INTRODUCTION

Housefly

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Diptera

Section: Schizophora

Family: Muscidae

Genus: Musca

Species: M. domestica

Binomial name

Musca domestica

Linnaeus, 1758
The housefly (Musca domestica) is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It is believed to have evolved
in
the Cenozoic era, possibly in the Middle East, and has spread all over the world as
a commensal of humans. It is the most common fly species found in houses. Adults are
grey to black, with four dark, longitudinal lines on the thorax, slightly hairy bodies, and a
single pair of membranous wings. They have red eyes, set farther apart in the slightly
larger female.
The female housefly usually mates only once and stores the sperm for later use. She
lays batches of about 100 eggs on decaying organic matter such as food waste, carrion,
or feces. These soon hatch into legless white larvae, known as maggots. After 2 to 5
days of development, these metamorphose into reddish-brown pupae, about 8 mm
(0.3 in) long. Adult flies normally live for 2 to 4 weeks, but can hibernate during the
winter. The adults feed on a variety of liquid or semiliquid substances, as well as solid
materials which have been softened by their saliva. They can carry pathogens on their
bodies and in their faeces, contaminate food, and contribute to the transfer of food-
borne illnesses, while, in numbers, they can be physically annoying. For these reasons,
they are considered pests.
Houseflies have been used in the laboratory in research into aging and sex
determination. Flies appear in literature from Ancient Greek myth and Aesop's The
Impertinent Insect onwards. Authors sometimes choose the fly to speak of the brevity of
life, as in William Blake's 1794 poem "The Fly", which deals with mortality subject to
uncontrollable circumstances.
Description

Fig. Head of a female housefly

Adult houseflies are usually 6 to 7 mm (0.24 to 0.28 in) long with a wingspan of 13 to
15 mm (0.5 to 0.6 in). The females tend to be larger winged than males, while males
have relatively longer legs. Females tend to vary more in size and there is geographic
variation with larger individuals in higher latitudes. The head is strongly convex in front
and flat and slightly conical behind. The pair of large compound eyes almost touch in
the male, but are more widely separated in the female. They have three simple eyes
(ocelli) and a pair of short antennae.Flies process visual information around seven times
more quickly than humans, enabling them to identify and avoid attempts to catch or
swat them, since they effectively see the human's movements in slow motion with their
higher flicker fusion rate.
The mouthparts are specially adapted for a liquid diet; the mandibles and maxillae are
reduced and not functional, and the other mouthparts form a retractable,
flexible proboscis with an enlarged, fleshy tip, the labellum. This is a sponge-like
structure that is characterised by many grooves, called pseudotracheae, which suck up
fluids by capillary action. It is also used to distribute saliva to soften solid foods or collect
loose particles. Houseflies have chemoreceptors, organs of taste, on the tarsi of their
legs, so they can identify foods such as sugars by walking over them. Flies are often
seen cleaning their legs by rubbing them together, enabling the chemoreceptors to taste
afresh whatever they walk on next. At the end of each leg is a pair of claws, and below
them are two adhesive pads, pulvilli, enabling the fly to walk up smooth walls and
ceilings using Van der Waals forces. The claws help the fly to unstick the foot for the
next step. Flies walk with a common gait on horizontal and vertical surfaces with three
legs in contact with the surface and three in movement. On inverted surfaces, they alter
the gait to keep four feet stuck to the surface. Flies land on a ceiling by flying straight
towards it; just before landing, they make a half roll and point all six legs at the surface,
absorbing the shock with the front legs and sticking a moment later with the other four.
The thorax is a shade of gray, sometimes even black, with four dark, longitudinal bands
of even width on the dorsal surface. The whole body is covered with short hairs. Like
other Diptera, houseflies have only one pair of wings ; what would be the hind pair is
reduced to small halteres that aid in flight stability. The wings are translucent with a
yellowish tinge at their base. Characteristically, the medial vein (M1+2 or fourth
long vein) shows a sharp upward bend. Each wing has a lobe at the back, the calypter,
covering the haltere. The abdomen is gray or yellowish with a dark stripe and irregular
dark markings at the side. It has 10 segments which bear spiracles for respiration. In
males, the ninth segment bears a pair of claspers for copulation, and the 10th bears
anal cerci in both sexes.

Fig.Micrograph of tarsus of leg.

