Cooking As A Chemical Reaction

Cooking as a
Chemical Reaction
Culinary Science with Experiments
Cooking as a
Chemical Reaction
Culinary Science with Experiments
Second Edition
Sibel Özilgen
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Ozilgen, Z. Sibel, author.

Title: Cooking as a chemical reaction : culinary science with experiments /
Sibel Ozilgen.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019006672 | ISBN 9781138597129 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781466554801 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Food—Composition. | Food—Analysis. | Chemistry,
Technical—Experiments. | Cooking—Mathematics. | Cooking—Study and
teaching.
Classification: LCC TX545 .O986 2019 | DDC 664/.07—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019006672
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
In memory of Prof. Dr. David S. Reid
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Author xvii
1 Measurements and Units 1

Why Do We Need Mathematics in Culinary Processes? 1
Types of Measurements in the Kitchen 1
Units of Measurements in Culinary Calculations 5
Rule 7
Everyday Calculations in the Kitchen 9
Fractions and Percentages 9
Yield Percent 11
Recipe Yield Conversion 11
Simplified Cost Calculations for Culinary Operations 13
Simplified Statistics for Culinary Operations 16
Experiment 1.1 17
Points to Remember 20
Study Questions 21
Selected References 22
2 Basic Food Chemistry 23

Food Processing Is All about Chemistry 23
Experiment 2.1 27
Experiment 2.2 29
The Science Behind the Results 33
vii
viii Contents
3 Water in Culinary Transformations 39

Functional Properties of Water in Culinary Processes 39
Structure of Water 41
Experiment 3.1 45
Experiment 3.2 51
Experiment 3.3 57
Experiment 3.4 63
Experiment 3.5 69
Experiment 3.6 75
Experiment 3.7 81
More Ideas to Try 87
Study Questions 87
4 Carbohydrates in Culinary Transformations 89

Functional Properties of Carbohydrates in Culinary Processes 89
Carbohydrate Structure 90
General Formula for Carbohydrates 90
Experiment 4.1 93
Experiment 4.2 99
Experiment 4.3 107
Experiment 4.4 111
Study Questions 113
Experiment 4.5 119
Experiment 4.6 125
Contents ix
Experiment 4.7 131

Study Questions 132
Experiment 4.8 135
Study Question 136
Experiment 4.9 139
Study Questions 143
5 Proteins in Culinary Transformations 145

Functional Properties of Proteins in Culinary Processes 145
Protein Structure 146
Experiment 5.1 151
Experiment 5.2 157
Study Questions 159
Experiment 5.3 163
Experiment 5.4 167
Experiment 5.5 171
Experiment 5.6 175
Study Questions 177
Experiment 5.7 181
Experiment 5.8 187
Experiment 5.9 191
Experiment 5.10 197
Study Questions 198
x Contents
Experiment 5.11 203

Study Questions 211
6 Fats and Oils in Culinary Transformations 213

Functional Properties of Fats and Oils in Culinary Processes 213
Fat and Oil Structure 214
Experiment 6.1 217
Experiment 6.2 223
Experiment 6.3 225
Experiment 6.4 231
Study Questions 233
Experiment 6.5 237
Experiment 6.6 243
Experiment 6.7 249
Study Questions 254
7 Keys to Developing the Perfect Bite: New Food Product

Development and Sensory Evaluation Tests 257
Reasons to Develop a New Food Product 257
Stages in New Food Product Development 258
Idea Development 259
Product Development 259
Commercialization 260
How to Carry Out Sensory Evaluation Tests 260
Contents xi
8 The Science of Flavor and Flavor Pairing 271

Experiment 8.1 273
Experiment 8.2 277
Experiment 8.3 283
Experiment 8.4 287
9 Food Additives in Culinary Transformations 307

Classification of Food Additives 307
Intentional/Direct Food Additives 307
Unintentional/Indirect Food Additives 308
Experiment 9.1 313
Hydrocolloids in Culinary Transformations 317
Experiment 9.2 319
Experiment 9.3 325
Experiment 9.4 339
Study Question 343
10 Food Safety and Hygiene in Culinary Transformations 347

Consumers Have a Right to Expect That the Foods They Consume
Will Be Safe and of High Quality 347
Food Safety Has to Do with Controlling Potential Foodborne Hazards 348
Experiment 10.1 349
Experiment 10.2 355
Experiment 10.3 367
Safe Practices are Important to Avoid Foodborne Illness 369
xii Contents
Experiment 10.4 371

Study Questions 375
Extended Glossary 377
Index 387
Preface
This book is written for undergraduate students in culinary arts, nutrition, dietet-
ics, and gastronomy programs. It is intended for students with limited scientific
knowledge who are studying different aspects of food preparation and processing.
The text uses experiments and experiences from the kitchen rather than theory
as the basic means of explaining the scientific facts and principles behind food
preparation and processing. Thorough explanations of important scientific con-
cepts that are required to comprehend the text are provided in the glossary.
This textbook is prepared such that students first perform certain experiments and
record their observations in tables provided in the book. The science behind their
expected observations are then subsequently explained. By conducting experi-
ments and using experiences from the kitchen, this textbook aims to engage stu-
dents in their own learning process. With this book, students are able to make
observations that they will frequently see in the kitchen and will be able to learn
the science behind these phenomena. Thus, they will be able to control these
phenomena, allowing them to create new food products, improve the quality and
safety of their dishes, improve the culinary presentations of their food, and under-
stand what goes wrong in the kitchen.
Many concepts throughout the book are marked with the symbol .
This symbol indicates that the concept is an important one that students will
come across frequently, both during the study of this text and in the kitchen. The
symbol precedes a scientific explanation of the observations made dur-
ing experiments in the chapter. At the end of each chapter, students are presented
with important points to remember, more ideas to try, and study questions to
reinforce concepts that were presented in the chapter. It is important to note that
it is necessary for students to fully understand the key concepts of each chapter
because they will reoccur in subsequent chapters.
Sibel Özilgen
xiii
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to the many people who have graciously
helped in the preparation of this book.
To the Yeditepe University in Istanbul, Turkey, for providing facilities to conduct

the experiments.
To Günsel Keserci for the incredible chef graphics.
To my students and colleagues, Yavuz Efe Başeğmez, Fevzi Can Acar, Sinem
Turan, Gülben Meral Bozan, Dilek Çiftçi, Nurece Yılmazel, Evren Galip
Altaylar, Baran Yağmurlu, Aylin Doğan, Merve İşeri, Fikret Soner, and Melek
Gündoğdu for conducting experiments, of which photos were taken to be
added to the book.
To Semih Özkan, Özcan Yaman, and Barbaros Erdal Çiftçi for photography.
To Emel Karakaya for her contributions to the figures and photo editing.
To my students for inspiring me to write this book.
To my family for always supporting me.
Finally, and most importantly, to Burak Arda Özilgen for his scientific and stylistic
suggestions, comments, and contributions.
xv
Author
Sibel Özilgen, Ph.D., is the Head of the

Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department at
Yeditepe University, where she has been a faculty
member since 2005. Dr. Özilgen completed her
Ph.D. degree in food engineering at Middle East
Technical University in Turkey. She attended the
University of California as a concurrent student
during her Ph.D. study. Dr. Özilgen taught classes
and conducted research at Massey University in
New Zealand and is the author or coauthor of
numerous refereed publications, book chapters,
and books. Her research and teaching interests lie
in the area of food science, food safety, food product development, and the eating
habits of different consumer groups. She holds a patent.
xvii
Chapter 1
Measurements and Units
WHY DO WE NEED MATHEMATICS

IN CULINARY PROCESSES?
Measuring the ingredients, calculating the proportions of the ingredients, recipe

conversion, resizing a recipe for a number of servings, determination of the cost
per meal, and portioning all involve basic math operations, such as addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, and division.
An inaccurate measurement of the ingredients is one of the major factors deter-
mining the success or failure of a recipe. In addition, imprecise measurements
and conversion calculations increase food costs. Inaccurate portioning causes
consumer dissatisfaction. Therefore, it is important that all chefs must understand
basic math operations.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS IN THE KITCHEN
There are two types of measurements in culinary operations: qualitative obser-

vations and quantitative measurements.
Qualitative observations involve using the five senses to observe and describe
the properties of food products (Table 1.1). For example, observing the changes
in the color of onions during caramelization, comparing the textures of products
1
2 COOKING AS A CHEMICAL REACTION
TABLE 1.1
The Most Common Terms That May Be Used in Qualitative
Observations
Attribute of the The common words that may be used

food product to describe the given attribute
Appearance Appetizing, attractive, bubbly, shiny,

cloudy, greasy, clear, opaque, moist,
dry, thick, foamy, crumbly, dark, sticky
Taste Bitter, sweet, sour, salty, bland, spicy,

smoky, sharp, tangy, aromatic, creamy,
astringent, nutty, plain, pungent
Smell Floral, fresh, smoky, spicy, burnt,

strong, vanilla, fruity, nutty
Texture Gritty, smooth, hard, slimy, moist, dry,

spreadable, chewy, firm, fizzy, foamy,
thick, thin, mushy, spongy, elastic,
brittle, crumbly, crunchy, crispy, silky,
sandy, soft, wilted, fluffy
Sound Crunchy, fizzy, sizzling, bubbling
prepared with different types of starches, or describing the sweetness of the fruit
juices involves qualitative observations. Actual measurements and numbers are
not involved in qualitative measurements.
Quantitative measurements involve numbers. Instruments, such as kitchen
scales, measuring cups, measuring spoons, rulers, and thermometers, are used for
quantitative measurements.
Liquids are measured by volumes. The most common volume measuring tools in
culinary processes are shown in PIC 1.1 and PIC 1.2.
Solids are measured by weight. The most common dry weight measuring tools in
culinary processes include those shown in PIC 1.3 and PIC 1.4.
Temperature is measured by thermometers. The most common thermometers
include those shown in PIC 1.5, PIC 1.6, and PIC 1.7.
Measurements and Units 3
PIC 1.1
GRADUATED CUPS.
PIC 1.2
MEASURING CUPS AND SPOONS.
PIC 1.3
SCALES.
PIC 1.4
MEASURING CUPS AND SPOONS.
PIC 1.5
THERMOMETER.
PIC 1.6
THERMOMETER.
PIC 1.7
THERMOMETER.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS IN
CULINARY CALCULATIONS
In every quantitative measurement, there is a number followed by a unit.

Example: A bag of rice is 5 kg (11 lb).
Number from Unit

the measurement
The metric system is the most widely used units of measurements in the world.
International System of Units (SI) is based on the metric system. The U.S.
Customary System is widely used as the units of measurements in the United
States (Table 1.2).
Unit uniformity is important in culinary calculations.
Unit uniformity is important to understand and compare quantities. Accurate
measurement of quantities and their units provide:
• standards and stability to the recipes;

• effective inventory and cost control; and
• standard portion size.
Conversion between units of measures is possible.

It is important to know how to convert mass, volume, temperature, and length
measured in one unit to the corresponding measure in a different unit. The con-
version is an easy mathematical operation because the relationship between dif-
ferent units is constant. Those constants are known as conversion factors, and they
are tabulated in Tables 1.3 and 1.4.
TABLE 1.2
The Most Common Units of Measurements Used in Culinary Processes
U.S. Customary International System

Measurement System of Units of Units, SI
Length inch (in) meter (m)
Volume fluid ounce (fl oz); liter (L); meter cube (m3)
gallon (gal); quart (qt)
Weight pound (lb), ounce (oz) gram (g)
Temperature Fahrenheit, °F Celsius, °C
TABLE 1.3
The Widely Used Conversion Factors for the
Measurements of Length, Volume, and Weight
Measurement Conversion Factor
Length 1 in. = 2.54 cm

1 m = 100 cm
Volume 1 L = 1,000 mL
1 L = 33.8 fl. oz (U.S.)
1 L = 0.264 gal (U.S.)
Weight 1 kg = 1,000 g
1 lb = 454 g
1 lb = 16 oz (U.S.)
TABLE 1.4
The Widely Used Conversion Factor for the
Measurements of Temperature
Measurement Conversion Equation
°C T (°F) = 1.8 × T (°C) + 32

Rule
To convert one unit to the corresponding measure in a different unit, the number
in original units is multiplied by a conversion factor to produce a result in the
desired units.
  New unit  
Number in original units × Conversion factor  
  Original unit  
= New number in new unit
Example 1.1
Convert the length of 5.6 in. to its equivalent in units of meters.
Solution
From the equation:
  cm  1  m 
5.6 in. × 2.54  ×  = 0.142 m
  in.  100  cm  

Example 1.2
Convert the mass of 12 pounds to its equivalent in units of grams.
Solution
From the equation:
  g 
12 lb ×  454    = 5,448 g
  lb  
Example 1.3
Convert the oven temperature 303°F into units of °C (Figure 1.1).
Solution
From the equation given in Table 1.4:
(303°F − 32)
T ( °C) = = 150.6°C
1.8
Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C)
Boiling point
of water 212°F 100°C
180°F 100°C
Freezing point 32°F 0°C

of water
Figure 1.1 Temperature scales.
In addition to unit conversion, sometimes it is necessary to convert from volume

measures to weight in order to standardize the recipes, especially when adapting
a recipe from another source.
For example, although solids are generally measured in weights, they are given in
volumes in some recipes, or some measurements are given in weights and some
are given in volumes in the same recipe.
The most practical volume-to-weight conversion method in the kitchen can be
explained as:
1. Weigh the measuring tool (e.g., cup) and record its weight.
2. Fill the measuring tool with the ingredient as directed by the recipe.
3. Weigh the measuring tool filled with the ingredient.
4. Subtract the first weight from the last measurement.
Example 1.4
Calculate the weight of 300 mL ketchup.
Solution
1. Weigh the liquid measuring cup and record it.
2. Fill the measuring cup with 300 mL ketchup.
3. Return the filled measuring cup to the scale and record the weight.
4. Subtract the weight of the liquid measuring cup (from Step 1) from the weight
of filled measuring cup (from Step 3) to find the weight of 300 mL ketchup.
Note: It is possible to convert the measurements given as spoonful, glass, cup, etc.,
into weight measurements using the same method.
EVERYDAY CALCULATIONS IN THE KITCHEN
Fractions and Percentages
Fraction can be defined as the number of parts taken out of a whole quantity
divided into equal parts.
It can be calculated as:
Number of identical parts being taken from the whole quantity

Fraction =
Total number of equally divided parts in the whole quantity
Percentages (%) can be defined as a fraction multiplied by 100.
Percentages (%) = Fraction × 100
Fractions are widely used with measurements of ingredients or with portioning,

such as 2½ cups of flour or in portioning (⅔ of a pizza). Percentages are used most
commonly to calculate food costs and kitchen and restaurant space requirements.
Fraction and percentage calculation knowledge also are required in converting
and yielding the recipes.
Example 1.5
A whole apple is sliced into eight equal pieces. What is the fraction of each slice
in the whole apple?
Solution
From the equation:
1
Fraction of each slice =
8
Example 1.6
A chef prepared an apple pie and divided it into 16 equal slices. He sold ¾ of the pie
in the morning. Calculate the number of slices sold and the number of slices left.
Solution
Three quarters (¾) means that the whole apple pie is divided into four equal parts
and three parts are sold. Because the number of total slices is given, it is possible
to calculate the number of slices in each part.
16 (slices)
Number of slices each part has = = 4 slices/part
4 (parts)
 slices 
Number of slices sold = 4  × 3 (parts sold) = 12 slices sold
 part 
Number of slices left = Total number of slices − Number of slices sold
Number of slices left = 16 (slices) − 12 (slices) = 4 slices left
Example 1.7
A chef prepared ice creams in two different flavors. Calculate the number of
consumers who preferred to have strawberry-flavored ice cream, if 20% of the
500 consumers had the other flavor.
Solution
From the equation:
Number of consumers preferred the other flavor
20  consumers preferred the other flavor 

= 500 (consumers) ×  
100  consumers
= 100 consumers.
Number of consumers preferred the strawberry flavor
= 500 (consumers) − 100 ( consumers )
= 400 consumers.
Example 1.8
Calculate the percentage of the consumers who preferred to have strawberry-flavored
ice cream in the previous example, if 87 of the consumers had the other flavor.
Solution
Number of consumers preferred
strawberry flavor = 500 (consumers) − 87 (consumers)

= 413 consumers
From the equation:

413  consumers 
% of consumers preferred the strawberry flavor = × 100
500  consumers 
= 82.6%
Yield Percent
Yield percent can be defined as the percentage of a whole food item that is usable
in production of the meal after any required operations (i.e., cutting, peeling)
have been completed. Yield percent can be calculated as:
Edible portion quantity (EPQ)

Yield percent = × 100
As-purchased quantity (APQ)
Method to calculate the yield percent can be explained as:
1. Weigh the ingredients to find the as-purchased quantity (APQ).

