Assembly.)
Visbreaking: Mild thermal cracking aimed at producing
sufficient middle distillates to reduce the viscosity of the Control Valve Assembly: Includes all components normally
heavy feed. mounted on the valve: the valve body assembly, actuator,
positioner, air sets, and transducers, limit switches, etc.
Viscosity: The property of liquids under flow conditions
that causes them to resist instantaneous change of shape or Deadband: The range through which an input signal can
instantaneous rearrangement of their parts due to internal be varied, upon reversal of direction, without initiating an
friction. Viscosity is generally measured as the number of observable change in the output signal. Dead band is the
seconds, at a definite temperature, required for a standard name given to a general phenomenon that can apply to any
quantity of oil-to-flow through a standard apparatus. device. For the valve assembly, the controller output (CO) is
Common viscosity scales in use are Saybolt Universal, Saybolt the input to the valve assembly and the process variable (PV)
Furol, and Kinematic (Stokes). is the output. When the term Dead Band is used, it is essential
that both the input and output variables are identified, and
Volatile: A hydrocarbon is volatile if it has a sufficient amount that any tests to measure dead band be under fully loaded
of butanes and lighter material to noticeable give off vapors conditions. Dead band is typically expressed as a percent of
at atmospheric conditions. the input span.
Wet Gas: Natural gas that has not had the C4 and natural Dead Time: The time interval (Td) in which no response of
gasoline removed. Also, the equivalent of refinery gas the system is detected following a small (usually 0.25% - 5%)
stream. step input. It is measured from the time the step input is
Yield: Either the amount of the desired products or all the initiated to the first detectable response of the system being
products resulting from a process involving chemical change tested. Dead Time can apply to a valve assembly or to the
of the feed. entire process. (See T63.)
Disk: A valve trim element used to modulate the flow rate
5.2 Process Control with either linear or rotary motion. Can also be referred to as
a valve plug or closure member.
Terminology Equal Percentage Characteristic: An inherent flow
Accessory: A device that is mounted on the actuator to characteristic that, for equal increments of rated travel; will
complement the actuator’s function and make it a complete ideally give equal percentage changes of the flow coefficient
operating unit. Examples include positioners, supply pressure (Cv).
regulators, solenoids, and limit switches.
Final Control Element: The device that implements the
Actuator: A pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrically powered control strategy determined by the output of the controller.
device that supplies force and motion to open or close a While the final control element can be a damper, a variable
valve. speed drive pump, or an on-off switching device, the
most common final control element in the process control
Actuator Assembly: An actuator, including all the pertinent
industries is the control valve assembly. The control valve
accessories that make it a complete operating unit.
manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gasses, steam, water,
Backlash: The general name given to a form of dead band or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load
that results from a temporary discontinuity between the disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close
input and output of a device when the input of the device as possible to the desired set point.
changes direction. Slack, or looseness of a mechanical
First-Order: A term that refers to the dynamic relationship
connection, is a typical example.
between the input and output of a device. A first-order
Capacity (Valve): The rate of flow through a valve under system or device is one that has only one energy storage
stated conditions. device and whose dynamic transient relationship between
the input and output is characterized by an exponential
Closed Loop: The interconnection of process control behavior.
components such that information regarding the process
variable is continuously fed back to the controller set point Friction: A force that tends to oppose the relative motion
to provide continuous, automatic corrections to the process between two surfaces that are in contact with each other.
variable. The friction force is a function of the normal force holding
these two surfaces together and the characteristic nature of
the two surfaces. Friction has two components: static friction
5-5
5 - Terminology
and dynamic friction. Static friction is the force that must be that the same straight line will apply for both upscale and