A variety of species around the world appear similar to the housefly, such as the lesser
house fly, Fannia canicularis; the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans; and other members of
the genus Musca such as M. vetustissima, the Australian bush fly and several closely
related taxa that include M. primitiva, M. shanghaiensis, M. violacea, and M. varensis.
The systematic identification of species may require the use of region-specific
taxonomic keys and can require dissections of the male reproductive parts for
confirmation.
Evolution and taxonomy
Though the order of flies (Diptera) is much older, true houseflies are believed to have
evolved in the beginning of the Cenozoic era. The housefly's superfamily, Muscoidea, is
most closely related to the Oestroidea (blow flies, flesh flies and allies), and more
distantly to the Hippoboscoidea (louse flies, bat flies and allies). They are thought to
have originated in the southern Palearctic region, particularly the Middle East. Because
of their close, commensal relationship with humans, they probably owe their worldwide
dispersal to co-migration with humans.
The housefly was first described as Musca domestica in 1758 based on the common
European specimens by the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus in
his Systema naturae and continues to be classified under that name. A more detailed
description was given in 1776 by the Danish entomologist Johan Christian Fabricius in
his Genera Insectorum.
Life cycle
Each female housefly can lay up to 500 eggs in her lifetime, in several batches of about
75 to 150. The eggs are white and are about 1.2 mm (0.05 in) in length, and they are
deposited by the fly in a suitable place, usually dead and decaying organic matter, such
as food waste, carrion, or faeces. Within a day, larvae (maggots) hatch from the eggs;
they live and feed where they were laid. They are pale-whitish, 3 to 9 mm (0.12 to
0.35 in) long, thinner at the mouth end, and legless. Larval development takes from two
weeks, under optimal conditions, to 30 days or more in cooler conditions. The larvae
avoid light; the interiors of heaps of animal manure provide nutrient-rich sites and ideal
growing conditions, warm, moist, and dark.

Fig. Larva and adult.

At the end of their third instar, the larvae crawl to a dry, cool place and transform
into pupae. The pupal case is cylindrical with rounded ends, about 1.2 mm (0.05 in)
long, and formed from the last shed larval skin. It is yellowish at first, darkening through
red and brown to nearly black as it ages. Pupae complete their development in two to
six days at 35 °C (95 °F), but may take 20 days or more at 14 °C (57 °F).
When metamorphosis is complete, the adult fly emerges from the pupa. To do this, it
uses the ptilinum, an eversible pouch on its head, to tear open the end of the pupal
case. The adult housefly lives from two weeks to a month in the wild, or longer
in benign laboratory conditions. Having emerged from the pupa, it ceases to grow; a
small fly is not necessarily a young fly, but is instead the result of getting insufficient
food during the larval stage.
Male houseflies are sexually mature after 16 hours and females after 24. Females
produce a pheromone, (Z)-9-tricosene (muscalure). This cuticular hydrocarbon is not
released into the air and males sense it only on contact with females; it has found use
as in pest control, for luring males to fly traps. The male initiates the mating by bumping
into the female, in the air or on the ground, known as a "strike". He climbs on to her
thorax, and if she is receptive, a courtship period follows, in which the female vibrates
her wings and the male strokes her head. The male then reverses onto her abdomen
and the female pushes her ovipositor into his genital opening; copulation, with sperm
transfer, lasts for several minutes. Females normally mate only once and then reject
further advances from males, while males mate multiple times. A volatile semiochemical
that is deposited by females on their eggs attracts other gravid females and leads to
clustered egg deposition.
The larvae depend on warmth and sufficient moisture to develop; generally, the warmer
the temperature, the faster they grow. In general, fresh swine and chicken manures
present the best conditions for the developing larvae, reducing the larval period and
increasing the size of the pupae. Cattle, goat, and horse manures produce fewer,
smaller pupae, while fully composted swine manure, with a water content under 40%,
produces none at all. Pupae can range from about 8.0 to 20 milligrams (0.0003 to
0.0007 ounces) under different conditions.
The lifecycle can be completed in seven to 10 days under optimal conditions, but may
take up to two months in adverse circumstances. In temperate regions, 12 generations
may occur per year, and in the tropics and subtropics, more than 20.
Ecology

Fig. Housefly pupae killed by parasitoid wasp larvae.