2. Weigh the ingredients after cleaning, peeling, etc., to find the edible portion
quantity (EPQ).
3. Use the equation to calculate the yield percent.
Example 1.9
A recipe requires 5 kg of cleaned, peeled, and diced cucumbers. What is the
minimum amount of cucumbers to purchase if the yield percent is 82?
Solution
From the equation:
Edible portion quantity (EPQ)
As-purchased quantity (APQ) = × 100
Yield percent
5 kg
APQ = × 100
82
= 6.098 kg cucumber is required
Recipe Yield Conversion
Recipe yield conversion can be defined as adjusting the recipe to increase or

decrease the amount that the recipe actually yields.
The amount of each ingredient in the recipe is multiplied by the recipe conversion
factor (RCF) to convert the recipe. The RCF can be calculated as:
New yield
Recipe Conversion Factor (RCF) =
Original yield
Example 1.10
The following ingredients list is given for a recipe that yields 50 apple rolls.
Convert the recipe to yield 160 rolls.
Ingredients
• 300 g (10.5 oz) butter
• 30 g (1.05 oz) egg
• 300 g (10.5 oz) yogurt
• 150 g (5.3 oz) corn starch
• 250 g (8.8 oz) sugar
• 1.1 kg (2.43 lb) flour
• 360 g (12.7 oz) apple
Solution
From the equation:
160
RCF =
50
= 3.2
Multiply all the ingredients by the RCF to calculate the new amounts (Table 1.5). If
the units of the measurements are not uniform, convert all quantities to the same
units.
• Butter: 300 g × 3.2 = 960 g (33.8 oz)

• Egg: 30 g × 3.2 = 96 g (3.9 oz)
• Yogurt: 300 g × 3.2 = 960 g (33.8 oz)
• Corn starch: 150 g × 3.2 = 480 g (16.9 oz)
• Sugar: 250 g × 3.2 = 800 g (28 oz)
  1,000 g  
• Flour:  1 kg ×  + 100 g  × 3.2 = 3,520 g (7.76 lb) = (18.3 oz)
  1 kg  
• Apple: 360 g × 3.2 = 1,152 g (2.5 lb)
TABLE 1.5
Ingredients List for Recipes That Yield 50 Apple Rolls and 160 Apple Rolls, Respectively
Amounts for 50 Apple Rolls Amounts for 160 Apple Rolls

Ingredients (g/oz) (g/oz)
Butter 300/10.5 960/33.8
Egg 30/1.05 96/3.4
Yogurt 300/10.5 960/33.8
Corn starch 150/5.3 480/16.9
Sugar 250/8.8 800/28
Flour 1,100/38.8 3,520/124
Apple 360/12.7 1,152/40.6
Note: This method is used to convert the amount of ingredients only. Do not apply
the RCF to convert the processing temperature and time.
SIMPLIFIED COST CALCULATIONS

FOR CULINARY OPERATIONS
Example 1.11
The following ingredients list is given for the Cranberry Puree recipe. The fresh
cranberries cost $3 per kg. 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) granulated sugar can be purchased for
$9.38. The recipe yields approximately 40 cups. Calculate:
a. The total cost

b. The cost per cup
Ingredients
• 9 kg (19.8 lb) fresh cranberries
• 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) granulated sugar
• 2.4 L (81.2 fl oz) water
Solution
a.
Total cost of each ingredient = Number of units × Cost per unit
 $ 
Total cost of fresh cranberries = 9 kg × 3   = $27
 kg 
• The total cost is given as $9.38 for 3.4 kg of granulated sugar in the question.
• Cost of water is neglected.
Total cost of the recipe = ∑ Total cost of each ingredient

Total cost of the recipe
= Total cost of the cranberries + Total cost of the granulated sugar

= $27 + $9.38
= $36.38
b.
Total cost of the recipe for 40 cups is $36.38
Total cost of the recipe = Number of units × Cost per unit
$36.38 = 40 cups × Cost per cup

$36.38
Cost per cup =
40 cups
= 0.909$/cup
The amount 0.909 $/cup rounds up to 1.0 $/cup

Note: ∑: sigma sign is a summation sign. It indicates the sum of all values.
Example 1.12
A whole pizza is sliced into eight equal pieces. Each piece is sold for $4.99. The
total production cost is $3.75 per pizza. Calculate the net earnings of the chef if
she sells approximately 40 pizzas/day.
Solution
1
Fraction of each piece =
8
Total price of the pizza = Price per unit × Number of units
$
Total price of the pizza = 4.99 × 8 pieces
piece
= $39.92
The total price of 40 pizzas = $39.92 × 40

= $1,596.80
Total cost of 40 pizzas = $3.75 × 40

= $150
Net earnings = Total price – Total cost
= $1,596.80 − $150
= $1,446.80
Example 1.13
A chef ordered 3 lb (1 kg 360 g) Granny Smith apples, and 0.63 lb (286 g) of
granulated sugar for her apple-filling recipe. Granny Smith apple costs $1.98 per
pound (per 0.45 kg) and has a 75% yield. The cost of sugar is $1.25 per pound
(per 0.45 kg). Calculate the total cost of the apple-filling recipe.
As-purchased cost (APC)

Edible portion cost (EPC) =
Yield percent (YP)
1.98$/lb
Edible portion cost of Granny Smith apple =
0.75
= 2.64 $/lb
Note: $2.64 per lb is greater than $1.98 per lb. The difference between the as-
purchased cost and the edible portion cost arises from the cost of waste from
unused parts of the apples such as seeds and peels.
Total cost of each ingredient = Number of units × Cost per unit

$
Total cost of Granny Smith apple = 3 lb × 2.64
lb
= $7.92
$
Total cost of granulated sugar = 0.63 lb × 1.25
lb
= $0.79
Total cost of the recipe = ∑ Total cost of each ingredient

Total cost of apple filling recipe
= Edible portion cost of the Granny Smith apple + Cost of granulated sugar

= $7.92 + $0.79
= $8.71
SIMPLIFIED STATISTICS FOR

CULINARY OPERATIONS
Is it possible to guess how many of each course will be served

during weekdays? What is the average number of consumers that
will dine tonight? Does the target consumer group like my new
food product? What is the average weight of medium sized eggs?
Answers are possible with basic statistics knowledge.
Statistics are applied to analyze the quantitative data obtained from the samples
of measurements or observations. Culinary professionals use the results of the
statistical analysis generally to conclude the observations, to design service opera-
tions, to design the menu, to develop new food products, to standardize recipes,
and to understand consumer behaviors.
EXPERIMENT 1.1
OBJECTIVE
To explain how to apply basic statistical analysis.
Ingredients and Equipment

• 5 egg cartons with 30 eggs in each
• Kitchen scale
Method
1. Open the first egg carton and count the eggs.
2. Weigh 10 eggs separately and write the measurements in Data Table 1.1.
3. Repeat the same procedure for each egg carton.
4. Calculate the statistical parameters given in Data Table 1.1.
The MEAN can be defined as the average of all scores obtained from the mea-
surements. It can be calculated as:
The sum of all scores

Mean =
Total number of measurements
Example 1.14
Calculate the mean of observations 2, 3, 4, 6, 4, 5, 3.
Solution
From the equation:
2+3+ 4 +6+ 4 +5+3

Mean = = 3.86
7
The MODE can be defined as the most frequently occurring score. It is useful
when differences between the scores are insignificant.
Example 1.15
What is the mode of observations 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6?
Solution
The answer is 4, because it is the most repeated number in the observation.
The RANGE can be defined as the difference between the most extreme data
values. It is the measure of the spread of the data values. It can be calculated as:
Range = Highest point/value − Lowest point/value
Example 1.16
Calculate the range of observations 2, 10, 4, 6, 3.
Solution
From the equation:
Range = 10 − 2 = 8
DATA TABLE 1.1
Weight of Eggs (g) Statistical Parameters
Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg
Egg Box #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 # 10 Mean Mode Range
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
POINTS TO REMEMBER
There are two types of measurements in culinary operations: qualitative

observations and quantitative measurements.
Qualitative observations involve the five senses.
Quantitative measurements involve numbers.
In every quantitative measurement, there is a number followed by a unit.
Conversion between units of measures is possible.
Unit uniformity is important in culinary calculations.
Statistics are applied to analyze the quantitative data obtained from the
samples of measurements or observation.
Study Questions
1. Convert the measuring units as indicated:

a. 10 kg = ____ lb
b. 160°F = ____ °C
c. 8 L = ____ U.S. gal
d. 4,360 mL = ____ L
e. 678 g = ____ kg
2. You purchased 2,500 g (5.5 lb) of squash from the market. After cleaning and
peeling, you are left with 1,870 g (4 lb) of squash. Calculate the yield percent
for the squash.
3. The shell loss for walnuts is 35%. What is the yield percent?
4. A recipe for tomato soup makes 90 servings. What is the recipe conversion
factor if you will be making 200 servings?
5. Calculate the average (mean) weight of a medium-sized apple from the
measurements given in Table 1.6.
6. A chef is making meatball sauce and plans on serving two spoonsful of
the sauce with freshly fried meatballs. Each spoonful of sauce weighs 32 g
(1.1 oz). How many kilograms of meatball sauce are needed if the chef plans
to serve 600 meatballs?
7. The bakery sells 175 cupcakes every day. Each cupcake costs ¢0.45. Calculate
the selling price of each cupcake for $285 total net earnings.
TABLE 1.6
Weight of Apples
Sample Number Weight of the Apple (g/oz)
1 105/3.7
2 102/3.6
3 104/3.66
4 106/3.73
5 101/3.5
SELECTED REFERENCES
Besterfield, D. H. 2009. Quality control, 8th ed. London: Pearson Education, Inc.
Blocker, L., and J. Hill. 2007. Culinary math, 3rd revised and expanded ed. Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Boeree, G. 2014. Descriptive statistics. Online at: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/descstats.
html.
Child Nutritional Programs (CNP) Manager’s Manual. 2014. Weighing and measuring.
Online at: http://cnp.alsde.edu/nslp/manuals/CNPManagersManual/Weighing%20
and%20Measuring.pdf.
Geankoplis, C. J. 2008. Transport processes and separation process principles (includes unit
operations), 4th ed. London: Pearson Education, Inc.
Glendale Union High School District Culinary Math Workbook. 2007. Available as e-book:
http://aspdf.com/ebook/culinary-math-workbook-pdf.html.
Jones, T. 2008. Culinary calculations: Simplified math for culinary professionals, 2nd ed.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Office of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education (MSTE) 2014. Introduction
to descriptive statistics. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Online at: http://
mste.illinois.edu/hill/dstat/dstat.html.
Chapter 2
Basic Food Chemistry
FOOD PROCESSING IS ALL ABOUT CHEMISTRY
Foods are made up of chemical compounds that include water, proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. The composition of the foods deter-
mines both physical and chemical properties of the foods. During preparation
and processing, such as cooking and drying, a series of chemical reactions
occurs in foods. The structures of the chemical compounds are changed and
new food products are formed. These types of irreversible changes are called
chemical changes.
Basic food chemistry primarily deals with
1. the chemical composition of foods;

2. the chemical structures and the properties of primary food compounds,
which are water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates; and
3. the chemical changes that the foods undergo during food processing, stor-
age, and transportation.
Knowledge of basic chemistry concepts is required to understand basic food

chemistry.
An atom is the smallest unit of an element. Atoms are made up of three particles:
protons, neutrons, and electrons (Figure 2.1). Protons and neutrons are found in
the nucleus, while the electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus. The
electrons found in the outer shells are called the valence electrons. The valence
23
Proton Electron
Neutron
Figure 2.1 Structure of an atom.
electrons can be used to form the chemical bonds. All atoms in a molecule must
have eight valence electrons to become stable (the Octet Rule). Atoms whose outer
shells are filled with electrons have low energy, and they are said to be stable. For
most atoms, the outermost shell is incomplete. The atoms are connected to each
other by chemical bonds and form molecules, such as NaCl (sodium chloride) and
H2O (water) to achieve lower state of energy and become stable. There are differ-
ent types of bonds that hold atoms of the molecules together. Ionic bond, covalent
bond, and hydrogen bonds are the major bonds that exist in foods.
An ionic bond is the complete transfer of electrons from the outer shell of one atom
to the outer shell of the other atom. In ionic bonds, one atom is negatively charged
due to gain of electrons and the other one is positively charged due to loss of elec-
trons. The difference in electronegativity holds the atoms together (Figure 2.2).
NaCl is the most common example of a molecule formed by an ionic bond.
A covalent bond is the complete sharing of one or more electrons between two
atoms. It does not involve transfer of electrons (Figure 2.3). One pair of electrons is
shared to form one covalent bond. The bond between the oxygen atom and hydro-
gen atoms in a water molecule is the most common example of a covalent bond.
A hydrogen bond is a special type of bond in which a hydrogen atom of one mol-
ecule is attracted to an electronegative atom. For example, this type of bond exists
between water molecules (Figure 2.4).
A compound is formed if types of atoms in the molecule are different from each
other. For example, NaCl is a compound because it has two different atoms in the
structure, Na (sodium) and Cl (chlorine). An element is formed if the types of the
atoms are the same, such as oxygen. Thus, all compounds are molecules, and ele-
ments are either molecules or atoms.
The structure of the molecules, hence the types of the atoms and the chemical
bonds that form the molecules, determine how food will behave during prepara-
tion and processing.
Basic Food Chemistry 25
Transfer of electron
Na Cl
Sodium atom Chlorine atom
Na+ Cl–
Sodium ion Chloride ion
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Figure 2.2 Ionic bonding.
Oxygen atom Oxygen atom
O O
Sharing of
electrons
O O
O == O
Oxygen molecule (O2)
Figure 2.3 Covalent bonding.

δ+ H
O δ–
δ+ H
δ+
H
δ– O δ+ δ+
H H
H
δ+ δ– O
δ– O H
δ+
δ+
H H
δ+
δ– O δ+
H
Figure 2.4 Hydrogen bonding.

EXPERIMENT 2.1
OBJECTIVE
To show chemical reactions may occur between ingredients when they are mixed
together

• 2 cups flour
• 1½ teaspoon baking soda
• 1½ teaspoon baking powder
• 1 cup egg yolks
• 1 tablespoon lemon juice
• ½ cup water
• Whisk
• Large mixing bowl
• 2 bowls
Method (EXP 2.1)

1. Label two bowls “baking soda” and “baking powder.”
2. In a large bowl, beat the egg yolks until thick.
3. Then add flour into the egg mixture and fold in.
4. Divide the mixture equally into two bowls labeled “baking soda” and
“baking powder.”
5. Add baking soda to the mixture in the corresponding bowl.
EXP 2.1
6. Add 4–5 tablespoonsful water on the baking soda.

7. Record your observations in Data Table 2.1.
8. Add baking powder to the mixture in the corresponding bowl.
9. Add 4–5 tablespoonsful water on the baking powder.
11. Add ½ tablespoon lemon juice to the egg mixture with baking soda.
13. Add ½ tablespoon lemon juice to the egg mixture with baking powder.
Note: This experiment involves the most common ingredients and the steps from
the processes of baked and/or dough-based food products.
DATA TABLE 2.1

Observation
Baking soda mixture

without lemon juice
Baking soda mixture

with lemon juice
Baking powder mixture

without lemon juice
Baking powder mixture

with lemon juice
EXPERIMENT 2.2
OBJECTIVE
To understand the same ingredients may give different chemical reactions depend-
ing on processing conditions and the order in which the ingredients are combined.
Case 1
Cake 1
• 226 g (8 oz) sugar
• 226 g (8 oz) butter
• 226 g (8 oz) flour
• 226 g (8 oz) eggs
• 1 teaspoon vanilla
• Bowl
• Mixer
• Knife
• 23 cm (9 in.) non-stick loaf pan
• Conventional oven (no fan)
Method
1. Set the oven temperature to 177°C (351°F).
2. Put the butter into the bowl and mix at medium speed for 1–2 min.
3. Add the sugar and continue mixing until the mixture gets fluffy. This step
takes 2–3 min.
4. Slowly add the eggs while mixing the batter. After each addition, make sure
the egg is incorporated into the batter before adding the next one.
5. Reduce the speed of the mixer and add the flour and vanilla.
6. Mix slowly and gently to incorporate the flour. Do not overmix the mixture.
7. Pour the batter into the pan.
8. Bake for 1 h, until top is golden brown.
9. Let it rest for half an hour.
10. Take the cake out of the pan.
11. Slice and analyze the cake.
Case 2
Cake 2
• 226 g (8 oz) butter
• 226 g (8 oz) flour
• 226 g (8 oz) eggs
• 1 teaspoon vanilla
• Bowl
• Saucepan
• Sifter
• Mixer
• Knife
• 23 cm (9 in.) non-stick loaf pan
• Conventional oven (no fan)
Method
2. Melt the butter in a saucepan or over the warm water.
3. Combine the eggs and sugar in a bowl mix at medium speed until the mix-
ture has tripled in volume. This step may take a few minutes, be careful not
to overmix the mixture.
4. Sift the flour and vanilla into the mixture and fold in gently.
5. Fold in the butter until it is completely incorporated.
6. Pour the batter into the pan.
7. Bake for 40–45 min, until top is golden brown.
8. Let it rest for half an hour.
9. Take the cake out of the pan.
10. Slice and analyze the cake.
12. Compare the results from Cases 1 and 2 (EXP 2.2).
DATA TABLE 2.2

Texture and Appearancea Tasteb Crust colorc
Case 1
Case 2
a Use the words soft, hard, spongy, greasy, dry, wet, holes, no holes, more holes, and heavy to evaluate
the texture and appearance.
b Use the words buttery, sweet, tasteless, floury, and rich to evaluate the taste.
c Use the words brown, golden, yellowish, and dull to evaluate the crust color.
CASE 1 CASE 2
EXP 2.2
The Science Behind the Results
Food processing involves a series of chemical reactions.

Each food ingredient in the recipe has its own chemical composition. Therefore,
each ingredient serves a purpose in culinary processes. For example, baking soda
and baking powder are both leavening agents used in baking. They produce car-
bon dioxide and cause baked goods to rise. Both require an acid ingredient to give
a reaction and to produce carbon dioxide. Baking soda does not contain an acidic
ingredient; therefore, it requires an acidic ingredient in the recipe to produce car-
bon dioxide. When an acidic ingredient, such as lemon juice, yogurt, or vinegar, is
added, a chemical reaction occurs between the baking soda and the acidic ingre-
dient, and carbon dioxide gas is produced. Baking powder contains baking soda
and an acidic ingredient in the same package. When liquid is added, they come
together and give a reaction to produce carbon dioxide. Although they are both
leavening agents, the two are certainly not interchangeable and they need certain
other ingredients to perform.
The processing conditions (such as cooking temperature and pH of the medium),
chemical properties of other ingredients, and recipe formulation (such as time
for cooking and amounts of ingredients and their order of addition in the recipe)
will determine the nature of chemical reactions that will take place during food
processing and hence the sensory attributes of the final food products.
Food production is applied chemistry, therefore, knowing basic properties of the
chemical components of foods will help kitchen professionals to
• better understand their cooking;

• create new food products;
• improve the quality and safety of their dishes;
• improve culinary presentations of their foods; and
• understand what goes wrong in the kitchen.
Example 2.1
Following are examples of primary functional properties of food components and
additives in baking (PIC 2.1).
Fats
1. Enhance the flavor and mouth feel
2. Develop the texture
3. Shorten the dough
PIC 2.1
PUFF PASTRY WITH CREAM FILLING AND STRAWBERRIES.
4. Form emulsions
5. Transfer heat
6. Develop the appearance
Carbohydrates
1. Give sweet taste
2. Provide structure and texture
3. Lower the freezing point
4. Lower the water activity
5. May fat substitutes
6. Undergo reactions that improve the flavors and colors
Water
1. Good cooking medium
2. Greatly affects the texture and the appearance of the foods
3. Dissolves some flavor compounds
4. Medium for chemical reactions
5. Affects the shelf life
Protein
1. Foam formation
2. Gelation
3. Dough formation
4. Flavor development
5. Viscosity control
6. Water binding
7. Color formation
Food Additives
1. Maintain and improve the nutritional quality
2. Preserve and improve quality and freshness
3. Help in processing or preparation
4. Make food more appealing
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Foods are made up of chemical compounds that include water, proteins,

lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.
Food production is applied chemistry.
Food production involves a series of chemical reactions.
During preparation and processing, the structures of the chemical com-
pounds in foods change and new food products are formed.
Due to their chemical structures, each food ingredient in the recipe serves
a purpose in culinary processes.
The processing conditions, chemical properties of the ingredients in the
recipe, and recipe formulation affect the sensory attributes of the end
products.
Basic knowledge of the chemical components of foods will help kitchen pro-
fessionals to:
• better understand their cooking;
• create new food products;
• improve the quality and safety of their dishes;
• improve culinary presentations of their foods; and
• understand what goes wrong in the kitchen.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Elmhurst College, N. Y. 2003. Virtual chembook. What are compound and molecules?
Online at: http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/103Acompounds.html.
Fennema, O. R. 1996. Food chemistry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Gaman, P. M., and K. B. Sherrington. 1996. The science of food. 4th ed. London, UK:
Elsevier Ltd.
Lasztity, R. 2009. Food quality and standards–Chemistry. In Encyclopedia of life support
systems. Oxford, UK: NESCO Publishing–Eolss Publishers. Online at: www.eolss.
net/sample-chapters/c10/e5-08-07-00.pdf.
McGee, H. 2007. On food and cooking: The science and lore of the kitchen. New York: Scribner.
Chapter 3
Water in Culinary
Transformations
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