overcome before there is any relative motion between the downscale directions. Thus, dead band as defined above
two surfaces. Once relative movement has begun, dynamic would typically be considered a non-linearity.)
friction is the force that must be overcome to maintain the
relative motion. Running and sliding friction are colloquial Linear Characteristic: An inherent flow characteristic
terms that are sometimes used to describe dynamic that can be represented by a straight line on a rectangular
friction. Stick/slip or “stiction” are colloquial terms that are plot of flow coefficient (Cv) versus rated travel. Therefore
sometimes used to describe static friction. Static friction is equal increments of travel provide equal increments of flow
one of the major causes of dead band in a valve assembly. coefficient, Cv.
Gain: An all-purpose term that can be used in many Loop: (See Closed Loop.)
situations. In its most general sense, gain is the ratio of Loop Gain: The combined gain of all the components in the
the magnitude of the output change of a given system or loop when viewed in series around the loop. Sometimes
device to the magnitude of the input change that caused the referred to as open-loop gain. It must be clearly specified
output change. Gain has two components: static gain and whether referring to the static loop gain or the dynamic loop
dynamic gain. Static gain is the gain relationship between gain at some frequency.
the input and output and is an indicator of the ease with
which the input can initiate a change in the output when the Manual Control: (See Open Loop.)
system or device is in a steady-state condition. Sensitivity Open Loop: The condition where the interconnection
is sometimes used to mean static gain. Dynamic gain is the of process control components is interrupted such that
gain relationship between the input and output when the information from the process variable is no longer fed
system is in a state of movement or flux. Dynamic gain is a back to the controller set point so that corrections to the
function of frequency or rate of change of the input. process variable are no longer provided. This is typically
Hysteresis: The maximum difference in output value for any accomplished by placing the controller in the manual
single input value during a calibration cycle, excluding errors operating position.
due to dead band. Packing: A part of the valve assembly used to seal against
Inherent Characteristic: The relationship between the flow leakage around the valve disk or stem.
coefficient and the closure member travel as it is moved from Positioner: A position controller (servomechanism) that is
the closed position to rated travel with constant pressure mechanically connected to a moving part of a final control
drop across the valve. Typically these characteristics are element or its actuator and that automatically adjusts its
plotted on a curve where the horizontal axis is labeled in output to the actuator to maintain a desired position in
percent travel and the vertical axis is labeled as percent flow proportion to the input signal.
(or Cv). Because valve flow is a function of both the valve
travel and the pressure drop across the valve, conducting Process: All the combined elements in the control loop,
flow characteristic tests at a constant pressure drop provides except the controller. The process typically includes the
a systematic way of comparing one valve characteristic control valve assembly, the pressure vessel or heat exchanger
design to another. Typical valve characteristics conducted in that is being controlled, as well as sensors, pumps, and
this manner are named Linear, Equal-Percentage, and Quick transmitters.
Opening. Process Gain: The ratio of the change in the controlled
Inherent Valve Gain: The magnitude ratio of the change in process variable to a corresponding change in the output of
flow through the valve to the change in valve travel under the controller.
conditions of constant pressure drop. Inherent valve gain Process Variability: A precise statistical measure of how
is an inherent function of the valve design. It is equal to the tightly the process is being controlled about the set point.
slope of the inherent characteristic curve at any travel point Process variability is defined in percent as typically (2s/m),
and is a function of valve travel. where m is the set point or mean value of the measured
Installed Characteristic: The relationship between the flow process variable and s is the standard deviation of the process
rate and the closure member travel as it is moved from the variable.
closed position to rated travel as the pressure drop across the Quick Opening Characteristic: An inherent flow
valve is influenced by the varying process conditions. characteristic in which a maximum flow coefficient is