Houseflies play an important ecological role in breaking down and recycling organic
matter. Adults are mainly carnivorous; their primary food is animal matter, carrion,
and faeces, but they also consume milk, sugary substances, and rotting fruit and
vegetables. Solid foods are softened with saliva before being sucked up.They can be
opportunistic blood feeders. Houseflies have a mutualistic relationship with the
bacterium Klebsiella oxytoca, which can live on the surface of housefly eggs and deter
fungi which compete with the fly larvae for nutrients.
Adult houseflies are diurnal and rest at night. If inside a building after dark, they tend to
congregate on ceilings, beams, and overhead wires, while out of doors, they crawl into
foliage or long grass, or rest in shrubs and trees or on wires.In cooler climates, some
houseflies hibernate in winter, choosing to do so in cracks and crevices, gaps in
woodwork, and the folds of curtains. They arouse in the spring when the weather warms
up, and search out a place to lay their eggs.
Houseflies have many predators, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, various insects,
and spiders. The eggs, larvae, and pupae have many species of stage-
specific parasites and parasitoids. Some of the more important are the parasitic
wasps Muscidifurax uniraptor and Spalangia cameroni; these lay their eggs in the fly
larvae tissue and their offspring complete their development before the adult flies can
emerge from the pupae.[13] Hister beetles feed on housefly larvae in manure heaps and
the predatory mite Macrocheles muscae domesticae consumes housefly eggs, each
mite eating 20 eggs per day.
 Fig. Housefly killed by the pathogenic fungus.

Houseflies sometimes carry phoretic (nonparasitic) passengers, including mites such

as Macrocheles muscaedomesticae and the pseudoscorpion Lamprochernes chyzeri.
The pathogenic fungus Entomophthora muscae causes a fatal disease in houseflies.
After infection, the fungal hyphae grow throughout the body, killing the fly in about five
days. Infected flies have been known to seek high temperatures that could suppress the
growth of the fungus. Affected females tend to be more attractive to males, but the
fungus-host interactions have not been fully understood. The housefly also acts as the
alternative host to the parasitic nematode Habronema muscae that attacks horses.
Relationship with humans
Flies are a nuisance, disturbing people at leisure and at work, but they are disliked
principally because of their habits of contaminating foodstuffs. They alternate between
breeding and feeding in dirty places with feeding on human foods, during which process
they soften the food with saliva and deposit their feces, creating a health
hazard. However, fly larvae are as nutritious as fish meal, and could be used to convert
waste to feed for fish and livestock.
Flies have been used in art and artefacts in many cultures. In 16th- and 17th-century
European vanitas paintings, flies sometimes occur as memento mori. They may also be
used for other effects as in the Flemish painting, the Master of Frankfurt (1496). Fly
amulets were popular in ancient Egypt.
Houseflies can fly for several miles from their breeding places, carrying a wide variety of
organisms on their hairs, mouthparts, vomitus, and faeces. Parasites carried include
cysts of protozoa, e.g. Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia and eggs of
helminths, e.g., Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Hymenolepis nana,
and Enterobius vermicularis. Houseflies do not serve as a secondary host or act as
a reservoir of any bacteria of medical or veterinary importance, but they do serve as
mechanical vectors to over 100 pathogens, such as those
causing typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, bacillary. dysentery,
tuberculosis, anthrax, ophthalmia, and pyogenic cocci, making them especially
problematic in hospitals and during outbreaks of certain diseases.Disease-causing
organisms on the outer surface of the fly may survive for a few hours, but those in the
crop or gut can be viable for several days. Usually, too few bacteria are on the external
surface of the flies (except perhaps for Shigella) to cause infection, so the main routes
to human infection are through the fly's regurgitation and defecation.
In the early 20th century, Canadian public health workers believed that the control of
flies was important in controlling the spread of tuberculosis. A "swat that fly" contest was
held for children in Montreal in 1912. Flies were targeted in 1916, when a polio epidemic
broke out in the eastern United States. The belief that fly control was key to disease
control continued, with extensive use of insecticidal spraying, well until the mid-1950s,
declining only after the introduction of Salk's vaccine.In China, Mao Zedong's Four
Pests Campaign between 1958 and 1962 exhorted the people to catch and kill flies,
along with rats, mosquitoes and sparrows.

In warfare
During the Second World War, the Japanese worked on entomological
warfare techniques under Shirō Ishii. Japanese Yagi bombs developed at Pingfan
consisted of two compartments, one with houseflies and another with a bacterial slurry
that coated the flies prior to release. Vibrio cholerae, which causes cholera, was the
bacterium of choice, and was used in China in Baoshan in 1942, and in
northern Shandong in 1943. Baoshan had been used by the Allies and bombing
produced epidemics that killed 60,000 people in the initial stages reaching a radius of
200 km, which finally took a toll of 200,000 victims. The Shandong attack killed 210,000;
the occupying Japanese troops had been vaccinated in advance.

In waste management
The ability of housefly larvae to feed and develop in a wide range of decaying organic
matter is important for recycling of nutrients in nature. This could be exploited to combat
ever-increasing amounts of waste. Housefly larvae can be mass-reared in a controlled
manner in animal manure, reducing the bulk of waste and minimizing environmental
risks of its disposal. Harvested maggots may be used as feed for animal nutrition.