IN CULINARY PROCESSES
Water is the major constituent of foods. Most natural foods contain 60%–90%
water (Table 3.1).
Food processing, such as drying, cutting, and pressing, decreases the amount of
water in foods (Table 3.2).
The primary functions of water in foods and food processing can be listed as
follows:
1. Water is a good cooking medium: It conducts heat to the food during cooking.
Foods are usually boiled, steamed, braised, or simmered in water.
2. Water greatly affects the texture and the appearance of foods: It gives the crisp
and moist texture of foods. The appearance of foods can tell consumers what
the texture will be when the food is eaten. For example, if a vegetable or
fruit, such as lettuce or apple, looks wrinkly, then most probably it has lost
its crispy bite.
3. Water is a good solvent: It dissolves hydrophilic substances. This property of
water primarily enhances the taste of foods because the hydrophilic fl avors,
such as salt, sugar, and alcohols, dissolve in water. This property of water
39
TABLE 3.1
Approximate Water Content of Some Natural Foods
Food Amount of Water in Foods (%)
Tomato 94
Spinach 92
Zucchini 95
Potato 79
Cucumber 96
Broccoli 91
Apple 84
Grape 81
Orange 87
Whole milk 88
Beef 50–70
also enhances the appearance of foods because some color pigments in

foods, such as anthocyanins, are also soluble in water.
4. Water is a medium for chemical reactions: It hydrates the medium and facili-
tates the movement of the molecules to give reactions. It also can participate
in chemical reactions, such as hydrolysis.
5. Water content affects the shelf life of foods: Water is essential for the growth of
microorganisms. Most foods contain enough water for the microorganisms
to grow. That is primarily why foods with low moisture contents, such as dry
beans and some biscuits (cookies), are less perishable than those that have
high moisture content.
Understanding the chemical structure of water is crucial for chefs because the
functional properties of water are primarily related to its structure.
Water in Culinary Transformations 41
TABLE 3.2
Approximate Water Content of Some Processed Foods
Food Amount of Water in Foods (%)
Tomato paste 74
Cereals (rice, wheat, oats) 10–11
Soft cheese, feta cheese 55
Hard cheese, parmesan cheese 29
Bread 34–37
Butter 15
Oil 0
STRUCTURE OF WATER
The water molecule has two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom by cova-
lent bonds. The molecular formula is H2O (Figure 3.1). It is a polar molecule where
the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge and the hydrogen atoms have a
partial positive charge.
Each water molecule can bond with as many as four other water molecules by
weak attractions called hydrogen bonds (Figure 3.2).
δ+ H The oxygen side

of the water
δ– molecule has a
O
partial negative
charge
The hydrogen δ+ H
side of the water
molecule has a
partial positive
charge
Figure 3.1 Water molecule.

δ+ H
O δ–
Covalent bond δ+ H
δ+
H Hydrogen bond
δ– O δ+
δ+
H H
H
δ+ δ– O
δ– O H
δ+
δ+
H H
δ+
δ– O δ+
H
Figure 3.2 Structure of water.
Water is an excellent solvent because it dissolves a variety of different sub-

stances. Its polar nature allows water to dissociate ionic compounds into their
constituent positive and negative ions. For example, when table salt (NaCl) is
mixed with water, the positive part of salt (Na+) is attracted to the oxygen side of
water, while the negative part (Cl−) is attracted to the hydrogen side; thus, salt dis-
solves in water.
Water is known to exist in three different phases: gas, liquid, or solid
(Figure 3.3).
In the gas phase (vapor), water molecules are well separated and they do not have
a regular arrangement. They move freely at high speeds in the gas phase. Water
vapor condenses to liquid water as it cools.
H H H H H H
O O O
O
H
H
H
H
O
O
H H H H
H
H
O
H
H
O O
H
H
O
H
O
H
H
O
H
H
O
H
H
H
O
H H H H
H
O
H
H
O
O
O
H
O H
H
H
O
O
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
O
H
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
O
H
H H O
O
H
O
H H H
H
H H
H O O O
H
O
O
H
O
H
O
H
H
H
Figure 3.3 Arrangement of water molecules in the gas phase, liquid phase, and solid
phase, respectively.
In the liquid phase, water molecules are closer to each other compared to the gas
phase. Once again they do not have a regular arrangement. They move about at
lower speeds and slide over each other.
In the solid phase, water molecules are tightly packed in a regular shape. They
cannot move from one place to the other.
EXPERIMENT 3.1
OBJECTIVE
To explain the types of water in foods.

• 2 apples
• 2 carrots
• 2 trays
• Knife or a slicer
• Cutting board
• Kitchen scale
• Conventional oven
• Baking paper
Method
1. Label two trays “apple tray” and “carrot tray”.
2. Line the trays with baking/parchment paper.
3. Measure the weight of each tray and record your results in Data Table 3.1.
4. Peel the apples.
5. Cut each apple into 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm (0.39 in. × 0.39 in. × 0.39 in.) cubes.
6. Arrange the apple cubes on the tray labeled “apple tray” in a single layer.
7. Measure the weight of the apple tray and record your results in Data Table 3.2.
8. Calculate the initial weight of fruits and record your results in Data Table 3.3.
10. Place the tray in an oven.
11. Weigh the tray every 60 min and record your results in Data Table 3.2.
12. R epeat Steps 10 and 11 until the difference between three consecutive
readings is less than 1%.
13. Record the time required to dry the apple cubes in Data Table 3.3.
14. Calculate the final weight of apple cubes and record your results in Data
Table 3.3.
15. Calculate the total amount of water removed from the apple cubes and record
your findings in Data Table 3.3
DATA TABLE 3.1

Initial Weight of the Apple Tray (g/oz) Initial Weight of the Carrot Tray (g/oz)
DATA TABLE 3.2

Time Weight of the Tray with Apples Weight of the Tray with Carrots
(min) (g/oz) (g/oz)
60
120
180
240
300
360
420
480
DATA TABLE 3.3

Total
Time Total
Initial Final Initial Final Water Water for Time for
Weight Weight Weight Weight Removed Removed Drying Drying
of the of the of the of the from the from the the the
Apples Apples Carrots Carrots Apples Carrots Apples Carrots
(g/oz) (g/oz) (g/oz) (g/oz) (%) (%) (min) (min)
Repeat the same procedure with the carrots.
Calculations
1. Initial weight of the foods (g/oz) = Initial weight of tray with the foods
(g/oz) − Weight of the empty tray (g/oz)
2. Final weight of the foods (g/oz) = Final weight of tray with the foods
(g/oz) − Weight of the empty tray (g/oz)
3. Total amount of water removed (g/oz) = Initial weight of the foods
(g/oz) − Final weight of the foods (g/oz)
Total amount of water removed (g)

Water removed (%) = × 100
Initial weight of the fruit (g)
Water in foods primarily exists in two forms:
1. Free water
2. Bound water
Free water is the form of water that is available to support biological and chemical
reactions in foods. Free water can act as a solvent. It is freezable water. Free water
can be easily removed from the food by cutting, pressing, and drying.
Bound water is not available for chemical and biological reactions. Bound water is
not a good solvent. It is difficult to freeze bound water under normal food process-
ing conditions. Bound water cannot be easily removed from the food by cutting,
squeezing, pressing, and drying because the other food constituents, such as pro-
teins, polysaccharides, and fats, hold it.
Although different foods may have the same initial water content, they may have
different final water contents after the application of the same drying treatment (as
observed in the experiment). This difference primarily arises from the differences
in their free water and bound water contents, hence, from the structural differ-
ences between the foods (Table 3.3).
Lowering the amount of free water content of foods is one of the basic methods for
controlling the spoilage of foods. Drying, freezing, concentration, and addition of
hydrophilic substances, such as salts, to bind free water in the food are the most
common processes to reduce the amount of free water in food products.
Free water content of foods also is very important to decide the proper cooking
technique (wet cooking or dry cooking) and to predict the amount of water to be
released from foods during cooking.
TABLE 3.3
Approximate Chemical Compositions of Apple without Skin and Carrot
Raw Apple, Measure: 100 g Raw Carrot, Measure: 100 g
Nutrient Units Value Nutrient Units Value
Water g 86.67 Water g 88.29
Protein g 0.27 Protein g 0.93
Total lipid g 0.13 Total lipid g 0.24
Ash g 0.17 Ash g 0.97
Carbohydrate, g 12.76 Carbohydrate, g 9.58

by difference by difference
Fiber g 1.3 Fiber g 2.8
Sugar, total g 10.10 Sugar, total g 4.74
Starch g 0 Starch g 1.43

EXPERIMENT 3.2
OBJECTIVE
To understand the difference between water content and water activity.
Case 1
• 4 equal-sized (approximately 10 cm × 10 cm × 2 cm/3.9 in. × 3.9 in. ×
0.79 in.) feta cheese slices. They must come from the same natural (with no
added preservatives), unsalted feta cheese.
• Salt
• Water
• 4 glass storage containers with lids
• 3 bowls
• Spoon
• Food brush
• Kitchen scale
Method
1. Label the containers “control”, “5% salt solution”, “10% salt solution”, and
“20% salt solution”.
2. Prepare 5%, 10%, and 20% salt solutions in separate bowls.
3. Place a slice of cheese into each glass storage container.
4. Brush the surface of each slice thoroughly with the salt solution according
to the label on the respective glasses; start from low concentration if you are
using the same brush for all slices.
5. Cover with lids.
6. Store them at room temperature in a safe place.
7. Check the surface of the samples every day at the same time for signs of
mold growth.
Note: To prepare the x% of salt solution, add x g of salt in (100 − x) g of water. For
example, add 10 g (0.35 oz) of salt in 90 g (3.1 oz) of water to make a 10% solution
of salt in water.
DATA TABLE 3.4

Mold Growth Mold Growth Mold Growth
Mold Growth on the Surface on the Surface on the Surface
on the Surface of the Sample of the Sample of the Sample
of the Control Brushed with Brushed with Brushed with
Time Sample 5% Salt 10% Salt 20% Salt
(day) (without Salt)a Solution Solution Solution
…
a se the terms no growth, not significant sign of a mold growth, and significant mold growth to evaluate
U
the samples.
Case 2
Turkish Apricot Dessert Recipe
• 500 g (17.6 oz) apricot
• 60 g (2.11 oz) sugar
• Water
• 1 cup halved walnuts
• 8 tablespoons lemon juice
• 4 pots
• 4 plates
• Measuring cup
• Stove
Method
1. Label the plates “control”, “10 g (0.35 oz) sugar”, “20 g (0.7 oz) sugar”, and
“30 g (1.05 oz) sugar”, respectively.
2. Clean the apricots.
3. Put 200 mL (6.7 fl oz) water, X g sugar, 2 tablespoons lemon juice, and 125 g
(4.4 oz) apricots into a pot.
4. Place the pot on the stove and bring to a boil over medium heat.
5. Put the apricots onto a plate when they get soft.

6. Bring them to room temperature.
7. Place a walnut half in each apricot.
8. Store the plates at room temperature in a safe place.
9. Check the surface of the samples every day at the same time for the signs of
mold growth.
11. Continue observation until observing a mold growth on the surfaces of all
samples.
For the purpose of the experiment: Carry out stages 2–7 with:
1. No sugar (0 g): At stage 5, put the apricots on the plate marked “control”.
2. 10 g (0.35 oz) sugar: At stage 5, put the apricots on the plate marked “10 g
(0.35 oz) sugar”.
(0.70 oz) sugar”.
(1.05 oz) sugar”.
DATA TABLE 3.5

Mold Growth
Mold Growth Mold Growth Mold Growth on the Surface
on the Surface on the Surface on the Surface of the Sample
of the Control of the Sample of the Sample with 30 g
Time Sample with 10 g (0.35 with 20 g (0.70 (1.05 oz)
(day) (without Sugar)a oz) Sugar oz) Sugar Sugar
…
a se the terms no growth, not significant sign of a mold growth, and significant mold growth to evaluate
U
the samples.
The total water content of foods does not provide information on the state of
water—if it is “free water” or “bound water.” Water activity (aw) expresses the avail-
ability of water to support chemical and biological reactions in foods. For easier
conceptualization, it is possible to say that water activity is the indication of the
free water in a food.
Water activity ranges from 0 (no free water) to 1.0 (pure water). Usually the prod-
ucts that contain a lower percentage of moisture, such as crackers and dried fruits,
have lower water activities. On the other hand, some food products with high
moisture content can have very little water activity because of their chemical com-
positions. The water activities of some foods are given in Table 3.4.
Most bacteria require a minimum water activity of 0.90 to grow. At water activity
below 0.80, most molds cannot grow. That means foods with lower water activi-
ties are more shelf stable.
TABLE 3.4
Approximate Water Content and Water Activity of Some Foods
Food Water Content (%) Water Activity
Pure water 100 1.00
Fresh meat 65 0.97
Eggs 75 0.97
Bread 35 0.96
Aged cheddar 36 0.85
Salami 30 0.83
Honey 18 0.75
Dried fruit 20 0.60–0.70
Wheat flour 12 0.70

The rate of most chemical reactions such as enzymatic reactions decreases rapidly
with water activity because there is less free water able to act as a solute for the
reaction.
Changes in physical properties can also be linked to changes in water activity. For
example, baked foods may soften as water activity increases or crispy cereals may
soften if packed together with dried fruits.
Water activity of foods can be adjusted by
1. Physically removing water from foods, such as squeezing, pressing, and drying;
2. Freezing; or
3. Adding substances that bind water, such as sugar and salt.
EXPERIMENT 3.3
OBJECTIVE
To understand the boiling point temperature and boiling point elevation.
Case 1
Determination of boiling point of pure water.
• 60 g (2.11 oz) sugar
• Water
• Kitchen scale
• Measuring cup
• 4 saucepans
• Thermometer
• Stove
Methods
1. Measure 500 mL (1 pt) water and place in a saucepan.
2. Place the thermometer in the saucepan. Thermometer should not touch the
sides or the bottom of the saucepan.
3. Heat the water.
4. Record your observations in Data Table 3.6 for every 10°C (50°F) increase in
temperature.
5. Record the point that temperature stays constant (does not increase) in Data
Table 3.7.
Case 2
Determination of boiling point of sugar solutions with different sugar
concentrations.
Methods
1. Label 3 saucepans: “saucepan 1”, “saucepan 2”, and “saucepan 3”.
2. Place 200 mL (6.7 fl oz) of water in “saucepan 1”.
3. Add 10 g (0.35 oz) of sucrose in water. Mix until all crystals are dissolved.
5. Add 20 g (0.70 oz) of sucrose to the water. Mix until all crystals dissolve.
7. Add 30 g (1.05 oz) of sucrose to the water. Mix until all crystals dissolve.
8. Place the thermometer in the “saucepan 1”. The thermometer should not
touch the sides or the bottom of the saucepan.
9. Heat the solution in “saucepan 1”.
11. Record the point that the temperature stays constant (does not increase
anymore) in Data Table 3.7.
12. Repeat Steps 8–11 with other sugar solutions in saucepans 2 and 3.
13. Compare the results.
DATA TABLE 3.6

Appearancea
Saucepan 3
Saucepan 1 Saucepan 2 (Solution
(Solution with (Solution with with
Pure 10 g/0.35 oz 20 g/0.70 oz 30 g/1.05 oz
Temperature (˚C) Water of Sucrose) of Sucrose) of Sucrose)
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
a se the terms stagnant, small bubbles, bubbly, and boiling to describe the appearance of the
U
syrups.
DATA TABLE 3.7

Boiling Point: Point that
Temperature Does Not
Sample Increase (˚C/˚F)
Pure water
Solution prepared with 10 g (0.35 oz) of sucrose

During cooking, as the temperature increases, molecules gain more kinetic energy
and they start to move faster. The intermolecular attractions that hold the mol-
ecules together break due to increased molecular motion. As a result, molecules
escape from the surface of the liquid, and the liquid becomes vapor. The vapor
molecules that have escaped from the liquid phase to the surface apply a pressure
on the surface of the liquid. That pressure is known as the vapor pressure. As the
temperature of the liquid increases, its vapor pressure also increases because mol-
ecules gain more kinetic energy.
Boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the envi-
ronmental pressure surrounding the liquid.
The temperature at which a compound changes from liquid to vapor (gas) is
called the boiling point temperature. Once the liquid starts to boil, the tempera-
ture remains constant.
Pure water boils at 100°C (212°F) at standard pressure (1 atmosphere).
At lower environmental pressures, such as on top of a mountain, water boils at tem-
peratures below 100°C (212°F). In contrast, at higher environmental pressures, such
as the pressure generated in a pressure cooker, water boils at temperatures above
100°C (212°F).
When a nonvolatile solute, such as sugar or salt, is added to the liquid, the vapor
pressure is reduced. This means that water molecules will need more kinetic
energy to escape from the surface of the liquid. Therefore, the solution needs to
be heated to a higher temperature to boil. This phenomenon is called boiling point
elevation. Degree of elevation depends on the concentration of the solutes in the
solution. The higher the concentration of the solutes, the higher the boiling point
of the solution.
EXPERIMENT 3.4
OBJECTIVE
To understand the freezing point temperature and freezing point depression.

• 3 oranges
• Water
• Ice
• Measuring cup
• 3 test tubes or glass containers; each is approximately 2 cm (0.79 in.) in diameter
• Thermometer
• Big bowl
• Knife
• Juice squeezer
• Strainer
Case 1
Determination of the freezing point temperature of pure water.
Method
1. Place 50 mL (1.69 fl oz) water into a glass container.
2. Place the glass container in a bowl.
3. Fill the bowl with ice. The level of the ice should be higher than the level of
water in the glass.
4. Place the thermometer in the water. Thermometer should not touch the sides
or the bottom of the glass container.
5. During the experiment, frequently stir the water gently with the ther-
mometer to avoid surface ice crystallization.
6. Measure the temperature every 2 min.
7. Record your readings in Data Table 3.8.
8. Record the measurements at the point that the temperature stays constant
(does not decrease) in Data Table 3.9.
Case 2
Determination of the freezing point of orange juice with pulp.
Method
1. Squeeze 50 mL (1.69 fl oz) of orange juice and place in a clean glass.
2. Place the glass in a bowl.
juice in the glass.
4. Place the thermometer in the juice. The thermometer should not touch the
sides or the bottom of the glass.
5. During the experiment, frequently stir the juice gently with the ther-
Case 3
Determination of the freezing point of orange juice with no pulp.
Method
1. Squeeze the oranges.
2. Drain and separate the pulp from the juice.
3. Place 50 mL (1.69 fl oz) of orange juice in a clean glass.
4. Place the glass in a bowl.
juice in the glass.
6. Place the thermometer in the juice. The thermometer should not touch the
sides or the bottom of the glass.
7. During the experiment, frequently stir the juice gently with the ther-
11. Compare your results.
Note: Add more ice if it melts during the experiment.