Installed Valve Gain: The magnitude ratio of the change in achieved with minimal closure member travel.
flow through the valve to the change in valve travel under Relay: A device that acts as a power amplifier. It takes
actual process conditions. Installed valve gain is the valve an electrical, pneumatic, or mechanical input signal and
gain relationship that occurs when the valve is installed in a produces an output of a large volume flow of air or hydraulic
specific system and the pressure drop is allowed to change fluid to the actuator. The relay can be an internal component
naturally according to the dictates of the overall system. of the positioner or a separate valve accessory.
The installed valve gain is equal to the slope of the installed
characteristic curve, and is a function of valve travel. Resolution: The minimum possible change in input required
to produce a detectable change in the output when no
I/P: Shorthand for current-to-pressure (I-to-P). Typically reversal of the input takes place. Resolution is typically
applied to input transducer modules. expressed as a percent of the input span.
Linearity: The closeness to which a curve relating to two
variables approximates a straight line. (Linearity also means
5-6
5 - Terminology
Response Time: Usually measured by a parameter that amplifies, the volume of air supplied to the actuator. (See
includes both dead time and time constant. (See T63, Dead Relay.)
Time, and Time Constant.) When applied to the valve, it
includes the entire valve assembly.
5.3 Sliding-Stem Control Valve
Second-Order: A term that refers to the dynamic
relationship between the input and output of a device. A Terminology
second- order system or device is one that has two energy Actuator Spring: A spring, or group of springs, enclosed in
storage devices that can transfer kinetic and potential energy the yoke or actuator casing that moves the actuator stem in a
back and forth between themselves, thus introducing the direction opposite to that created by diaphragm pressure.
possibility of oscillatory behavior and overshoot.
Actuator Stem: The part that connects the actuator to the
Sensor: A device that senses the value of the process variable valve stem and transmits motion (force) from the actuator to
and provides a corresponding output signal to a transmitter. the valve.
The sensor can be an integral part of the transmitter, or it
may be a separate component. Actuator Stem Extension: An extension of the piston
actuator stem to provide a means of transmitting piston
Set Point: A reference value representing the desired value of motion to the valve positioner.
the process variable being controlled.
Actuator Stem Force: The net force from an actuator that is
Shaft Wind-Up: A phenomenon where one end of a valve available for actual positioning of the valve plug.
shaft turns and the other does not. This typically occurs
in rotary-style valves where the actuator is connected to Angle Valve: A valve design in which one port is co-linear
the valve closure member by a relatively long shaft. While with the valve stem or actuator, and the other port is at a
seal friction in the valve holds one end of the shaft in place, right angle to the valve stem. (See also Globe Valve.)
rotation of the shaft at the actuator end is absorbed by
Bellows Seal Bonnet: A bonnet that uses a bellows for
twisting of the shaft until the actuator input transmits
sealing against leakage around the closure member stem.
enough force to overcome the friction.
Bonnet: The portion of the valve that contains the packing
Sizing (Valve): A systematic procedure designed to ensure
box and stem seal and can guide the stem. It provides the
the correct valve capacity for a set of specified process
principal opening to the body cavity for assembly of internal
conditions.
parts or it can be an integral part of the valve body. It can also
Stiction: (See Friction.) provide for the attachment of the actuator to the valve body.
Typical bonnets are bolted, threaded, welded, pressure-seals,
T63 (Tee-63): A measure of device response. It is measured or integral with the body. (This term is often used in referring
by applying a small (usually 1-5%) step input to the system. to the bonnet and its included packing parts. More properly,
T63 is measured from the time the step input is initiated to this group of component parts should be called the bonnet
the time when the system output reaches 63% of the final assembly.)
steady-state value. It is the combined total of the system
Dead Time (Td) and the system Time Constant (t). (See Dead Bonnet Assembly (Commonly Bonnet, more properly
Time and Time Constant.) Bonnet Assembly): An assembly including the part through
which a valve stem moves and a means for sealing against
Time Constant: A time parameter that normally applies to leakage along the stem. It usually provides a means for