Control
Flies can be controlled, at least to some extent, by physical, chemical, or biological
means. Physical controls include screening with small mesh or the use of vertical strips
of plastic or strings of beads in doorways to prevent entry of flies into buildings. Fans to
create air movement or air barriers in doorways can deter flies from entering, and food
premises often use fly-killing devices; sticky fly papers hanging from the ceiling are
effective, but electric "bug zappers" should not be used directly above food-handling
areas because of scattering of contaminated insect parts. Another approach is the
elimination as far as possible of potential breeding sites. Keeping garbage in lidded
containers and collecting it regularly and frequently, prevents any eggs laid from
developing into adults. Unhygienic rubbish tips are a prime fly-breeding site, but if
garbage is covered by a layer of soil, preferably daily, this can be avoided.
Insecticides can be used. Larvicides kill the developing larvae, but large quantities may
need to be used to reach areas below the surface. Aerosols can be used in buildings to
"zap" flies, but outside applications are only temporarily effective. Residual sprays on
walls or resting sites have a longer-lasting effect. Many strains of housefly have become
immune to the most commonly used insecticides.
Several means of biological pest control have been investigated. These include the
introduction of another species, the black soldier fly(Hermetia illucens), whose larvae
compete with those of the housefly for resources.The introduction of dung beetles to
churn up the surface of a manure heap and render it unsuitable for breeding is another
approach. Augmentative biological control by releasing parasitoids can be used, but
flies breed so fast that the natural enemies are unable to keep up.

In science
The ease of culturing houseflies, and the relative ease of handling them when
compared to the fruit fly Drosophila, have made them useful as model organism for use
in laboratories. The American entomologist Vincent Dethier, in his humorous To Know A
Fly (1962), pointed out that as a laboratory animal, houseflies did not trouble anyone
sensitive to animal cruelty. Houseflies have a small number of chromosomes, haploid
six or diploid 12.Because the somatic tissue of the housefly consists of long-lived
postmitotic cells, it can be used as an informative model system for
understanding cumulative age-related cellular alterations. Oxidative DNA damage 8-
hydroxydeoxyguanosine in houseflies was found in one study to increase with age and
reduce life expectancy supporting the hypothesis that oxidative molecular damage is a
causal factor in senescence (aging).
The housefly is an object of biological research, partly for its variable sex-
determination mechanism. Although a wide variety of sex-determination mechanisms
exists in nature (e.g. male and female heterogamy, haplodiploidy, environmental
factors), the way sex is determined is usually fixed within a species. The housefly is,
however, thought to exhibit multiple mechanisms for sex determination, such as male
heterogamy (like most insectsand mammals), female heterogamy (like birds), and
maternal control over offspring sex. This is because a male-determining gene (Mdmd)
can be found on most or all housefly chromosomes. Sexual differentiation is controlled
as in other insects by an ancient developmental switch, doublesex, which is regulated
by the transformer protein in many different insects. Mdmd causes male development
by negatively regulating transformer. There is also a female-
determining allele of transformer that is not sensitive to the negative regulation
of Mdmd.
The antimicrobial peptides produced by housefly maggots are of pharmacological
interest.
In the 1970s, the aircraft modeller Frank Ehling constructed miniature balsa-wood
aircraft powered by live houseflies. Studies of tethered flies have helped in the
understanding of insect vision, sensory perception, and flight control.

In literature
The Impertinent Insect is a group of five fables, sometimes ascribed to Aesop,
concerning an insect, in one version a fly, which puffs itself up to seem important. In the
Biblical fourth plague of Egypt, flies represent death and decay, while
the Philistine god Beelzebub's name may mean "lord of the flies". In Greek
mythology, Myiagros was a god who chased away flies during the sacrifices
to Zeus and Athena; Zeus sent a fly to bite Pegasus, causing Bellerophon to fall back to
Earth when he attempted to ride the winged steed to Mount Olympus. In the
traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being.
William Blake's 1794 poem "The Fly", part of his collection Songs of Experience, deals
with the insect's mortality, subject to uncontrollable circumstances, just like
humans. Emily Dickinson's 1855 poem "I Heard a Fly Buzz When I Died" speaks of flies
in the context of death. In William Golding's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies, the fly is
however a symbol of the children involved.
Ogden Nash's humorous two-line 1942 poem "God in His wisdom made the fly/And
then forgot to tell us why." indicates the debate about the value of biodiversity, given
that even those considered by humans as pests have their place in the world's
ecosystems.