DATA TABLE 3.8
Temperature (˚C/˚F)
Time (min) Water Orange Juice with Pulp Orange Juice with no Pulp
10
12
14
16
18
DATA TABLE 3.9

Freezing Temperature: Point
that Temperature Does Not
Samples Time for Freezing (min) Decrease (°C/°F)
Water
Orange juice
with pulp
Orange juice
with no pulp
As temperature decreases, kinetic energy of the molecules decreases. Therefore,

the motion of the molecules slows down and they can get closer. Intermolecular
forces let the molecules get into a more ordered structure. At a specific tempera-
ture, liquids turn into solid. Once the liquid starts to solidify, the temperature
remains constant.
Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid. Pure water
freezes at 0°C (32°F).
When a solute, such as salt or sugar, is added to water, the solute physically inter-
rupts the intermolecular forces in the solvent. A solution freezes at a lower tem-
perature than the pure solvent. This phenomenon is called freezing point depression.
Foods freeze below 0°C (32°F) because they naturally contain solutes, such as
fibers, fats, vitamins, and sugar.
EXPERIMENT 3.5
OBJECTIVE
To understand how freezing rate affects the ice crystal size.
Case 1
• 1 kg (2.2 lb) spinach
• Water
• Ice
• Pot
• Bowl
• Colander EXP 3.1
• Blast chiller
• Freezer
• 2 large Ziploc® bags
• Stove
• Kitchen scale
Method
1. Label the Ziploc bags “conventional freezer” and
“blast freezer.” EXP 3.2
2. Clean and wash spinach.
3. Boil a large pot of water.
4. Place the spinach into boiling water.
5. After 2 min, place the boiled spinach into a bowl
of ice water immediately.
6. Drain the blanched spinach in a colander.
7. Analyze the texture and record in Data Table 3.10.
8. Weigh and equally divide the blanched vegeta-
bles into two bags, and close them.
EXP 3.3
9. Place the first bag in a conventional freezer and
leave for freezing. (This stage may take a few
hours.)
10. Place the second bag in a blast freezer, sharp
freeze, and move to the conventional freezer after
full freezing for frozen storage. (Freezing stage
takes minutes.)
11. Next day, evaluate the samples in their frozen
states.
EXP 3.4

1
13. Thaw both samples completely on the counter.
14. Evaluate the samples.
16. Compare the results (EXP 3.1–3.6).
EXP 3.5
EXP 3.6
DATA TABLE 3.10

Spinach
Spinach Frozen in Frozen in
Conventional Freezer Blast Freezer
Amount of ice crystals on the surfacea
Size of ice crystals on the surfaceb
Texture: Before freezingc
Texture: Frozen
Texture: After thawing

a Use the terms insignificant and numerous to evaluate the amount of ice crystals.
b Use the terms tiny, small, and coarse to evaluate the size of the crystals.
c Use the terms crispy, soft, and wilted to evaluate the texture of the samples.
Case 2
• 1,000 g (2.2 lb) minced meat
• 2 bowls
• Blast chiller
• Freezer
• 2 large Ziploc© bags
• Kitchen scale
• 2 Colanders
Method
1. Label Ziploc© bags “conventional freezer” and “blast freezer”.
2. Label two bowls “conventional freezer” and “blast freezer”.
3. Weigh and equally divide the minced meat into two bags, and close them.
4. Record your measurements in Data Table 3.11.
5. Place the first bag in a conventional freezer and leave for freezing. (This stage
may take a few hours.)
DATA TABLE 3.11

Minced Meat Frozen Minced Meat
in Conventional Frozen in
Freezer Blast Freezer
Amount of ice crystals on the surfacea
Size of ice crystals on the surfaceb
Texture: Before freezingc
Texture: After freezingc
Weight of juice collected (g)
Weight of thawed meat (g)
% mass loss of frozen meat (g)

a Use the terms insignificant and numerous to evaluate the amount of ice crystals.
b Use the terms tiny, small, and coarse to evaluate the size of the crystals.
c Use the terms soft and firm to evaluate the texture of the samples.
6. Place the second bag in a blast freezer, sharp freeze, and move to the con-
ventional freezer after full freezing for frozen storage. (Full freezing in blast
chiller stage may take 10–15 min.)
7. Next day, evaluate the samples in their frozen states.
9. Take both samples out from the Ziploc© bags and thaw both samples com-
pletely in corresponding bowls.
10. Evaluate the samples and record your observations in Data Table 3.11.
11. Drain and weigh the amount of juice collected in each bowl during thawing.
12. Express as the % mass loss of frozen meat.
13. Record your results in Data Table 3.11.
When water freezes, its volume expands because the water molecules are locked
into an ordered crystalline structure.
As discussed previously, in the solid phase, water molecules are tightly packed in
a regular shape. That structure keeps the molecules rigidly apart from one another
by hydrogen bonds, which causes large gaps between the molecules. In other
words, volume created by the same number of molecules is larger in the solid
phase (Figure 3.3) compared with the liquid phase. It is observed as an expansion
in the volume of the foods when they are frozen.
This fact is important because:
1. Containers for food freezing must be designed to accommodate the volume

increase.
2. The ice crystals may damage the physical structure of foods because of cell
rupture, which may occur depending on the ice crystal size and location.
The size and amount of the ice crystals in foods can contribute to several sensory
attributes, such as texture and mouthfeel. Large ice crystals in foods may rupture
the food cells and may cause a loss of natural juice found in cells upon defrosting.
The foods get dry and wilted. Large ice crystals also may give a very gritty and
lumpy structure to some frozen foods, such as ice creams and frozen desserts.
Rate of freezing determines the size and the number of ice crystals in
frozen foods.
Generally, a slow freezing rate results in a small number of ice crystals. These ice
crystals are usually large in size. Sharp (rapid) freezing results in a large number
of ice crystals. These ice crystals are usually small in size. Therefore, rapid freezing
is usually favored for the food freezing process.
Density can be defined as mass per unit volume of water. Therefore, because ice
has fewer molecules than liquid water in an equal volume, it is less dense com-
pared to liquid water. This is why ice cubes float in water.
EXPERIMENT 3.6
OBJECTIVE
To understand the effects of temperature fluctuation and mixing on the ice
crystal size.
Basic Ice Cream Recipe

• 1 cup heavy cream
• 3 cups half-and-half cream
• 8 egg yolks
• 1 cup white sugar
• 1 / teaspoon salt
8
• Heavy saucepan
• 3 shallow containers
• 2 large bowls
• Ice cream maker
• Stretch film/plastic wrap (to cover the containers)
• Stove
• Whisk
• Refrigerator
• Freezer
Case 1
Effect of Temperature Fluctuation
1. Take three shallow containers and label them “sample 1”, “sample 2”, and
“sample 3”.
2. Pour the heavy cream and half-and-half into a heavy saucepan.
3. Simmer over medium-low heat, stirring frequently.
4. Turn the heat down to low.
5. Whisk together the egg yolks, sugar, and salt in a large bowl.
6. Slowly pour two cups of hot cream mixture into the egg yolk mixture while
whisking constantly and thoroughly.
7. Pour the egg yolk mixture back into the heavy saucepan with the remaining
hot cream.
8. Whisk constantly over medium-low heat until the mixture thickens; this
stage takes 5–8 min. Do not boil the mixture.
9. Pour the ice cream mixture into a clean bowl, and allow to cool at room tem-
perature for about 20 min.
DATA TABLE 3.12

Response Number
Sample Average Score of

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Responses
10. Chill overnight in the refrigerator.

11. Next day, place one-third of the mixture into the shallow container labeled
“sample 3” and cover. Save it for Case 2.
12. Pour the rest of the mixture into an ice-cream maker that agitates the mixture
continuously while freezing it.
13. Freeze both samples thoroughly.
14. After freezing, immediately divide and place the ice cream into two different
shallow containers labeled “sample 1” and “sample 2” and cover them.
15. Place both containers in the freezer (−18°C/0°F).
16. After an hour, place “sample 1” in the refrigerator at 5°C–8°C (41°F–46°F)
(melting).
17. After an hour, place “sample 1” back in the freezer and freeze overnight
(refreezing).
18. Next day, carry out a tasting session with “sample 1” and “sample 2”.
Tasting technique: Ask 10 people to taste a small amount of each ice cream
sample and evaluate the texture in a ranking of 1 to 5, where 1 = coarse/icy,
5 = smooth. Collect their responses and prepare Data Table 3.12.
19. Calculate the average scores of the responses.
20. Record the results in Data Table 3.12.
Case 2
Effect of Mixing
1. After stage 11, place the container labeled “sample 3” in the freezer
(−18°C/0°F).
2. Freeze overnight without mixing.
3. Next day, carry out a tasting session as explained in Case 1; record the results
in Data Table 3.12.
4. Calculate the average scores of the responses.

6. Compare the results of the samples.
Hint:
response 1 + response 2 + response 3 +  + response 10

Average score =
10
The smooth and creamy texture is one of the major quality indicators of frozen
desserts, and it is primarily affected by the size distribution of the ice crystals in the
product. The texture becomes gritty and rough as the number of larger crystals in
the frozen dessert increases.
Rapid freezing and proper agitation (mixing) of foods during freezing are the
major requirements for formation of small ice crystals in frozen desserts.
The effects of temperature and the rate of cooling on the number and size of the
ice crystals have been discussed previously. Agitation physically reduces the size of
the crystals. It creates more dispersed ice nucleation because agitation keeps the
ice crystals and also water molecules apart from each other. Because they cannot
come in contact with each other, they cannot form larger ice crystals. Continuous
agitation is required during the processing of the frozen foods to require a smooth
texture, such as in ice cream.
Quality loss may occur if the frozen food is not stored properly.
Ice crystals have a tendency to come together to form larger crystals over time
during storage. Therefore, extended storage time may decrease the quality of frozen
foods. Temperature fluctuations also enhance the formation of larger crystals. Ice
crystals easily melt if the temperature fluctuates and goes above the freezing point
during storage. When the temperature drops to the freezing temperature again,
the larger ice crystals will be formed as a result of uncontrolled freezing.
EXPERIMENT 3.7
OBJECTIVE
To explain osmosis.
Case 1
• 1 large head of lettuce
• Two bowls
• 5 g (0.18 oz) salt
• Knife
• Cutting board
• Kitchen scale
• 2 colanders
Method
1. Label the bowls “fresh” and “salted”.
2. Wash and clean the lettuce.
3. Finely chop the lettuce.
4. Weigh and equally divide the lettuce into two bowls.
5. Record the initial weight of fresh lettuce in Data Table 3.13.
6. Sprinkle salt over the lettuce in the bowl labeled “salted”.
7. Record the initial weight of salted lettuce (weight of the lettuce plus the
weight of the salt) in Data Table 3.13.
8. Place both bowls in the refrigerator.
9. Every 30 min, observe the textural changes in each sample and record your
observations in Data Table 3.13.
10. Drain both samples in separate colanders after two hours.
11. Weigh the samples and record the final weights in Data Table 3.13.
12. Calculate the amount of water released from the lettuce samples.
Total amount of water released (g) = Initial weight of the lettuce (g)
− Final weight of the lettuce (g)
Note: The amount of salt dissolved in the released water is assumed as negligible.
DATA TABLE 3.13

Texturea
Fresh Lettuce Salted Lettuce
Time (min)
30
60
90
120
Initial weight (g)
Final weight (g)
Total amount of water released (g)
a Use the terms crispy and wilted to define the texture of the samples.
Case 2
Strawberry jam
• 1 kg (2.2 lb) strawberries
• 1 kg (2.2 lb) sugar
• Container
• Plate
• Pot
• Stove
• Stretch film/plastic wrap
Method
1. Wash the strawberries and remove stems and leaves.
2. Place the strawberries in a container.
3. Sprinkle sugar over the fruit and cover the container.
4. Let it stand for six to eight hours.
5. Every hour, observe the release of juice from the fruits.
7. Place the strawberries and the juice into a pot.
8. Place the pot over low heat and cook until you see bubbles.
9. Then turn the heat to medium and simmer for 15–20 min.
10. Drop some jam on a plate. If the drop keeps its shape when it cools, add
the lemon juice, and stir.
11. Cool and store (EXP 3.7–3.10).
DATA TABLE 3.14
Time (min) Observationsa
60
120
180
240
300
360
a Use your own terms to describe the amount of juice released from the fruit.
EXP 3.7 EXP 3.8
EXP 3.9 EXP 3.10

Water naturally moves from a region of lower solute concentration (higher solvent
concentration) to a region of higher solute concentration (lower solvent concentra-
tion), through a semipermeable membrane. This phenomenon is called osmosis.
Osmosis may decrease the quality of foods. For example, salad greens become wilted
after they have been in contact with salt for a while. Similarly, fruits release their
juice when they are sprinkled with sugar. The reason is the movement of water in
foods through the cell walls to a region of higher solute (salt or sugar) concentration.
On the other hand, osmosis is commonly used to preserve foods. For example, salt-
ing (curing) draws moisture out of the foods through osmosis, which decreases
the water activity of the foods and makes them less susceptible to biological and
chemical reactions.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The primary functions of water in foods and food processing include the
following:
1. Water is a good cooking medium.
2. Water greatly affects the texture and the appearance of foods.
3. Water is a good solvent.
4. Water is a medium for chemical reactions.
5. Water content affects the shelf life of foods.
Understanding the structure of water is crucial for chefs because the
functional properties of water are primarily related to its polar
structure.
Polar nature allows water to dissociate ionic compounds into their positive
and negative ions.
Water is known to exist in three different phases: solid, liquid, or gas.
Water in foods exists in two forms as:
1. Free water
2. Bound water
Availability of water in foods to support chemical and biological reactions
is expressed by water activity.
The temperature at which a compound changes from a liquid to a vapor is
called the boiling point.
Nonvolatile solutes in the liquid increase the boiling point temperature.
Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.
Solutes in the liquid decrease the freezing point temperature.
As water freezes, its volume expands.
Rapid freezing and agitation are the major requirements for the formation
of small crystals in frozen desserts.
Extended storage time and temperature fluctuations during storage decrease
the quality of frozen food.
Water naturally moves from a region of lower solute concentration to a
region of higher solute concentration through cell walls of the foods. This
phenomenon is called osmosis.
More Ideas to Try
Repeat Case 2 of Experiment 3.7. In this case, skip stages 2–6 and add 100 mL
(3.2 fl oz) of water and sugar before cooking. Compare your results.
Study Questions
1. What is the importance of water in food preparation?

2. Which one boils first: pure water or salty water?
3. Why do frozen meats, fruits, and vegetables release water upon thawing?
How can you minimize it?
4. What makes jam and honey less perishable? Explain.
5. Which one is more perishable: watermelon or beef? Explain.
6. Why are dried food products more stable than fresh ones?
7. What is the reason for the workers at the grocery store spraying water on the
vegetables? Explain.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Bastin, S. 1997. Water content of fruits and vegetables. Online at: www2.ca.uky.edu/enri/
pubs/enri129.pdf.
Coultate, T. P. 1996. Food: The chemistry of its components, 3rd ed. London/Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC).
Cybulska, E. B., and P. E., Doe. 2006. Water and food quality. In Chemical and functional
properties of food components, 3rd ed., ed. A. E. Sikorski. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Gaman, P. M., and K. B. Sherrington. 1996. The science of food, 4th ed. London: Elsevier.
McGee, H. 2004. On food and cooking, 1st rev. ed. New York: Scribner.
Mudambi, S. R., S. M. Rao, and M. V. Rajagopal. 2006. Food science, rev. 2nd ed. New
Delhi: New Age Int. Ltd, Publishers.
Sun, D.-W. 2011. Handbook of frozen food processing and packaging, 2nd ed. Boca Raton:
CRC Press.
USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory, Beltsville, MD. Online at: http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/nal_
display/index.php?info_center=4&tax_level=2&tax_subject=279&topic_id=1387.
Vaclavik, V. A., and E. W. Christian. 2008. Essentials of food science, 3rd ed. Berlin: Springer.
Water. Online at: http://class.fst.ohio-state.edu/fst605/605%20pdf/Water.pdf.
Chapter 4
Carbohydrates in Culinary
Transformations
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBOHYDRATES IN CULINARY PROCESSES
Carbohydrates are the organic compounds naturally found in many foods,

primarily in plants. They have major roles in food preparation.
The primary functional properties of carbohydrates in culinary processes are
listed below.
1. They are the major source of energy.

2. They give foods their sweet taste.
3. They provide structure and texture in food products.
4. They lower the freezing point of food products.
5. They lower the water activity of food products.
6. They are the foods for some microorganisms in fermentation, such as yogurt
production.
7. They are used as fat substitutes.
8. They undergo reactions that improve the flavors and colors of certain food
products:
a. Maillard browning
b. Caramelization
89
The chemical structure of carbohydrates in foods, molecular conformation, and the

number of monomer units in the structure will influence the way the food behaves
under different production, preparation, processing, and storage conditions. For
example, cooking times, cooking methods, and the final textural properties of rice
dishes differ depending on the type of rice used because different types of rice have
different carbohydrate compositions. Therefore, the appropriate rice type should be
chosen depending on the type of dish that is to be prepared. Similarly, the major dif-
ference between potato types is the amount and the nature of the starch each contains.
Thus, the potato type chosen for baking is different from the one chosen for boiling.
Understanding the basic structure of carbohydrates is crucial for chefs because the
functional properties of carbohydrates are primarily related to their structures.
CARBOHYDRATE STRUCTURE
Carbohydrates are made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
General Formula for Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into three major groups according to the number of
simple sugar (monomer) units that they have in their structures.
1. Monosaccharides (C6H12O6 or C6(H2O)6)
C6(H2O)6
Carbo- Hydrate
Monosaccharides contain a single (mono) carbohydrate molecule (Table 4.1).