a first-order element. It is the time interval measured from mounting the actuator and loading the packing assembly.
the first detectable response of the system to a small (usually
0.25% - 5%) step input until the system output reaches 63% Bottom Flange: A part that closes a valve body opening
of its final steady-state value. (See T63.) When applied to an opposite the bonnet opening. It can include a guide bushing
open-loop process, the time constant is usually designated and/or serve to allow reversal of the valve action.
as τ (Tau). When applied to a closed-loop system, the time
Bushing: A device that supports and/ or guides moving parts
constant is usually designated as λ (Lambda).
such as valve stems.
Transmitter: A device that senses the value of the process
Cage: A part of a valve trim that surrounds the closure
variable and transmits a corresponding output signal to the
member and can provide flow characterization and/or a
controller for comparison with the set point.
seating surface. It also provides stability, guiding, balance,
Travel: The movement of the closure member from the and alignment, and facilitates assembly of other parts of
closed position to an intermediate or rated full open position. the valve trim. The walls of the cage contain openings that
usually determine the flow characteristic of the control valve.
Travel Indicator: A pointer and scale used to externally show
the position of the closure member typically with units of Closure Member: The movable part of the valve that is
opening percent of travel or degrees of rotation. positioned in the flow path to modify the rate of flow through
the valve.
Trim: The internal components of a valve that modulate the
flow of the controlled fluid. Closure Member Guide: That portion of a closure member
that aligns its movement in a cage, seat ring, bonnet, bottom
Valve: (See Control Valve Assembly.) flange, or any two of these.
Volume Booster: A stand-alone relay is often referred to as Cylinder: The chamber of a piston actuator in which the
a volume booster or simply booster because it boosts, or piston moves.
5-7
5 - Terminology
Cylinder Closure Seal: The sealing element at the end of the yoke to prevent leakage of the diaphragm pressure
connection of the piston actuator cylinder to the yoke. along the actuator stem.
Diaphragm: A flexible, pressure responsive element that Rubber Boot: A protective device to prevent entrance of
transmits force to the diaphragm plate and actuator stem. damaging foreign material into the piston actuator seal
bushing.
Diaphragm Actuator: A fluid powered device in which the
fluid acts upon a flexible component, the diaphragm. Seal Bushing: Top and bottom bushings that provide
a means of sealing the piston actuator cylinder against
Diaphragm Case: A housing, consisting of top and bottom
leakage. Synthetic rubber O-rings are used in the bushings to
section, used for supporting a diaphragm and establishing
seal the cylinder, the actuator stem, and the actuator stem
one or two pressure chambers.
extension.
Diaphragm Plate: A plate concentric with the diaphragm for
Seat: The area of contact between the closure member and
transmitting force to the actuator stem.
its mating surface that establishes valve shut-off.
Direct Actuator: A diaphragm actuator in which the actuator
Seat Load: The net contact force between the closure
stem extends with increasing diaphragm pressure.
member and seat with stated static conditions. In practice,
Extension Bonnet: A bonnet with greater dimension the selection of an actuator for a given control valve will be
between the packing box and bonnet flange for hot or cold based on how much force is required to overcome static,
service. stem, and dynamic unbalance with an allowance made for
seat load.
Globe Valve: A valve with a linear motion closure member,
one or more ports, and a body distinguished by a globular Seat Ring: A part of the valve body assembly that provides a
shaped cavity around the port region. Globe valves can be seating surface for the closure member and can provide part
further classified as: two-way single-ported; two-way double- of the flow control orifice.
ported; angle-style, three-way; unbalanced cage-guided; and
Separable Flange: A flange that fits over a valve body
balance cage-guided.
flow connection. It is generally held in place by means of a
Lower Valve Body: A half housing for internal valve parts retaining ring.
having one flow connection. The seat ring is normally
Spring Adjustor: A fitting, usually threaded on the actuator
clamped between the upper valve body and the lower valve
stem or into the yoke, to adjust the spring compression.
body in split valve constructions.
Spring Seat: A plate to hold the spring in position and to
Offset Valve: A valve construction having inlet and outlet line
provide a flat surface for the spring adjustor to contact.
connections on different planes but 180 degrees opposite
each other. Static Unbalance: The net force produced on the valve stem
by the fluid pressure acting on the closure member and stem
Packing Box (Assembly): The part of the bonnet assembly
with the fluid at rest and with stated pressure conditions.
used to seal against leakage around the closure member
stem. Included in the complete packing box assembly Stem Connector: The device that connects the actuator
are various combinations of some or all of the following stem to the valve stem.
component parts: packing, packing follower, packing nut,
lantern ring, packing spring, packing flange, packing flange Trim: The internal components of a valve that modulate the
studs or bolts, packing flange nuts, packing ring, packing flow of the controlled fluid. In a globe valve body, trim would
wiper ring, felt wiper ring, Belleville springs, anti-extrusion typically include closure member, seat ring, cage, stem, and
ring. stem pin.
Piston: A movable pressure responsive element that Trim, Soft-Seated: Valve trim with an elastomeric, plastic or
transmits force to the piston actuator stem. other readily deformable material used either in the closure
component or seat ring to provide tight shutoff with minimal
Piston Type Actuator: A fluid powered device in which the actuator forces.
fluid acts upon a movable piston to provide motion to the
actuator stem. Piston type actuators are classified as either Upper Valve Body: A half housing for internal valve parts and
double-acting, so that full power can be developed in either having one flow connection. It usually includes a means for
direction, or as spring-fail so that upon loss of supply power, sealing against leakage along the stem and provides a means
the actuator moves the valve in the required direction of for mounting the actuator on the split valve body.
travel. Valve Body: The main pressure boundary of the valve
Plug: A term frequently used to refer to the closure member. that also provides the pipe connecting ends, the fluid flow
passageway, and supports the seating surfaces and the
Port: The flow control orifice of a control valve. valve closure member. Among the most common valve
body constructions are: a) single-ported valve bodies having
Retaining Ring: A split ring that is used to retain a separable
one port and one valve plug; b) double-ported valve bodies
flange on a valve body.
having two ports and one valve plug; c) two-way valve bodies
Reverse Actuator: A diaphragm actuator in which the having two flow connections, one inlet and one outlet; d)
actuator stem retracts with increasing diaphragm pressure. three-way valve bodies having three flow connections, two of
Reverse actuators have a seal bushing installed in the upper which can be inlets with one outlet (for converging or mixing
flows), or one inlet and two outlets (for diverging or diverting
5-8
5 - Terminology
flows). The term valve body, or even just body, frequently is Plug, Eccentric: Style of rotary control valve with an
used in referring to the valve body together with its bonnet eccentrically rotating plug which cams into and out of the
assembly and included trim parts. More properly, this group seat, which reduces friction and wear. This style of valve has
of components should be called the valve body assembly. been well suited for erosive applications.
Valve Body Assembly (Commonly Valve Body or Valve, Reverse Flow: Flow from the shaft side over the back of
more properly Valve Body Assembly): An assembly of a the disk, ball, or plug. Some rotary-shaft control valves are
valve, bonnet assembly, bottom flange (if used), and trim capable of handling flow equally well in either direction.
elements. The trim includes the closure member, which Other rotary designs might require modification of actuator
opens, closes, or partially obstructs one or more ports. linkage to handle reverse flow.
Valve Plug: A term frequently interchanged with plug in Rod End Bearing: The connection often used between
reference to the closure member. actuator stem and actuator lever to facilitate conversion of
linear actuator thrust to rotary force with minimum of lost
Valve Stem: In a linear motion valve, the part that connects
motion. Use of a standard reciprocating actuator on a rotary-
the actuator stem with the closure member.
shaft valve body commonly requires linkage with two rod
Yoke: The structure that rigidly connects the actuator power end bearings. However, selection of an actuator specifically
unit to the valve. designed for rotary-shaft valve service requires only one such
bearing and thereby reduces lost motion.
5.4 Rotary Control Valve Rotary Control Valve: A valve style in which the flow closure