The most common monosaccharides include:
• Glucose (G)
• Fructose (F)
• Galactose (GA)
Glucose (G) is the most common monosaccharide found in foods. It is the

primary monomer of polysaccharides. Fructose (F) is the sweetest of all the
sugars and is known as “fruit sugar.” Galactose (GA) is one of the simple sug-
ars found in the structure of milk sugar.
Carbohydrates in Culinary Transformations 91
TABLE 4.1
Structures of Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
Monosaccharides Disaccharides
GLUCOSE SUCROSE
CH2OH CH2OH CH OH O
2
O O
H OH H H H OH
H
G G F
OH H OH H O H HO
HO H HO CH2OH
H OH OH H
H OH
FRUCTOSE MALTOSE
O CH OH CH OH
CH2OH 2 2
O O
OH H H H H OH
G G O
F H HO HO
OH H H OH H
H
H CH2OH
OH H H OH H OH
GALACTOSE LACTOSE
CH2OH CH OH CH OH
2 2
O O O
H H H H H H H OH
H GA
GA G OH H OH H
OH H HO O H
HO OH
H OH H OH
H OH
2. Disaccharides (C12H22O11 or C12(H2O)11)

Disaccharides are formed when two (di) monosaccharide molecules are
chemically linked (bound) together upon condensation (Table 4.1).
C12 ( H2O)12 − H2O = C12 ( H2O)11
The most common disaccharides include:
• Sucrose (G–F)
• Lactose (G–GA)
• Maltose (G–G)
Sucrose is made when one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose
link together. It is obtained from sugarcane and sugar beet. It is known as
“table sugar.” Lactose is composed of one molecule of glucose and one mol-
ecule of galactose. It is found in milk and is known as “milk sugar.” Maltose
is a disaccharide composed of two molecules of glucose. It is found in malted

cereals and sprouted grains.
3. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are the polymers of the simple sugars. They have more than
10 monomer (monosaccharide) units in their structures. The most abundant
polysaccharides in foods can be listed as:
• Starch
• Dietary fibers
• Glycogen (animals)
EXPERIMENT 4.1
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the properties of saturated and unsaturated solutions.
• To determine the saturation points of sugar solutions at different temperatures.

• 2 kg (4.41 lb) table sugar (sucrose)
• Water at room temperature (25°C/77°F)
• Food coloring (optional)
• Aroma (optional)
• Pots
• 5 small jars
• Measuring cup
• Sugar thermometer
• Spoons
• Pipe cleaner
• Kitchen scale
• Stove
Method
1. Label the jars “55°C,” “65°C,” “75°C,” “85°C,” and “boiled.”
2. Pour 100 mL (3.3 fl oz) water into a pot.
3. Measure the temperature of the water (it should be around 25°C/77°F).
4. Gradually add small amount of the sugar to the water and stir with a spoon.
Always completely dissolve the sugar before adding more. Continue adding until
the solute will no longer dissolve.
5. Observe the undissolved sugar crystals at the bottom of the pot.
6. Weigh the amount of sugar remaining to determine how much sugar was
added to the solution.
7. Calculate the weight of sugar added per 100 mL (3.3 fl oz) water and record
the result in Data Table 4.1.
8. Move the pan to the stove over low heat.
9. Bring the solution to 55°C (131°F) and hold it at that temperature. Stir until
the sugar dissolves.
10. Repeat Steps 4–7, but make sure to hold the solution at 55°C (131°F)
throughout the experiment.
11. Pour the solution into a jar labeled “55°C” while it is hot.
12. Add some food colorings and an aroma of your choice.
13. Tie the pipe cleaner to the pencil.
DATA TABLE 4.1

Temperature of the Total Weight of Sugar Added per
Solution (°C/°F) 100 ml (3.3 fl oz) of Water (g)
25/77
55/131
65/149
75/167
85/185
Boiled
DATA TABLE 4.2

Temperature (ºC/°F)
55/131 65/149 75/167 85/185 Boiled
Initial weight of the jar (g/oz)
Final weight of the jar (g/oz)
Amount of water evaporated

(g/oz)
14. Place the pencil across the neck of the jar, and wrap the pipe cleaner around
the pencil until the pipe cleaner is hanging about 2 cm (¾ in.) from the
bottom of the jar.
15. Weigh the jar and record in Data Table 4.2.
16. Cover the jar with paper towel (do not close the jar).
17. Keep it undisturbed at room temperature for crystals to develop on the pipe
cleaner.
18. Record your observations every 24 h in Data Table 4.3.
19. When the sugar crystal is fully formed, weigh the jar.
20. Calculate the amount of water removed and record in Data Table 4.2.
DATA TABLE 4.3
Crystal Development on the Surface and Bottom of
Jara Crystal Development around the Pipe Cleaner
Temperature (ºC/°F) Temperature (ºC/°F)
Time (h) 55/131 65/149 75/167 85/185 Boiled 55/131 65/149 75/167 85/185 Boiled
24
48
72
96
…
a Observe the amount of crystals forming on the side of the jar. Explain the size, shape, and number of crystals on the string.
Complete the same procedure for solutions at 65°C (149°F), 75°C (167°F), 85°C (185°F),
and boiled solution (from stage 10).
Total weight of sugar added per 100 mL (3.3 fl oz) water

= Initial weight of sugar (g/oz) – Weight of sugar remaining (g/oz)
Amount of water evaporated (g/oz)

= Initial weight of the jar (g/oz) – Final weight of the jar (g/oz)
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are soluble in polar solvents, such as water.

Monosaccharides contain polar hydroxyl groups (OH), which can easily form
hydrogen bonds with water.
The maximum amount of soluble solute that can be dissolved in a fixed volume
of solvent is definite. Any excess solute added will stay as crystals at the bottom of
the container. The concentration of solute where no more solute can be dissolved
in the solvent is called the saturation point and the solution is called the saturated
solution, because it cannot accommodate more solute.
The solubility of solids in liquids usually increases with temperature. As the
temperature increases, the molecules gain more energy and they move from one
position to another more easily. Sugar molecules move apart as a result of increased
molecular motion. Increased molecular motion also causes more solvent mole-
cules to come in contact with solute molecules and attract them with more force.
Therefore, more solute can be dissolved in the solution as the temperature gets
higher due to the elevated saturation point. Such a solution is said to be supersatu-
rated, and is unstable because the solution contains more sugar than the water can
dissolve at room temperature. Solute precipitation and crystallization occur in
supersaturated solutions when they are cooled down to room temperature. This
process is called recrystallization.
Crystal formation from the solution has to do with solubility, or the largest amount
of solute that can be dissolved in solvent. Rock candy is one of the best examples to
explain supersaturation and crystal formation in solutions. As in Experiment 4.1,
a sugar solution is supersaturated with sugar (sucrose) to make rock candy. More
sugar than that in the saturated solution is dissolved in the water by heating the sugar
solution. During boiling, the water evaporates and the sugar becomes even more
concentrated. As the solution cools down, the sugar molecules eventually crystal-
lize on a suitable surface, such as a string or pipe cleaner, for crystal formation.
Sugar crystallization can be a problem in some food products like jam and honey
because they (and some desserts) are rich in sugars. Also during storage, as the
moisture evaporates from the surface, the amount of sugar per volume increases
and the solution gradually gets supersaturated. Eventually sugar molecules come
back together as sugar crystals because supersaturated solutions are unstable in
nature. Sugar crystals grow and the textures of the sweets or desserts become
grainy.
The size and amount of sugar crystals primarily depend on
1. The concentration of sugar in solution;

2. The temperature at which agitation of a cooling solution is initiated;
3. Presence of foreign substances with similar crystalline structures, and inter-

fering substances. Foreign substances with similar crystalline structure in
the sugar solution may act as suitable surfaces for crystal formation, which
will grow to larger crystals. Interfering substances, such as butter, milk,
cream, and protein, on the other hand, physically prevent the growth of
large crystals by coating the crystals and preventing one crystal growing
onto another.
EXPERIMENT 4.2
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the effect of temperature on the sensory properties of sugar syrup.
• To explain sugar caramelization.
• To explain the effect of mixing the hot solution on
sugar crystal formation.
Case 1
Almond Brittle Recipe
• 2 cups sugar
• 1/2 cup water
• 2 cups roasted whole almonds
• 2 glasses of cold water (use a big water glass or a
EXP 4.1
gastronome)
• Measuring cup
• 2 heavy saucepans
• Stove
• Baking paper
• Spoon
• Pastry brush
• Spatula EXP 4.2
Method
1. Place ¼ cup water and 1 cup sugar in a heavy
saucepan.
2. Place the thermometer in the pan. Be sure the
thermometer does not touch the bottom of the pan.
Note: Measure the temperature and record the appear-
ance and the color of the syrup in Data Table 4.4 EXP 4.3
throughout the experiment at temperatures given in
the Data Table.
Note: Drop a little of the syrup in a glass of cold water
and as soon as it forms a ball, take it out of the water
and record the structure in Data Table 4.4 throughout
the experiment at temperatures given in the Data Table
(EXP 4.1–4.4).
3. Place the saucepan over low-medium heat. EXP 4.4
DATA TABLE 4.4
Sugar Solution without Mixing Sugar Solution with Mixing
Temperature (ºC/°F) Appearancea Colorb Structurec Appearancea Colorb Structurec
50/122
115/239
120/248
125/257
135/275
149/300
a Use the terms still, clear, and bubbly to describe the appearance.
b Use the terms white, light yellow, dark yellow, brown, and dark brown to describe the color.
c Use the terms cannot hold its shape, soft ball, firm ball, hard ball, soft crack, and hard crack to describe the structure.
4. Stir slowly with a spoon until the sugar dissolves. Clean any crystals from
the sides of the saucepan using a moistened pastry brush throughout the
experiment.
5. Heat the solution, stirring occasionally, until the thermometer reaches 149°C
(300°F).
6. Remove from heat, stir in 1 cup almonds.
7. Stir the solution slowly to dissolve the sugar crystals formed, and return to
heat immediately.
8. Pour the mixture onto a baking sheet, spreading the mixture quickly into an
even layer with a spatula.
9. Cool for one hour.
Complete the same experiment; at stage 7, mix the sugar solution constantly. Compare
the results of experiments.
Case 2
Candied Nuts Recipe
Materials and Equipment
• 1 cup sugar
• ¼ cup water
• 1 cup mixed roasted nuts (peanut, almond, and hazelnut)
• Measuring cup
• 1 heavy saucepan
• Stove
• Baking paper
• Spoon
• 2 forks
• Spatula
• Pastry brush
Method
1. Place ¼ cup water and sugar in a heavy saucepan.
2. Place the thermometer in the pan. Be sure the thermometer does not touch
the bottom of the pan.
3. Place the saucepan over low-medium heat.
4. Stir slowly with a spoon until the sugar dissolves. Clean any crystals from
the sides of the saucepan using a moistened pastry brush throughout the
experiment.
5. Heat the solution, stirring occasionally, until the thermometer reaches
149°C (300°F).
DATA TABLE 4.5

Colora Structureb
Candied nuts
Compare with Case 1

a Use the terms white, light yellow, dark yellow, brown, and dark brown to describe the color.
b Use the terms cannot hold its shape, soft ball, firm ball, hard ball, soft crack, and hard crack to
describe the structure.
6. Remove the saucepan from the heat, and add the nuts quickly. Stir gently
with a spatula.
7. Return the mixture over low-medium heat.
8. Heat until the thermometer reaches 160°C (320°F).
9. Remove from heat immediately.
10. Drop a little of the syrup in a glass of cold water and as soon as it forms a
ball take it out of the water and record the structure in Data Table 4.5.
11. Record the color of the syrup in Data Table 4.5.
12. Pour the mixture onto a baking sheet immediately.
13. Use two forks to separate the nuts and coat them with sugar.
14. Let them cool at room temperature.
15. Compare the results with Case 1.
Case 3
Fudge Recipe
• 2 cups sugar
• 2 squares (1 oz size) unsweetened chocolate
• 1 cup light cream
• 1 tablespoon butter
• Measuring cup
• Stove
• Wooden spoon
• Platter
Method
1. Chop the chocolate into small pieces.
2. Combine sugar, chocolate, and cream in a heavy saucepan.
3. Place the thermometer in the saucepan. Be sure the thermometer does not
touch the bottom of the saucepan.
4. Cook the mixture over low heat. Stir constantly until sugar dissolves and
chocolate melts.
5. Cook until the mixture reaches 117°C (242°F).
6. Remove from heat and cool slightly.
7. Beat constantly with a wooden spoon until fudge begins to harden.
8. Transfer to a buttered platter.
9. Cut into diamond-shaped pieces before fudge hardens completely.
10. Evaluate the appearance, color, and the texture; record your observations in
Data Table 4.6.
Case 4
Fudge (cooked at higher temperature)
• 2 cups sugar
• 2 squares (1 oz size) unsweetened chocolate
• 1 cup light cream
• Measuring cup
• Stove
• Wooden spoon
• Platter
DATA TABLE 4.6

Fudge Appearancea Colorb Texturec
Case 3
Case 4
a Use the terms still, clear, and bubbly to describe the appearance.
b Use the terms white, light yellow, dark yellow, brown, and dark brown to describe the color.
c Use the terms smooth, soft, hard, sticky, liquid, solid to describe the texture.
Method
1. Complete the same stages of Case 3; at stage 5, cook until the mixture reaches
128°C (262°F) instead of 117°C (242°F).
2. Compare the texture of the products of Cases 3 and 4.
The sensory properties of the sweets and desserts mainly depend on the process-
ing temperature, mixing time and temperature, and the other ingredients used in
the recipe.
Sugar (sucrose) and water are boiled together to make sugar syrups and most of
the sweets and desserts (Table 4.2). Sugar syrup is thicker than water since the
amount of free water decreases as sugar dissolves in water. The water evaporates
and the sugar concentrates during boiling, so the product becomes firmer.
Mixing (creaming) the hot sugar solution promotes the formation of large crys-
tals due to rapid movement of the molecules toward each other, resulting in a
grainy texture. If the creaming temperature is very low, the crystal size will be
very small and the product, such as a candy, will not have the desired texture.
Therefore, allowing the sugar solution to cool down to a certain temperature
(38°C–54°C/100°F–129°F) before agitation will yield smaller crystals, and a
smoother and creamier texture.
When sugar is heated at high temperatures, it decomposes into glucose and fruc-
tose. This is followed by dehydration of sugar, in which each sugar molecule loses
water and they react with each other. New flavor and color compounds are formed;
sugar turns brown in color and nutty in flavor. This reaction is called caramelizatıon
of sugar. Caramelization gives the desirable flavor and color of many foods such
as coffee, beer, brittles, a variety of candies, and confectionary. Caramelization
of sucrose starts at 160°C (320°F). It becomes undesirable if the sugar is heated
above the caramelization temperature because it gives a burnt smell and color to
the food product.
TABLE 4.2
The Changes Occurring in Sugar Syrup during Cooking
Approximate Sugar
Temperature Concentration in
(°C/°F) the Syrup (%) Heating Stage Properties Example
112–116/ 85 Soft ball Soft ball is formed and it does not hold its Fudge, candy
233–240 shape when syrup is dropped into cold water filling
118–120/ 87 Firm ball Firm ball is formed and it holds its shape Chewy candies
244–248 when syrup is dropped into cold water (caramels)
120–130/ 92 Hard ball Hard ball is formed when syrup is dropped Rock candy
248–266 into cold water
132–143/ 95 Soft crack Hard, but not brittle, threads are formed when Taffy
269–289 syrup is dropped into cold water
149–154/ 99 Hard crack Brittle and breakable threads are formed when Lollipops
300–309 syrup is dropped into cold water
160–182/ Caramelization Color goes from clear to brown as the Caramels

320–359 temperature rises; viscosity increases
EXPERIMENT 4.3
OBJECTIVE
To explain the natural sugar contents of foods.

• 2 medium onions
• Cooking spray
• 1 skillet
• Cutting board
• Knife
• 2 plates
• Spoon
• Stove
Method
1. Label one plate “raw” and the other, “caramelized.”
2. Chop the onions into uniformly sized pieces.
3. Place approximately half of the onions onto the plate labeled “raw.”
4. Spray the skillet with cooking spray.
5. Place the remaining onion in the skillet, and cook over medium heat while
stirring.
6. Continue stirring and watch, as the onion’s color turns darker and darker.
7. Remove them onto the plate labeled “caramelized” when the onions are thor-
oughly browned.
8. Examine the appearance, smell, flavor, and texture of the samples, and
record the responses in Data Table 4.7. (See EXP 4.5–4.8.)
EXP 4.5 EXP 4.6

EXP 4.7 EXP 4.8
DATA TABLE 4.7

Colora Smellb Tastec Textured
Raw onion
Caramelized onion
a Use the terms white, yellow, golden, and golden brown to evaluate the color of the samples.
b Use the terms strong and nutty to evaluate the smell of the samples.
c Use the terms pungent and sweet to evaluate the taste of the samples.
d Use the terms crispy and soft to evaluate the texture of the samples.
Some vegetables, such as onions, are rich in “natural sugars” (Table 4.3). When
these vegetables are being cooked, the poly- and disaccharides in their structures
are broken down into smaller sugar units because the bonds between the units
are disturbed by heat. As heating continues, these sugar units undergo caramel-
ization. This is the primary reason behind why onions turn brown and develop a
sweeter flavor upon dry heating.
TABLE 4.3
The Natural Sugar Content of Some Vegetables
Vegetables serving size (g/oz) Sugars (g/oz)
Onion: 1 medium (148 g/5.22 oz) 9/0.31
Carrot: 1 carrot (78 g/2.75 oz) 5/0.17
Sweet corn: 1 medium (90 g/3.17 oz) 5/0.17
Sweet potato: 1 medium (90 g/3.17 oz) 7/0.24

EXPERIMENT 4.4
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the structural properties of starch (polysaccharides).
• To observe the effects of starch types in starch gels.
Turkish Delight Recipe

• 4 cups table sugar
• 1¼ cups corn starch
• 1 cup icing sugar
• 1 teaspoon cream of tartar
• 4¼ cups water
• 1 tablespoon lemon juice
• 1 cup confectioners’ sugar
• Thermometer
• 2 saucepans
• Measuring cup
• Whisk
• Pan
• Wax paper
• Knife
• Stove
Method
1. In a saucepan, combine the lemon juice, table sugar, and 1½ cup water on
medium heat.
2. Stir constantly until sugar dissolves.
3. Allow the mixture to boil.
4. Reduce heat to low and allow to simmer, until the mixture reaches 115.5°C
(240°F).
5. Remove from heat and set aside.
6. Combine cream of tartar, 1 cup corn starch, and remaining water in another
saucepan over medium heat.
8. Stir until all lumps are gone and the mixture begins to boil.
9. Stop stirring when the mixture has a glue-like consistency. This is called
the gelatinization temperature. Record the gelatinization temperature in
Data Table 4.8.
DATA TABLE 4.8
Temperature (°C/°F)
Time (min) Corn Starch Potato Starch Wheat Starch
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Gelatinization Temperature
10. Continue heating. Record the tem-

perature every 10 min in Data Table
4.8 until the mixture becomes golden
in color.
11. Stir in the lemon juice and water/
sugar mixture.
12. Stir constantly for about 5 min.
13. Reduce heat to low; allow to sim-
mer for one hour, stirring frequently
(EXP 4.9).
14. Once the mixture has become viscous
and opaque, pour the mixture into a
previously wax paper- or parchment- EXP 4.9
lined pan to about 1 cm (0.39 in.)
from the top. Add nuts (optional).
DATA TABLE 4.9

Change in
Starch Type Transparency a Color b Texture c Height (%)
Maize
Potato
Wheat
a Use the terms transparent, translucent, and opaque to describe the transparency.
b Use the terms white, bright golden, golden, and dark golden to describe the color.
c Use the terms soft, semisoft, and firm to describe the texture.
15. Spread evenly.