member (full ball, partial ball, disk or plug) is rotated in the
Terminology flowstream to control the capacity of the valve.
Actuator Lever: Arm attached to rotary valve shaft to Seal Ring: The portion of a rotary-shaft control valve
convert linear actuator stem motion to rotary force to assembly corresponding to the seat ring of a globe valve.
position disk or ball of rotary-shaft valve. The lever normally Positioning of the disk or ball relative to the seal ring
is positively connected to the rotary shaft by close tolerance determines the flow area and capacity of the unit at that
splines or other means to minimize play and lost motion. particular increment of rotational travel. As indicated above,
some seal ring designs permit bi-directional flow.
Ball, Full: The flow-controlling member of rotary-shaft
control valves using a complete sphere with a flow passage Shaft: The portion of a rotary-shaft control valve assembly
through it. The flow passage equals or matches the pipe corresponding to the valve stem of a globe valve. Rotation
diameter. of the shaft positions the disk or ball in the flowstream and
thereby controls capacity of the valve.
Ball, Segmented: The flow-controlling member of rotary
shaft control valves using a partial sphere with a flow passage Sliding Seal: The lower cylinder seal in a pneumatic piston-
through it. style actuator designed for rotary valve service. This seal
permits the actuator stem to move both vertically and
Ball, V-notch: The most common type of segmented ball
laterally without leakage of lower cylinder pressure.
control valve. The V-notch ball includes a polished or plated
partial-sphere surface that rotates against the seal ring Standard Flow: For those rotary-shaft control valves having
throughout the travel range. The V-shaped notch in the ball a separate seal ring or flow ring, the flow direction in which
permits wide rangeability and produces an equal percentage fluid enters the valve body through the pipeline adjacent to
flow characteristic. the seal ring and exits from the side opposite the seal ring.
Sometimes called forward flow. (See also Reverse Flow.)
Disk, Conventional: The symmetrical flow-controlling
member used in the most common varieties of butterfly Trunnion Mounting: A style of mounting the disk or ball on
rotary valves. High dynamic torques normally limit the valve shaft or stub shaft with two bearings diametrically
conventional disks to 60 degrees maximum rotation in opposed.
throttling service.
Disk, Dynamically Designed: A butterfly valve disk 5.5 Control Valve Functions and
contoured to reduce dynamic torque at large increments of
rotation, thereby making it suitable for throttling service with Characteristics Terminology
up to 90 degrees of disk rotation. Bench Set: The calibration of the actuator spring range of a
Disk, Eccentric: Common name for valve design in which the control valve to account for the in-service process forces.
positioning of the valve shaft/disk connections causes the Capacity: Rate of flow through a valve under stated
disk to take a slightly eccentric path on opening. This allows conditions.
the disk to be swung out of contact with the seal as soon as it
is opened, thereby reducing friction and wear. Clearance Flow: That flow below the minimum controllable
flow with the closure member not seated.
Flangeless Valve: Valve style common to rotary-shaft
control valves. Flangeless valves are held between ANSI-class Diaphragm Pressure Span: Difference between the high
flanges by long through-bolts (sometimes also called wafer- and low values of the diaphragm pressure range. This can be
style valve bodies). stated as an inherent or installed characteristic.
5-9
5 - Terminology
Double-Acting Actuator: An actuator in which power is diaphragm pressure range can differ from the installed
supplied in either direction. diaphragm pressure range.
Dynamic Unbalance: The net force produced on the valve Installed Flow Characteristic: The relationship between the
plug in any stated open position by the fluid pressure acting flow rate and the closure member travel as it is moved from
upon it. the closed position to rated travel as the pressure drop across
the valve is influenced by the varying process conditions.
Effective Area: In a diaphragm actuator, the effective area is
that part of the diaphragm area that is effective in producing Leakage: (See Seat Leakage.)
a stem force. The effective area of a diaphragm might change
as it is stroked, usually being a maximum at the start and a Linear Flow Characteristic: (See Process Control
minimum at the end of the travel range. Molded diaphragms Terminology: Linear Characteristic.)
have less change in effective area than flat sheet diaphragms; Low-Recovery Valve: A valve design that dissipates a
thus, molded diaphragms are recommended. considerable amount of flowstream energy due to turbulence