16. Leave the sample at room temperature overnight.
17. Cut in small rectangles, sprinkle with confectioners’ sugar.
18. Analyze the product and record your observations in Data Table 4.9.
Repeat above procedure using potato starch and wheat starch.

Note: In cases when the observations or the measurements cannot be done,
denote that as n/a (not applicable).
To calculate the gel strength:
1. Measure the height of the Turkish Delight using a toothpick while it is still
on the tray, (hi).
2. Turn over the baking pan containing Turkish Delight onto a clean counter
and remeasure the height, (hf ).
Calculate the percentage (%) change in the height:
% Change =
( h i − hf ) × 100
hi
Note: A low percentage (%) change indicates a strong gel.
Study Questions
1. Compare the gelatinization temperatures of starches.

2. Discuss the gel strength of samples prepared using different starches.
3. Which starch would be more suitable to make Turkish Delight? Explain your
answer.
Starch is a polysaccharide, which is a major component of many plants and an

important ingredient for the culinary industry.
Starches are the long-chain polymers of glucose units. The number of glucose
molecules varies from hundreds to several hundred thousand, depending on the
type of starch. Seeds, cereals, roots, and the tubers are the main sources of starch.
The most common starches in culinary processes are corn (maize), rice, wheat,
potato, and tapioca (cassava).
The functional properties of starches in foods are almost unlimited and the
primary functions can be listed as:
• Thickening
• Body and texture formation
• Binding
• Coating
• Moisture retention
The functional properties of starch are primarily connected to its chemical

composition. Starch consists of two fractions: amylose and amylopectin. These are
packed into water-insoluble granules (Table 4.4). Amylose is a linear chain of
glucose units. It has a simpler structure compared to amylopectin because
amylopectin has a branched structure.
The relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin differ among different starch
varieties depending on the plants from which they are produced (Table 4.5).
Starch is insoluble in water. It undergoes starch gelatinization when heated in
liquid. When starch is mixed with water and heated, hydrogen bonds break,
allowing water to enter the starch granule. Some amylose goes into the water from
the surface of the starch granule; more water enters into the granule and the
starch granules swell. Gradually, granules lose their natural structures. Hydrogen
bonding between amylose and water are formed. The amount of free water
decreases, the viscosity of the starch mixture increases. New gel structure is
formed upon cooling, and the mixture thickens. This process is called starch gela-
tinization (Figure 4.1).
The chemical structure of the starch and the size of the starch granule determine
the viscosity of the starch gel, the speed of gelatinization, the gel strength, and the
gelatinization temperature. That is because using the correct type of starch is
important in culinary processes.
TABLE 4.4
Properties of Amylose and Amylopectin
Amylose Amylopectin
G G G G G G G G
G G
• It has a linear chain structure. • It has a highly branched structure.

• It makes approximately • It makes approximately 80%–90%
10%–20% of the total of the total amount of starch in
amount of starch in plants plants based on its source.
based on its source.
TABLE 4.5
Approximate Amounts of Amylose and Amylopectin of Various Starches
Type of Starch (Source) Amylose (%) Amylopectin (%)
Corn (cereal) 26 74
Rice (cereal) 17 83
Potato (tuber) 21 79
Cassava (root) 17 83
Wheat (cereal) 25 75
The amylose-to-amylopectin ratio in the starch determines the characteristic

properties of the final food. The amount of amylose molecules in the granule
determines the gel strength. The more amylose, the stronger the gel, but the less
viscous the product. This is because the amylose has a simple linear structure
in which molecules can move closer to each other to form bonds. Amylopectin
contributes the viscosity of the final food product. The branched structure of
amylopectin molecules keeps them from coming closer to form bonds. It does not
contribute to the gel formation, but it gives viscosity to the food products due to
Figure 4.1 Starch gelatinization.
TABLE 4.6
Gelatinization Temperatures of Some Starch Varieties
Type of Starch (source) Gelatinization Temperature (°C/°F)
Corn (cereal) 62–70/143–158
Rice (cereal) 68–75/154–167
Potato (tuber) 59–68/138–154
Cassava (root) 65–68/149–154
Wheat (cereal) 52–54/125–129
its bulky structure. Therefore, the more amylopectin, the softer the gel because
molecules cannot align as easily and, thus, give weaker hydrogen bonding and
gel strength. Different starch types have different gelatinization temperatures
because they have different amounts of amylose and amylopectin in their struc-
tures (Table 4.6).
EXPERIMENT 4.5
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effects of other ingredients in the recipe on starch gels.
Case 1
Sugar effect
• Water
• 6 small bowls
• 11 saucepans
• Measuring cups
• Kitchen scale
• Thermometer
• Spoon
• Whisk
• Skewers
• Refrigerator
• Stove
Method
1. Label the bowls “control,” “2 g (0.07 oz) sugar,” “4 g (0.14 oz) sugar,” “6 g (0.21
oz) sugar,” “8 g (0.28 oz) sugar,” and “10 g (0.35 oz) sugar.”
2. Place 20 g (0.7 oz) starch and 300 mL (10 fl oz) water in a saucepan.
4. Heat the mixture over medium heat stirring constantly.
5. Remove from the heat when gelatinization is complete (when the mixture
has a glue-like consistency).
6. Record the gelatinization temperature in Data Table 4.10.
7. Pour the gelatinized starch paste into control bowl to about 2 cm (¾ in.)
from the top.
8. Rinse the saucepan to remove the paste residues.
9. Place 20 g (0.7 oz) starch, 2 g (0.07 oz) sugar, and 300 mL (10 fl oz) water in
a saucepan.
11. Heat the mixture over medium heat, stirring constantly.
12. Remove from the heat when gelatinization is complete.

1
14. Pour the gelatinized starch paste into the bowl labeled “2 g (0.07 oz)” sugar.
15. Store all the samples in the refrigerator overnight.
16. Assess and compare the gel strengths next day.
Repeat Steps 9–17 with 4 g (0.14 oz) sugar, 6 g (0.21 oz) sugar, 8 g (0.28 oz) sugar,
and 10 g (0.35 oz) sugar additions in an order. Store all the samples in the refrigerator
overnight.
DATA TABLE 4.10

Gelatinization % Change in Visual and Textural
Sample Temperature (°C/°F) Height Propertiesa
Control
Sugar (g/oz)
10
Acid (mL/fl oz)
10
a Use the terms transparent, translucent opaque, white, bright golden, golden, and dark golden to
describe the visual properties; soft, semisoft, and firm to describe the textural properties.
Case 2
Acidity effect
• 30 mL (1 fl oz) lemon juice
• Water
• 6 small bowls
• 1 saucepan
• Measuring cups
• Spoon
• Skewers
• Kitchen scale
• Thermometer
• Refrigerator
• Stove
Method
1. Label the bowls “control,” “2 mL (0.06 fl oz) lemon juice,” “4 mL (0.13 fl oz)
lemon juice,” “6 mL (0.20 fl oz) lemon juice,” “8 mL (0.27 fl oz) lemon juice,”
and “10 mL (0.33 fl oz) lemon juice.”
2. Place 20 g (0.7 oz) corn starch and 300 mL (10 fl oz) water in a saucepan.
4. Heat the mixture over medium heat, stirring constantly.
6. Pour the gelatinized starch paste into “control” bowl to about 2 cm (¾ in.)
from the top.
7. Rinse the saucepan to remove the paste residues.
8. Place 20 g (0.7 oz) cornstarch, 2 mL (0.06 fl oz) lemon juice, and 300 mL
(10 fl oz) water in a saucepan.
10. Heat the mixture over medium heat stirring all the time.
11. Remove from the heat when gelatinization is complete.
13. Pour the gelatinized starch paste into previously marked bowl to about
2 cm from the top.
14. Store all the samples in the refrigerator overnight.
15. Assess and compare the gel strengths next day.
Repeat Steps 8–16 with 4 mL (0.13 fl oz) lemon juice, 6 mL (0.2 fl oz) lemon juice, 8 mL
(0.27 fl oz) lemon juice, and 10 mL (0.33 fl oz) lemon juice.
Method to assess the gel strength:
1. Measure the height of the gel using a skewer while still in the bowl, (hi).
2. Turn over bowl containing starch paste onto a clean counter and measure
the height again, (hf ).
Calculate the percentage (%) change in the height.
% Change =
( h i − hf ) × 100
hi
Note: A low percentage (%) change indicates a strong gel.

Although the structure of the starch and the starch granule sizes are the primary
factors, the viscosity, the speed of gelatinization, the gel strength, and the gelati-
nization temperature also are affected by the following factors during cooking:
1. Presence of the acidic ingredients

2. Presence of sugar
3. Presence of fats and protein
4. Presence of enzymes
5. Agitation/mixing
6. Rate of cooling.
Acidic ingredients, such as lemon, yogurt, and vinegar, change the net charge
in foods. They decrease the gel strength because acid breaks down the bonds
between the starch molecules. Adding the acid after gelatinization can minimize
the acid effect.
Sugar addition, especially sucrose addition, decreases the viscosity and firmness of
the starch gel because sugar competes with the starch for water. A higher tempera-
ture of gelatinization is obtained. Timing of sugar addition is significant.
Increased concentration of fats and protein delays the hydration of starch causing
a decreased viscosity of the starch paste and decreased gel strength because they
coat the surface of the starch granules.
Enzymes decrease gel strength because some enzymes hydrolyze the starch. For
example, an egg yolk decreases the strength of the gel because it contains alpha-
amylase, an amylose-digesting enzyme.
Agitation throughout the gelatinization process creates a more uniform mixture
without lumps because it separates the starch granules. However, it prevents for-
mation of a network and firm gel if the mixture is excessively agitated, or contin-
ued after the gel formation.
Rate of cooling is also important; too fast or too slow cooling may affect the gel
strength.
EXPERIMENT 4.6
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the changes in the starch gel structure during storage.
• To explain the effect of storage temperature on starch gel structure during
storage.
Case 1
Bread staling
• A loaf of plain bread
• 15 medium-sized zipped sandwich bags
• Sharp bread knife
• Cutting board
• Refrigerator
• Freezer
Method
1. Label sandwich bags “room temperature,” “freezer temperature,” and
“refrigeration temperature.” Label five bags for each temperature.
2. Cut 15 equal-sized bread slices from the same bread.
3. Place one slice in each bag.
4. Seal the plastic bags.
5. Place five bags labeled “freezer temperature” in the freezer, five bags labeled
“refrigeration temperature” in the refrigerator, and five bags labeled “room
temperature” in a safe place in the room.
6. After 24 h, take one bag from each storage temperature and let the freezer
and refrigerator samples warm to room temperature.
7. Track the accumulation of water on the inside surface of the plastic bags.
8. Take the slices out of the bag and evaluate the changes in the texture.
9. Compare the textures of the slices.
10. Record your evaluations in Data Table 4.11.
11. Dispose of the slices.
12. Repeat the same process over the next four days with the rest of the samples.
DATA TABLE 4.11

Water
Accumulation Texture of
on Inside the Slice Comparison
Storage Storage Surface of (Hardness, of Texture of
Time Temperature Plastic Baga Softness)b Slices
Day 1 Room
Refrigeration
Freezer
Day 2 Room
Refrigeration
Freezer
Day 3 Room
Refrigeration
Freezer
Day 4 Room
Refrigeration
Freezer
Day 5 Room
Refrigeration
Freezer
a Use the terms no accumulation, little accumulation, and severe accumulation.
b Rate the texture of each sample in a ranking of 1 to 5; 1 = hard, 5 = soft.
Case 2
Rice dishes prepared with different rice types
• 100 g (3.5 oz) short grain rice (e.g., Arborio rice)
• 100 g (3.5 oz) medium grain rice (e.g., Calrose rice)
• 100 g (3.5 oz) long grain rice (e.g., Jasmine rice)
• Water
• 3 small saucepans with lids
• Spoon
• Fork
• Refrigerator
• Stove
Method
1. Label the saucepans “short grain,” “medium grain,” and “long grain.”
2. Cook short grain rice as directed on the package.
3. When the rice is done, turn off the heat.
4. Cool down to room temperature.
5. Take off the lid.
6. Evaluate the texture.
8. Complete the same stages for all rice types in separate saucepans.
9. Refrigerate the saucepans overnight.
10. Take the saucepans out of the refrigerator and let come closer to room
temperature.
11. Evaluate their textures.
13. Compare the degree of changes in textural structures of different rice dishes
after refrigeration, and record in Data Table 4.12.
DATA TABLE 4.12
Texture before Texture after Comparison of the Structures of Rice
Refrigeration Refrigeration Dishes after Refrigeration
Short grain rice Describe:a Describe:

Rate:b Rate:
Medium grain rice Describe: Describe:

Rate: Rate:
Long grain rice Describe: Describe:

Rate: Rate:
a Use the terms sticky, fluffy, dry, and moist to describe the texture.
b Rate the texture of the samples in a ranking of 1 to 5; 1 = hard, 5 = soft.
Why does bread stale during storage?

Why does cooked rice harden during storage?
Why does pudding release water during storage?
The primary cause is aging gel.

Starch molecules in gelatinized starch, particularly the amylose chains, have a
tendency to reassociate in an ordered crystalline structure during storage. This
process is known as retrogradation, which is directly related to the hardening of
cooked rice and the staling of baked products, such as bread.
Water may squeeze out from the starch gel network as a result of retrogradation.
This process is known as syneresis. The collection of water on the surface of pud-
ding during storage is a good example for syneresis.
Rate of retrogradation primarily depends on:
• Ratio of amylose and amylopectin in the starch. Due to the simpler struc-
ture of amylose, rate of retrogradation increases as the amount of amylose
in the starch structure increases. For example, long grain rice contains high
amounts of amylose and least amylopectin in its structure than short and
medium grain rice varieties. That is why cooked long grain rice is typically
more prone to retrogradation, and gets harder during storage compared to
the other varieties.
• Storage temperature has a significant effect on the rate of retrogradation.
Rate of retrogradation is higher at the refrigeration temperature than the rate
at the freezing temperature and at room temperature.
EXPERIMENT 4.7
OBJECTIVE
To explain the dextrinization process.
Béchamel Sauce Recipe

• 3 tablespoons butter
• 2 tablespoons cake flour
• 2 cups milk EXP 4.10
• 1 teaspoon salt
• Saucepan
• Stove
• Whisk
Method
1. In a medium saucepan, melt the
butter over medium-low heat.
2. Add the flour and salt and stir until
smooth. EXP 4.11
3. Cook over medium heat, stirring
frequently.
4. Every 2 min, record the changes in
color, taste, and the texture of the
mixture in Data Table 4.13 until the
mixture turns a light golden color
and has a slightly nutty aroma.
5. Pour in milk slowly while whisking
constantly until very smooth.
6. Observe the texture of the mixture EXP 4.12
and record in Data Table 4.14.
7. Bring to a boil while stirring
constantly.
8. Reduce the heat to low, cook the mix-
ture 10 min, stirring occasionally.
9. Remove from heat.

10. Observe the texture of the mix-
ture and record in Data Table 4.14
(EXP 4.10–4.13).
EXP 4.13
DATA TABLE 4.13

Time (min) Colora Tasteb Texturec
6
a Use the terms white, bright golden, golden, and dark golden to describe the color.
b Use the terms plain, nutty, light, and strong to describe the taste.
c Use the terms silky and sandy to describe the texture.
DATA TABLE 4.14

Texture of the Mixture
Just after milk addition
At the end of cooking
Use the terms silky, sandy, solid, semisolid, and liquid to describe the texture.
Study Questions
1. Explain the effect of heat on the sensory properties of the mixture before the
addition of the milk.
2. Explain the effect of heat on the sensory properties of the mixture after the
addition of the milk.
As discussed previously, heat and liquid are required for starch gelatinization. In
other words, starch gels when heated in liquid. When starch is heated to high tem-
peratures (100°C–200°C/212°F–392°F) without liquid (dry heating), the linkages
between the glucose units are destroyed. Starch polymers are broken down into
smaller, sweeter-tasting sugar molecules (dextrins). This process is known as
dextrinization.
This process is applied in recipes, which call for heating of flour or starch without
liquid, such as white and brown roux, some desserts (e.g., Turkish halva), and
some soups. The basic purpose of the dextrinization process in the kitchen is to
give a nutty aroma, sweeter taste, and a golden color to the foods. It also reduces
its ability to thicken into a gel.
Note: Dextrinization may occur at lower temperatures if starch is heated with
small amounts of acidic ingredients because acid helps to break down the bonds
between the starch molecules.
EXPERIMENT 4.8
OBJECTIVE
To explain the basic function of pectin in foods.
Raspberry Jam Recipe

• 1,000 g (2.2 lb) of fresh raspberries
• 28 g (1 oz) powdered pectin
• 1,200 g (2.6 lb) table sugar
• 2 pans
• Stove
• Potato masher or a wooden spoon
Method
1. Place 500 g (1.1 lb) of raspberries in a pan.
2. Add 2 tablespoons lemon juice.
3. Bring to a full boil over high heat, stirring constantly.
4. Using a potato masher or a wooden spoon, lightly crush raspberries.
5. Slowly add 600 g (1.3 lb) sugar and 28 g (1 oz) of pectin while stirring con-
stantly until the sugar is fully dissolved.
6. Return to a boil, and let it boil for 5 min.
7. Remove from the heat and let it cool down.
9. Repeat the experiment without pectin.
DATA TABLE 4.15

Sample Texture of the Samplesa
With pectin
Without pectin
a Use the terms thin, thick, viscous, and less viscous to evaluate the texture.
Study Question
1. Compare the textures of the jams, and discuss the effect of pectin on the
texture of the jam.
Pectin and cellulose are the polysaccharides found in plants as the principal
structural components of the cell walls. They are the most abundant dietary fibers.
Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are the most common sources of the dietary
fibers.
Functional properties of fibers in culinary processes can be listed as:
• Thickening and gelling

• Emulsification
• Stabilization of emulsions
• Stabilization of foams
There are two types of fibers: water-soluble fibers and water-insoluble fibers.
Legumes, oat bran, peas, citrus fruits, apple pulp, and berries are rich in water-
soluble fibers. Pectin is the most common example of the water-soluble fibers.
Cauliflower, cabbage, apple skin, wheat bran, and whole grain foods are rich in
insoluble fibers. Cellulose is the most common example of the water-insoluble
fibers.
Pectin is primarily used as a gelling agent, thickening agent, and stabilizer in
foods, especially in jams, jellies, and some fruit juices.
It is found in plant cell walls and mostly concentrated in the skin and the core
of fruits. The amount of pectin varies from fruit to fruit (Table 4.7). The stage of
ripeness also determines the amount of pectin in fruits. The ripe fruits contain
more pectin compared to the over-ripe ones. Therefore, just-ripe fruits are used
to thicken fruit syrups, jams, jellies, and marmalades. In the kitchen, fruits that
are low in pectin must be combined with one of the higher pectin fruits to form
a gel. Alternatively, commercial pectin can be used with low-pectin fruits to
form gels.
TABLE 4.7
Pectin Contents of Some Fruits
Examples of Fruits Rich in Pectin Examples of Fruits Low in Pectin
• Sour apples • Apricots
• Currants • Blueberries
• Cranberries • Sweet cherries
• Blackberries • Peaches
• Gooseberries • Pineapple
• Lemon • Strawberries
EXPERIMENT 4.9
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effect of different factors on pectin gel formation.
Sour Cherry Jam