Equal Percentage Flow Characteristic: (See Process Control created by the contours of the flow path. Consequently,
Terminology: Equal Percentage Flow Characteristic.) pressure downstream of the valve vena contracta recovers
to a lesser percentage of its inlet value than is the case with
Fail-Closed: A condition wherein the valve closure member a valve having a more streamlined flow path. Although
moves to a closed position when the actuating energy source individual designs vary, conventional globe-style valves
fails. generally have low pressure recovery capability.
Fail-Open: A condition wherein the valve closure member Modified Parabolic Flow Characteristic: An inherent flow
moves to an open position when the actuating energy source characteristic that provides equal percent characteristic
fails. at low closure member travel and approximately a linear
characteristic for upper portions of closure member travel.
Fail-Safe: A characteristic of a valve and its actuator, which
upon loss of actuating energy supply, will cause a valve Normally Closed Valve: (See Fail-Closed.)
closure member to be fully closed, fully open, or remain in
the last position, whichever position is defined as necessary Normally Open Valve: (See Fail-Open.)
to protect the process. Fail-safe action can involve the use of Push-Down-to-Close Construction: A globe-style valve
auxiliary controls connected to the actuator. construction in which the closure member is located
Flow Characteristic: Relationship between flow through the between the actuator and the seat ring, such that extension
valve and percent rated travel as the latter is varied from 0 to of the actuator stem moves the closure member toward
100 percent. This term should always be designated as either the seat ring, finally closing the valve. The term can also
inherent flow characteristic or installed flow characteristic. be applied to rotary-shaft valve constructions where linear
extension of the actuator stem moves the ball or disk toward
Flow Coefficient (Cv): A constant (Cv) related to the the closed position. (Also called direct acting.)
geometry of a valve, for a given travel, that can be used to
establish flow capacity. It is the number of U.S. gallons per Push-Down-to-Open Construction: A globe-style valve
minute of 15°C (60°F) water that will flow through a valve construction in which the seat ring is located between the
with a one pound per square inch pressure drop. actuator and the closure member, so that extension of the
actuator stem moves the closure member from the seat
High-Recovery Valve: A valve design that dissipates ring, opening the valve. The term can also be applied to
relatively little flow-stream energy due to streamlined rotary-shaft valve constructions where linear extension of
internal contours and minimal flow turbulence. Therefore, the actuator stem moves the ball or disk toward the open
pressure downstream of the valve vena contracta recovers position. (Also called reverse acting.)
to a high percentage of its inlet value. Straight-through flow
valves, such as rotary-shaft ball valves, are typically high- Quick Opening Flow Characteristic: (See Process Control
recovery valves. Terminology: Quick Opening Characteristic.)
Inherent Diaphragm Pressure Range: The high and low Rangeability: The ratio of the largest flow coefficient (Cv) to
values of pressure applied to the diaphragm to produce rated the smallest flow coefficient (Cv) within which the deviation
valve plug travel with atmospheric pressure in the valve body. from the specified flow characteristic does not exceed the
This range is often referred to as a bench set range because it stated limits. A control valve that still does a good job of
will be the range over which the valve will stroke when it is set controlling when flow increases to 100 times the minimum
on the work bench. controllable flow has a rangeability of 100 to 1. Rangeability
can also be expressed as the ratio of the maximum to
Inherent Flow Characteristic: The relationship between the minimum controllable flow rates.
flow rate and the closure member travel as it is moved from
the closed position to rated travel with constant pressure Rated Flow Coefficient (Cv): The flow coefficient (Cv) of the
drop across the valve. valve at rated travel.
Installed Diaphragm Pressure Range: The high and low Rated Travel: The distance of movement of the closure
values of pressure applied to the diaphragm to produce rated member from the closed position to the rated full-open
travel with stated conditions in the valve body. It is because position. The rated full-open position is the maximum
of the forces acting on the closure member that the inherent opening recommended by the manufacturers.
5-10
5 - Terminology
Relative Flow Coefficient: The ratio of the flow coefficient

(Cv) at a stated travel to the flow coefficient (Cv) at rated
travel.
Seat Leakage: The quantity of fluid passing through a valve
when the valve is in the fully closed position with pressure
differential and temperature as specified.
Spring Rate: The force change per unit change in length of a
spring. In diaphragm control valves, the spring rate is usually
stated in pounds force per inch compression.
Stem Unbalance: The net force produced on the valve stem
in any position by the fluid pressure acting upon it.
Vena Contracta: The portion of a flow stream where fluid
velocity is at its maximum and fluid static pressure and the
cross-sectional area are at their minimum. In a control valve,
the vena contracta normally occurs just downstream of the
actual physical restriction.
5-11
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© 2014 Fisher Controls International LLC. All rights reserved.
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unit of Emerson Electric Co. Emerson Process Management, Emerson, and the Emerson logo are trademarks and
service marks of Emerson Electric Co. All other marks are the property of their respective owners.
The contents of this publication are presented for informational purposes only, and while every effort
Emerson Process Management has been made to ensure their accuracy, nothing herein is to be construed as a warranty or guarantee,
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Control Valve

The products go through many

BUTANE AND LIGHTER LIQUIFIED

UNSATURATED ALKYLATION FEED

Figure 1.1.1. Complete Refinery

LIGHT STRAIGHT RUN

ATMOSPHERIC GAS OIL FCC GASOLINE

ATMOSPHERIC CRUDE DISTILLATION

VACUUM VACUUM GAS OIL COKER GAS OIL NO. 2

the raw materials, some of the intermediate petroleum Valve Selection

Serving You for the Life of

PRECISE ACTUATION LOW-EMISSIONS PERFORMANCE HIGH-CYCLE TESTING

WITHSTANDING VIBRATION REDUCING PROCESS VARIABILITY QUIETING NOISE

The Fisher Story—125 Years of Process Control

control valves available anywhere

materials, flow characteristics, and

end connections. Complementary

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also available. Popular sliding-

HIGH PRESSURE, HIGH FLOW STEAM CONDITIONING

Built-to-last design with rugged cage Enhanced pressure reduction capabilities

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS SWEET OR SOUR OIL AND HIGH-PRESSURE GAS SERVICE

performance are the

requirements, the Fisher line of

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rotary valve products include ball,

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nonclogging, high capacity flow control.

HARD-TO-HANDLE FLUIDS HIGH PERFORMANCE

WIDE CONTROL RANGE PIPELINE CONTROL

Fisher Control-Disk™ valves have a Designed from the ground up with

TIGHT SHUTOFF AUTOMATED ON-OFF

wide selection of Fisher DIGITAL VALVE CONTROLLER

A digital, pneumatic and

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DIGITAL VALVE CONTROLLER VALVE DIAGNOSTICS SOFTWARE

Non-contact, linkage-less travel feedback ValveLink software is the configuration,

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applications in the power and

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involve extremes in temperature,

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OUTGASSING DRILLED HOLE NOISE TRIM

CAVITATING DIRTY FLOW CAVITATING DIRTY FLOW, LARGE PRESSURE DROPS

STACKED DISK NOISE TRIM SLOTTED NOISE TRIM DIFFUSERS

This section will go through

bodies and trim styles.

3.1 Sliding-Stem Valves

2. Reflux Valve Typical Control Valve Selection:

Crude Distillation Unit Typical Control Valve Selection:

recommended. Monitoring valve position is critical to this Typical Process Conditions:

Typical Process Conditions: 9. Bottoms Valve Function

Typical Control Valve Selection: Typical Process Conditions:

3. Unit Feed Valve Typical Process Conditions:

A poorly performing or bypassed pump-around valve will Typical Process Conditions:

LCGO Typical Control Valve Selection: 22. Fractionator Naphtha Valve