• 2,000 g (4.4 lb) sour cherries
• Water
• 1,500 g (3.3 lb) sugar
• 10 mL (0.33 fl oz) lemon juice
• Ladle
• Measuring cups
• Skimmer
• Kitchen scale
• Large pot
• Spoons
• 4 heat-stable jelly jars with lids
• Thermometer
• Stove
Method
1. Label the jars “250 g (8.8 oz) sugar,” “500 g (17.6 oz) sugar,” “with acid,” and
“without acid.”
2. Add 1 L (2.11 pts) of water and 250 g (8.8 oz) of sugar into the pot.
3. Stir until the sugar is completely dissolved.
4. Wash 500 g (17.6 oz) sour cherries and add them to the pot.
5. Cook over high heat, stirring occasionally.
6. Add 5 mL (0.16 fl oz) lemon juice.
7. Once it comes to a boil, start timing while stirring constantly.
8. Boil for 15 min.
9. Remove from heat.
10. Skim off any foam with a spoon.
11. Pour into the jar labeled “250 g (8.8 oz) sugar” and put the lid on.
12. Store for a week.
14. Repeat the same experiment using 500 g (17.6 oz) of sugar.
15. Repeat the same experiments without acid.
16. Compare the samples.
DATA TABLE 4.16

Amount of Amount of Acid
Sugar (g/oz) (mL/fl oz) Flavor Viscositya Textureb
250/8.8 0
250/8.8 5/0.16
500/17.6 0
500/17.6 5/0.16
a Use the words viscous, less viscous, and not viscous to evaluate the viscosity.
b Use the words sticky, less sticky, and not sticky to evaluate the texture of the samples.
Note: Increasing the amount of sugar to 500 g (17.6) but keeping the amount
of lemon juice constant decreases the percentage of acid in total amount of
ingredients.
As explained previously, thickening and gelling are the primary functional

properties of pectin in culinary processes.
During processing, heat, presence of acidic ingredients, acidity of the fruit, and
the amount of sugar affect the formation of a pectin gel.
Heat is required for gelling to occur. Upon heating, the pectin in fruit becomes
water-soluble because heat disturbs the linkages between the molecules. Too
high of a temperature or prolonged cooking can destroy the pectin, resulting in a
decrease in gel strength.
Acid at a certain concentration contributes to the gel formation because it hydro-
lyzes pectin, and new cross-links are formed. The gel will not set if there is too
little acid. On the other hand, too much acid will cause the gel to lose liquid. Acid
in fruit is usually enough to form the gel. In some jam recipes, especially if the
fruit is not acidic, additional acid, such as lemon and cream of tartar, are required
for a proper set.
Sugar has two important functions in formation of the pectin gel. The pectin can-
not form a strong gel if too much water is present in the medium, which results in
a runny food product. Sugar binds excessive water in fruits; therefore, the pectin
can form a gel with desired texture in the jam, jellies, and the fruit syrups. Pectin
also binds with sugar. Addition of acidic ingredients promotes this reaction. This
is one of the reasons for using lemon juice in jam making. Acid hydrolyzes pectin,
pectin binds with sugar; a gel with the proper strength is formed as a result of the
synergistic effects of acid and sugar.
Note: If you are using commercial pectin, be sure to follow the instructions. Each
jam, jelly, and the fruit syrup recipe must have a correct balance between pec-
tin, acid, and sugar for the fruit you are using. Do not make unrecommended
adjustments.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Carbohydrates are the organic compounds naturally found in many foods,

primarily in plants.
Understanding the basic structure of carbohydrates is crucial for chefs
because the functional properties of carbohydrates are primarily related
to their structures.
Carbohydrates are classified into three major groups according to the
number of simple sugar (monomer) units:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are soluble in polar solvents, such as
water. Monosaccharides contain polar hydroxyl groups (OH), which can
easily form hydrogen bonds with water.
The sensory properties of the sweets and desserts depend on the processing
temperature and the other ingredients used in the recipe.
Some vegetables, such as onions, are rich in “natural sugars.”
Starch is a polysaccharide, which is a major component of many plants and
an important ingredient for the culinary industry.
Starch is insoluble in water.
The chemical structure of the starch and the size of the starch granule
determine the viscosity of the starch gel, the speed of gelatinization, the
gel strength, and the gelatinization temperature.
Starch molecules in gelatinized starch, particularly the amylose chains,
have a tendency to reassociate in an ordered crystalline structure during
storage. This process is known as retrogradation.
There are two types of fibers: water-soluble fibers and water-insoluble
fibers.
Pectin is a water-soluble fiber that is primarily used as a gelling agent,
thickening agent, and stabilizer in foods, especially in jams, jellies, and
some fruit juices.
Cellulose is the most common example of the water-insoluble fibers.
More Ideas to Try
1. Repeat Experiment 4.7, but skip stages 3 and 4. Compare the color, taste, and
the texture of the product with the final product from Experiment 4.7.
2. Repeat Experiment 4.9 by substituting apricot for sour cherry. Try it:
a. With lemon juice
b. Without lemon juice
Compare the results.
Study Questions
1. Discuss the effect of sugar concentration on starch gel strength.

2. Discuss the effect of acid addition on the starch gel strength.
3. Discuss the effect of sugar concentration on pectin gel formation.
4. Discuss the effect of acid addition on pectin gel formation.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Astridottenhof, M., and I. Farhat. 2004. Plant biotechnology. Biotechnology and Genetics
Engineering Reviews 21:215–228.
Campbell-Platt, G. 2009. Food science and technology. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Friberg, B. 2003. The advanced professional chef. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Gaman, P. M., and K. B. Sherrington. 1996. The science of food, 4th ed. Oxford, UK:
Elsevier Ltd.
Lauriston, R. 1996. Gelatinization temperatures for adjuncts. Online at: www.brewery.
org/brewery/library/GelTemps_RL0796.html.
McGee, H. 2004. On food and cooking, 1st revised ed. New York: Scribner.
Murphy, P. 2000. Handbook of hydrocolloids. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Ozilgen, S. 2012. Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) for confectionery manufactur-
ing in developing countries: Turkish delight production as a case study. Ciência e
Tecnologia Alimentos 32(3):505–514.
Satin, M. 1998. Functional properties of starches. Rome: FAO Agricultural and Food Engineer
ing Technologies Service. Online at: www.fao.org/ag/magazine/pdf/starches.pdf.
Spies, R. D., and R. C. Hoseney. 1982. Effect of sugar on starch gelatinization. Cereal
Chemistry 59(2):128–131.
Starch. http://food.oregonstate.edu/learn/starch.html.
Starch. Online at: www.enotes.com/starch-reference/starch.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2008. Vegetables: Nutritional facts. Online at:
w w w.fda.gov/dow nloads/ Food / LabelingNutrition / FoodLabelingGuidance
Reg ulator yInfor mation / Infor mationforRestaurantsRetailEstablishments /
UCM169237.pdf.
Vaclavic, V. A., and E. W. Christian. 2008. Essentials in food science, 3rd ed. Berlin: Springer.
Chapter 5
Proteins in Culinary
Transformations
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS

IN CULINARY PROCESSES
Proteins are the organic compounds naturally found in animals (e.g., milk and
meat) and plants (e.g., wheat, soy, and beans).
The primary functional properties of proteins in food processing can be listed as:
1. Foam formation
2. Gelation
3. Dough formation
4. Flavor development
5. Viscosity control
6. Water binding
7. Color formation
Egg foams when whisked, but overwhisking collapses the structure. Gelatin-
based jellies will not set if they are made with kiwi, but blanching the fruit solves
that problem. Egg turns white when cooked, but overcooking makes it rubbery.
Meat gets softer when marinated, but different marinades are used for different
meat cuts—and, so on.
145
If we can answer the question of why egg albumen turns white when cooked, we
will know when to stop the process before the egg gets rubbery. Similarly, if we
know how meat gets softer when marinated, we will know which type of marinades
to use for different meat cuts.
Understanding the basic structure of food proteins is crucial for chefs
because the functional properties of proteins are primarily related to their
structures.
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Proteins are the polymers of different amino acids joined together by covalent
bonds (peptide linkages). Each amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to a
hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a unique functional group
(R group) (Figure 5.1). The chemical properties of R groups primarily determine
the properties of proteins in foods. There are 22 known amino acids, which means
22 different R groups. Therefore, proteins in foods, such as in eggs, meat, legumes,
and cereals, differ from each other primarily because their R groups, number of
amino acids, and the sequence of amino acids are different.
Proteins have four structures:
1. Primary structure: The primary structure of protein is the sequence of amino

acids bound together by peptide bonds (linkages) (Figure 5.2).
2. Secondary structure: The secondary structure of proteins is formed by coil-
ing of the primary structure in β-sheets or α-helix shapes by formation of
hydrogen bonds between amino acids (Figure 5.3a,b).
3. Tertiary structure: The tertiary structure of proteins refers to the over-
all shape of protein formed by the folding of the secondary structure by
Functional group
R
H O
N C C
H OH
H
Amino group Carboxyl

group
Figure 5.1 A general structure of amino acids.

Proteins in Culinary Transformations 147
s econdary attractions, i.e., disulfide bonds, hydrophobic interactions,

and salt bridges (ionic interactions), between R groups of amino acids
(Figure 5.4).
4. Quaternary structure: Two or more polypeptide chains join together to form
the quaternary structure of proteins (Figure 5.5).
2O
R2 O
+H
H C
R1 R2 R1 N C
H O H O H OH
N C C N C C N C C H
+
H OH H OH H O
H H H
Peptide bond
Amino acid 1 Amino acid 2
Figure 5.2 Formation of peptide linkages (bonds).
Figure 5.3 (a) α-Helix shapes. (b) β-Sheet.

Figure 5.4 Tertiary structure of proteins.
Figure 5.5 Quaternary structure of proteins.

Different proteins in foods may have one of two different molecular shapes: glob-
ular or fibrous.
Globular Proteins Fibrous Proteins
• Polypeptide polymers fold back on • Polypeptide chains are arranged

themselves as globs or spheres to parallel to one another to form a
form globular proteins. strong rope-like structure.
• Almost all globular proteins are • Fibrous proteins are insoluble in
soluble in water. water, and are very stable.
• Milk protein (casein), myoglobin, • Collagen, actin, myosin, and
and egg white protein (albumin) elastin in meat are good examples
are good examples for the globular of fibrous proteins found in foods.
proteins found in foods.
The structure of the proteins can be affected by processing conditions.

The noncovalent bonding interactions of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary struc-
tures can be destroyed or destructed by physical or chemical treatments applied dur-
ing food processing. The protein structure unfolds and a new structure is formed.
This process is called protein denaturation (Figure 5.6). A new product is formed
because the chemical change has taken place as a result of protein denaturation.
The most common physical and chemical factors affecting the protein structure in
foods during food preparation and processing include:
• Heat treatment
• Mechanical treatment (whisking, mixing, pounding)
• Salt addition
• pH change
• Enzymatic activities
• Sugar addition
Figure 5.6 Denaturation of proteins.

EXPERIMENT 5.1
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effect of heat treatment on proteins in foods.

• 4–5 fresh eggs, at room temperature
• Pan
• Stove
Method
1. Heat the pan over medium heat.
2. Add butter.
3. When butter begins to sizzle, crack the eggs.
4. Observe the texture and color changes that occur in the eggs as cooking
proceeds and record your observations in Data Table 5.1.
5. Cook until the egg whites have just set, and record your observations in Data
Table 5.2.
DATA TABLE 5.1

Time (min) Describe the Changes in Colora and Textureb of the Egg Whites
10
…
a Use the terms transparent, translucent, and white to describe the color.
b Use the terms liquid, semisolid, and solid to describe the texture.
DATA TABLE 5.2

Color and Texture of the Egg Whitesa,b
Properly cooked fried eggs
Overcooked fried eggs

a Use the terms transparent, translucent, and white to describe the color.
b Use the terms liquid, semisolid, and solid to describe the texture.
6. Continue to cook for five more minutes (overcooking), and record your
observations in Data Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
7. Compare the textures and colors of the properly cooked eggs and the over-
cooked eggs (EXP 5.1–5.7).
EXP 5.1 EXP 5.2
EXP 5.3 EXP 5.4

EXP 5.5 EXP 5.6
EXP 5.7
Understanding the composition of foods will help us understand the changes that
occur within foods when we process them.
The contents of the egg is shown in PIC 5.1.
Temperature is one of the primary causes of protein denaturation during cooking.
As temperature increases, the energy of the protein molecules also increases and
noncovalent interactions in the protein structure are weakened. At some tem-
perature, the protein structure unfolds. The unfolded protein molecules interact
(reassociate) with each other to form a new three-dimensional network. During
the reassociation of protein molecules, water is entrapped within the network and
a gel-like structure is formed (Figure 5.6). The temperature at which this process
occurs is known as the protein denaturation temperature. Semisoft, semisolid pre-
cipitates are formed when denatured proteins are processed further. This process
is called coagulation. Denaturation is the first stage of coagulation. Denaturation
and coagulation of proteins are usually desirable in food processing.
Differences between raw and cooked eggs are largely a result of protein
coagulation that occurs during cooking.
The egg white is liquid and translucent in its raw state. Upon cooking, albu-
men coagulation occurs; the texture gradually changes from liquid to solid.
Simultaneously, the color turns white.
If heating and denaturation continue, the interactions between proteins become
very strong. The network collapses as water is removed from the network. The
food becomes rubbery and dry as observed in the experiments when the egg
white is overcooked.
ALBUMEN (White) is the largest

part of the egg. It makes up 2/3 of
the egg mass. The total mass of
egg white is 88% water and 12%
protein.
YOLK makes up 1/3 of the egg mass.
The total mass of egg yolk is 48%
water, 35% lipid, and 17% protein.
PIC 5.1
PROTEIN CONTENT OF THE EGG.
EXPERIMENT 5.2
OBJECTIVES
• To show that different proteins have different denaturation temperatures.
• To show the effects of heating time and heating temperature on proteins in
foods.

• 8 eggs
• Water bath (if not available, use a large brazier with water at a constant
temperature)
• 4 food thermometers
• Timer
• 16 heat-resistant glass containers
Method
1. Label four glass containers for each temperature as “60°C (140°F),” “65°C
(149°F),” “70°C (158°F),” and “75°C (167°F).”
2. Take two eggs and separate the whites from the yolks.
3. Place the egg whites into two separate glass containers labeled “60°C (140°F).”
4. Repeat Step 3 for the egg yolks.
5. Place the containers in a water bath (or a brazier).
6. Fill the water bath such that the water level is slightly above the level of the
samples in the container.
7. Place a thermometer in each of the glass containers. Be sure that the ther-
mometers do not touch the bottom or sides of the containers. The recorded
temperatures will be the center temperature of the egg sample.
8. Heat the water in the water bath to 60°C (140°F), and keep the temperature
constant.
9. Start timing when the center temperature of the sample reaches 60°C
(140°F).
10. R
emove one of the containers with egg white and one with egg yolk from the
water bath as soon as the temperatures of the samples reach 60°C (140°F).
11. Evaluate the samples as described in Data Table 5.3. Record your observa-
tions and evaluations.
12. After 20 min, remove the other containers from the water bath.
13. Evaluate the samples as described in Data Table 5.3. Record your observa-
tions and evaluations.
Repeat the same experiment for the temperatures of 65°C (149°F), 70°C (158°F),
and 75°C (167°F).
DATA TABLE 5.3
Appearance Texture of Appearance Texture of Appearance Texture of Appearance Texture of
of the Egg the Egg of the Egg the Egg of the Egg the Egg of the Egg the Egg
Temperature Whitea Whiteb Yolk Yolk White White Yolk Yolk
(˚C)/(°F) t = 0 min t = 0 min t = 0 min t = 0 min t = 20 min t = 20 min t = 20 min t = 20 min
60/140
65/149
70/158
75/167
a Use the terms transparent, translucent, and opaque to describe the appearance of the samples.
b Use the terms liquid, semisolid, and solid to describe the texture of the samples both at the surface of the tube and at the center of glass custard cups.
Study Questions
1. How does cooking temperature affect the physical properties of the egg
white?
2. How does cooking time affect the physical properties of the egg white?
3. How does temperature affect the physical properties of the egg yolk?
4. How does cooking time affect the physical properties of the egg yolk?
Different proteins denature at different temperatures because they do not share

the same molecular structure.
The denaturation temperature of egg whites is different from the denaturation tem-
perature of egg yolks. Egg whites begin to denature at 62°C (143°F) and become
solid at 65°C (149°F). Egg yolks begin to denature at 65°C (149°F) and become
solid at 70°C (158°F). Thus, controlled cooking is required if the mixture of the egg
white and the egg yolk are going to be used in the food preparation, such as a soufflé.
A temperature gradient occurs in the food during cooking.
The surface of the food gets hotter than the interior at the beginning of cooking.
If the temperature of the cooking medium is high (intensive heating), the tem-
perature gradient between the surface of the food and the interior will be greater;
the surface cooks rapidly and gets undesirably curdled by the time the interior
part gets desirably cooked. Therefore, the rate and the intensity of heating must
be optimized by considering the properties of the foods and should be controlled
during cooking. For example, slow cooking of the whole egg in a 60°C (140°F)
water bath for 45 min will yield a soft, semisolid, and translucent egg white and a
liquid egg yolk.
EXPERIMENT 5.3
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effect of heat treatment on the textural properties of the meat.

• 2 pieces of beef steaks (each 5 cm/1.9 in. thick)
• 1 tablespoon olive oil
• Grill
• 2 plates
• Food brush
• Knife
Method
1. Preheat the grill to medium high heat (above 140°C/284°F).
2. Brush the steaks with olive oil.
3. Place the steaks on the grill.
4. Immediately place a thermometer in the center of each steak.
5. Observe the changes occurring in the texture of the samples during cooking.
6. Record the textural properties of the meats at the internal temperatures of
50°C (122°F), 60°C (140°F), and 65°C (149°F) in Data Table 5.4.
DATA TABLE 5.4

Internal Temperature
(˚C)/(˚F) Textural Properties of the Samplesa
50/122
60/140
65/149
70/158
75/167
a Use the terms soft, hard, juicy, dry, and separable to evaluate the textures of the samples.
7. Take one of the steaks from the grill and place it on one of the plates while
the other piece continues to cook.
8. Keep observing the textural changes taking place with the second sample
as it continues to cook.
9. Record the textural properties of the meat at the internal temperatures of
70°C (158°F) and 75°C (167°F) in Data Table 5.4.
10. Take the second steak from the grill and place it on the second plate.
11. Slice and analyze both samples (the sample cooked to the internal tempera-
ture of 65°C (149°F) and the sample cooked to the internal temperature of
75°C (167°F)), and answer the following:
1. Which sample is softer?
2. Which sample is juicier?
3. Which sample has more separable muscle fibers?
Note: In this experiment, for better observation, cook only one side of the steak
(EXP 5.8).
EXP 5.8
Meat is composed of water, protein, fats, minerals, and trace amount of carbohy-
drates. Composition of lean, raw meat from different animal sources is given in
Table 5.1.
Meat has muscle fibers and connective tissues, which are the naturally occurring
muscle proteins found in animals.
Muscle fibers are bundles of the long and very thin cells surrounded by connective
tissues. These bundles can be seen when the cooked meat is cut into pieces. They
become dryer, tougher, and tear apart upon cooking.
Collagen is the major protein that makes up the connective tissues that surround
the muscle fibers. It has a very strong, long structure that makes it difficult to
break down. Therefore, if meat has too much collagen, it will have a tougher
texture.
Textural changes are observed in meat during cooking as a result of denaturation
of muscle proteins by heat.
Upon cooking, the muscle protein structure unfolds and reassociation of protein
molecules occurs. The muscle fibers shrink both in diameter and in length with
heat, and the water is squeezed out during association of protein molecules. As
cooking progresses, collagen becomes tender, the fibrous proteins get tougher, and
more moisture is lost, as is observed in Experiment 5.3.
Meat contains different proteins, which have different denaturation temperatures.
Myosin, one of the contractile filamentous proteins, shrinks both in diameter
and in length at 50°C (122°F). During cooking, myosin molecules bind to each
TABLE 5.1
The Approximate Chemical Composition of Lean, Raw Meat from Different Animal Sources
Proportion (%)
Beef Lamb Chicken Pork
Water 73.0 71.0 75.0 75.0
Protein 22.0 21.0 22.8 22.8
Fat 3.9 7.0 0.9 1.2
Other 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.0

other, thus squeezing some of the water out of the protein network. The meat
becomes firmer and opaque. Raising the temperature between 62°C and 65°C
(143°F and 149°F) causes shrinkage to occur more quickly, the meat suddenly
releases lots of juice, and improvement of tenderness occurs due to denaturation
of collagen. At temperatures of 70°C (158°F) and above, a more rapid shrinkage
of collagen occurs. Prolonged heating at this temperature results in dissolution of
collagen into gelatin, the muscle fibers become more easily separated, and, even-
tually, the meat gets more tender.
Generally, meat (notably beef) heated to an internal temperature of 60°C (140°F)
is considered rare; 62°C–68°C (143°F–154°F), medium rare; 68°C–75°C
(154°F–167°F), medium; and above 75°C (167°F), well done.
EXPERIMENT 5.4
OBJECTIVE
To explain how to choose the best cooking method for different cuts of meat.

• 2 pieces of identical tougher meat cuts, such as meat from the neck, flank,
rump, or round
• 2 pieces of identical tender meat cuts, such as meat from the loin, sirloin, or
rib
• Water
• Grill
• Stove
• 4 plates
• 2 pots
Method
1. Label four plates as “tender cut cooked with dry cooking method,” “tougher
cut cooked with dry cooking method,” “tender cut cooked with moist cook-
ing method,” and “tougher cut cooked with moist cooking method.”
2. Preheat the grill to medium-high heat (above 140°C/284°F).
3. Brush one sample from each of the meat cuts with olive oil.
4. Place the meats on the grill.
5. Immediately place a thermometer in the center of each sample.
6. Cook the meat cuts on the grill until their internal temperatures read 65°C
(149°F).
7. Remove the meats from the grill.
8. Place them on their respective plates, labeled “tender cut cooked with dry
cooking method” and “tougher cut cooked with dry cooking method.”
9. Let the samples sit for 15 min.
10. While the samples are sitting, fill two pots with water, and place them on
the stove.
11. When the water comes to a boil, place the remaining two meat cuts into
separate pots.
12. Boil the samples for 20 min.
13. Remove the meat cuts from the pots.
14. Place them on their respective plates, labeled “tender cut cooked with moist
cooking method” and “tougher cut cooked with moist cooking method.”
DATA TABLE 5.5

Texture of the Meat Cut Texture of the Meat Cut
Cooked with Dry Heating Cooked with Moist Heating
Sample Method (Grilled)a Method (Boiled)
Tender meat cut
Tougher meat cut

a Use the terms soft, hard, juicy, dry, and separable to evaluate the texture of the samples.
5. Let them sit for 15 min.

1
16. Analyze the texture of all the samples and record your observations in Data
Table 5.5.
Muscle fibers get larger in size and muscles get stronger as an animal grows and
exercises. As the muscle fibers get thicker and stronger, thicker and stronger con-
nective tissues also are needed to bundle them. These are the major reasons why
the meat from older animals, and the more active parts of animals, such as the
arms and legs, are tougher compared to the meat cuts from the young and also less
moving parts of the animal.
The ideal cooking method for the given meat cut is directly related to the inherent
tenderness of that cut.
There are two basic methods of cooking meat: moist heating and dry heating.
Tougher cuts need to be exposed to heat for longer durations because they have
more connective tissues. However, as the heat treatment gets longer, more water is
removed from the meat, and the meat gets hard and dry. Therefore, tougher cuts
of meat require moist and long, slow cooking, such as stewing, braising, or steam-
ing. Tender cuts, such as loin, sirloin, or rib, are usually cooked with a dry heat
method, such as roasting, grilling, or broiling.
EXPERIMENT 5.5
OBJECTIVES
• To understand the effect of heat treatment on myoglobin.
• To understand the contribution of protein to flavor, color, and textural attri-
butes of foods.
Ingredients and Material

• 2 pieces of 5 cm (1.9 in.) thick identical beef steaks
• Water
• Grill
• Pot
• Stove
• 2 plates
• Food brush
Method
1. Preheat grill for medium-high heat
(above 140°C/284°F).
2. Brush the first steak with olive oil.
3. Place on the grill.
4. Cook for 5–7 min per side.
5. Transfer the steak to one of the
plates.
6. Analyze and record the color,
texture, smell, and taste in Data EXP 5.9
Table 5.6.
7. Put the second beefsteak in the
pot.
8. Set the pot on the stove and fill it with water. The water should completely
cover the beef.
9. Bring the water to a boil over medium-high heat, and then turn the heat
down.
10. Simmer the beef until tender.
11. Transfer it to the second plate.
12. Analyze and record the color, texture, smell, and taste of the sample in Data
Table 5.6 (EXP 5.9).
DATA TABLE 5.6
Grilled Beef Steak Boiled Beef Steak
Color of surfacea
Color of interior
Surface textureb
Texture of interior
Smellc
Tasted
a Use the terms pink, purple, red, and brown to evaluate the color of the samples.
b Use the terms soft, hard, juicy, dry, and separable to evaluate the texture of the samples.
c Use the terms fresh and nutty to evaluate the smell of the samples.
d Use the terms raw, bland, and nutty to evaluate the taste of the samples.
Protein denaturation is one of the reasons for changes in meat color during
cooking.
Myoglobin is a protein that primarily gives the color to the meat muscles. Freshly
cut meat has a deep purple color. The color changes to red when the meat is
exposed to oxygen. Denaturation of myoglobin occurs when the meat is heated.
As temperature is increased, the color of the meat changes from red to pink at
50°C (122°F) and from pink to brown at 60°C (140°F) as a result of myoglobin
denaturation.
Another reason for changes in meat color during cooking is the Maillard brown-
ing reaction.
The Maillard browning reaction occurs between sugars and amino groups of pro-
teins in foods, usually at higher temperatures (above 150°C/302°F). This reaction
gives the toasty and nutty flavor and smell, and the golden brown color to bread
crust, fried potatoes, cookies, cakes, roasted coffee beans, and biscuits. Most con-
sumers appreciate these changes.
The rate of the Maillard browning reaction increases as the temperature increases.
Moisture slows or stops the Maillard browning reaction because the surface tem-
perature of foods cannot exceed 100°C (212°F), especially in cooking methods
where an excessive amount of water is present. That is the reason that foods
roasted or grilled turn to golden brown, but foods cooked in boiling water never
golden brown.
EXPERIMENT 5.6
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the effects of mechanical force on proteins in foods.
• To show the foaming properties of some proteins.
• To show the effects of sugar on foam formation.
• To show the effects of fat on foam formation.
Case 1
Meringue Recipe
• 800 g (28 oz) egg whites
• Salt
• Tray
• Parchment paper
• Piping bag
• Mixer
• Oven
Method
1. Preheat the oven to 110°C (230°F).
2. Line a tray with parchment paper.
3. Place 200 g (7 oz) of egg whites into a mixing bowl.
4. Add a pinch of salt.
5. Beat the egg whites at high speed for 3–4 min until they form soft peaks.
6. Add 100 g (3.5 oz) of sugar a spoonful at a time with the mixer running.
7. Continue to beat until the meringue forms stiff but moist peaks.
8. Observe the structure and record in both Data Tables 5.7 and 5.8.
9. Place a spoonful of the mixture onto trays (or fill a piping bag with the
mixture and squeeze out round star shapes onto the tray).
10. Place the tray into the oven and reduce the temperature to 80°C (176°F).
11. Leave the oven on for 1½ h or until the meringues are crisp.
12. Turn the oven off and allow the meringues to cool in the oven for 3–4 h.
13. Observe the structure and record in Data Table 5.8.
Case 2
3. Beat the egg whites at high speed.
DATA TABLE 5.7

Case Foam Structurea
4
a Use the terms runny, soft, and stiff to evaluate the foam structure of the samples.
DATA TABLE 5.8

Case 1 Texturea
Before cooking
After cooking
a Use the terms runny, soft, and stiff to evaluate the foam structure of the samples.
4. Continue beating for 10 more minutes after they form soft peaks.
Case 3
3. Add 100 g (3.5 oz) of sugar at once.
4. Beat the mixture at high speed for 3–4 min.
Case 4
3. Add one drop of egg yolk.
4. Beat the egg whites at high speed for 3–4 min.
5. Observe the structure and record in Data Table 5.7 (EXP 5.10–5.12).
EXP 5.10 EXP 5.11
EXP 5.12
Study Questions
1. Explain what happens when the egg whites are whisked longer?
2. What is the effect of the added sugar on foam structure?
3. What is the effect of the added egg yolk on foam structure?
When raw egg whites, cream, and milk are beaten, their protein structures unfold
and the air bubbles are incorporated into the network formed by reassociation of
denatured protein molecules. This process is called foaming. Meringue cookies and
sponge cakes are good examples of foamed-structure foods.
The temperature of the egg and the environmental temperature during foam for-
mation affect foam volume and stability.
Egg whites foam faster at room temperature due to a lower surface tension.
Heating or heat generation during mixing can weaken foams because heat affects
the structures of proteins.
Generally, whipping time increases foaming of proteins, but intensive whipping
can reduce foam stability, because the bubbles get smaller with excess mechanical
force. Overmixing breaks the protein bonds in the network causing air to escape
and resulting in loss of volume in the foam.
The presence of acid, salt, fat, and sugar affects the stability and ease of forma-
tion of foams.
Sugar exerts a protective effect on proteins; therefore, the rate of protein dena-
turation decreases as the amount of sugar increases. The addition of sugar to egg
whites may decrease the volume of the foam due to its protective effect, but, on the
other hand, it increases the foam stability because sugar binds the excess water.
Sugar should be added after the formation of foam for larger foams. Addition of
salt influences the interactions due to ionic charges. A small amount of salt pro-
motes foam formation because it helps unfold proteins during initial foaming, but
increased amounts will decrease the foam’s stability by weakening the protein
structure. Unlike salt, even a trace amount of fat, such as butter, oil, or even a drop
of egg yolk will stop the foaming action of egg white proteins because fats compete
with protein for special alignment with gas bubbles.
Upon cooking of the egg foam, air and/or gas inside the network heat up and
expand. The protein network surrounding the air bubbles solidifies due to heat
(denaturation by heat), and the firm structure is set. The denaturation temperature
is elevated if an egg mixture is diluted or if it is mixed with solids, such as sugars.
EXPERIMENT 5.7
OBJECTIVE
To explain effect of acidity (pH) on proteins in foods.
Case 1
Yogurt Production
• 250 mL (8.4 fl oz) pasteurized milk
• Yogurt culture (you can use 1 tablespoonful existing fresh yogurt)
• pH meter
• 1 pot
• 1 spoon
• 1 food thermometer
• 1 medium-sized jar or a container with a lid
• Stove
Method
1. Pour the milk into a pot and heat over medium heat, stirring often until it
reaches 65°C (149°F).
2. Take the milk off the stove and set it aside to cool.
3. Cool the milk to 35°C (95°F). Pour the cooled milk into a jar.
4. Measure the pH of the milk and record in Data Table 5.9.
5. Evaluate the color and consistency of the milk and record in Data Table 5.9.
6. Add one spoonful of yogurt to provide yogurt culture.
7. Mix the milk and yogurt thoroughly.
8. Cover the jar tightly and place in an incubator or an environment at 35°C
(95°F) and ferment for 24 h.
9. Slowly take the jar from the incubator, measure the pH, and evaluate the
color and consistency of the content once every 2 h.
Case 2
Protein Denaturation with Vinegar
• 250 mL (8.4 fl oz) pasteurized milk
• 30 mL (1 fl oz) white vinegar
• pH meter
• 1 pot
DATA TABLE 5.9

Describe the Color and the Consistency of the
Time (h) pH Mixture/Yogurta
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
a Use the terms liquid, semisolid, and solid to evaluate the consistency of the samples.
• 1 small bowl
• 1 small plate
• 1 spoon
• A cheesecloth large enough to cover the top and 8 cm (3 in.) down the sides
of the jar
• Rubber bands
• Scale
• Stove
Method
1. Weigh the plate. Record in Data Table 5.10.
2. Pour the milk into a pot and heat over medium heat, stirring often until it
reaches 95°C (203°F).
3. Take the milk off the stove and set it aside to cool.
4. Cool the milk to 25°C (77°F), and pour it into the jar.
5. Measure the pH of the milk and record in Data Table 5.10.
6. Evaluate the color and the consistency of the milk and record in Data Table
5.10.
7. Add vinegar to the warm milk and stir for 3 min.
8. Measure the pH of the mixture.
9. Leave the milk undisturbed for 5–10 min to allow for curd formation.
10. Cover the top of the jar with the cheesecloth and fix it in place using rubber
bands.
11. Pour the liquid (whey) into the bowl and collect the curds in the cheesecloth.
12. Gather up the cheesecloth and squeeze out the excess whey into the bowl
until almost dry.
13. Spread out the cheesecloth.
14. Place the curds on the plate and weigh the plate.
15. Calculate the approximate weight of the curds and record in Data Table 5.10.
16. Evaluate the color and texture of the curds and record in Data Table 5.10.
Approximate weight of the curds (g/oz) = Weight of (plate + curds) (g/oz)
– Weight of plate (g/oz)
DATA TABLE 5.10

Weight Color
pH pH of Weight of the Approximate and
of the of the Plate + Weight of Color and Texture
the Milk + Plate Curds the Curds Consistency of the
Milk Vinegar (g)/(oz) (g)/(oz) (g)/(oz) of the Milka Curdsa
a Use your own terms to evaluate the sample.

The approximate composition of dairy milk can be given as 88% water, 3.3% pro-
tein, 3.3% fat, 4.7% carbohydrate, and 0.7% minerals (primarily calcium).
The primary group of milk proteins is casein. Direct (as in the vinegar experiment)
or indirect (as in the yogurt experiment) addition of acids and bases disturbs the
structure of caseins, and casein curds are formed.
The addition of acids, bases, or certain types of salts into foods changes the net
charge of the medium.
Generally, changes in the net charge of the medium disturb the bridges (bonds)
in the protein structure that are held together by ionic charges, causing protein
denaturation.
This reaction is the primary reason for casein curd formation in milk during
yogurt and cheese manufacturing processes, and also in spoiled milk.
Yogurt production is one of the most common examples used to explain the
effect of acidity on protein coagulation. It is a fermented dairy product. Milk is
inoculated with specific types of bacteria to make yogurt. As the bacteria grow,
milk sugar (lactose) is converted into lactic acid; therefore, the pH of the medium
decreases (this process is called fermentation). The structure of casein unfolds
because the bridges in the protein structure held together by ionic charges are
disrupted with the accumulation of positive charges (H+) in the medium. The milk
proteins clump together due to the charge effects and the casein curds are formed.
This is known as milk protein coagulation.
EXPERIMENT 5.8
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effect of aging on the chemical and physical properties of eggs.

• 2 half-dozen cartons of eggs
• 2 plates
• 2 mixers
• pH meter (if available)
Method
1. Purchase the first carton of eggs.
2. Mark the carton “aged.”
3. Leave at room temperature for a week.
4. Purchase the second carton of eggs (preferably on the day of the experiment).
5. Mark the carton “fresh” and keep refrigerated until time for the experiment.
6. Take two plates and mark the first one “aged” and the second one “fresh.”
7. Take one egg from each carton.
8. Crack the eggs onto their respective plates.
9. Observe the physical states of the egg whites and the egg yolks.
11. Carefully measure and record the pH of the egg white and egg yolk of each
egg.
Complete the following steps for

both the aged and the fresh eggs.
12. Crack and separate three eggs.
13. Place the egg whites into a

mixing bowl.

14. Beat the egg whites for five
minutes at high speed.
15. Record your observations in

Data Table 5.12 (EXP 5.13).
DATA TABLE 5.11

Fresh Egg Aged Egg
Visual appearance of egg whitea
Visual appearance of egg yolka
pH of white
pH of yolk
a Use the terms runny and viscous to evaluate the structure of the samples.
DATA TABLE 5.12

Fresh Egg Aged Egg
Visual appearance before mixinga
Visual appearance after mixinga
Foam stability
a Use the terms runny, foamed, stiff, weak, and stable to evaluate the samples.
As the egg ages:
1. It loses moisture through the semipermeable eggshells. The water is replaced

with air; therefore, the air space within the egg gets larger. The egg becomes
lighter and easier to peel.
2. It loses carbon dioxide through the semipermeable eggshell. The pH of the
albumen increases. The egg white becomes thinner and watery because its
protein structure, which is held together by ionic charges, is disrupted with
the increase in pH. It is for this reason that fresher eggs give larger and
more stable foams compared to the aged eggs. The egg yolk becomes flatter
and not centered because it is not protected anymore by the thick albumen.
That is because pan-fried egg dishes prepared with fresher eggs have well-
centered egg yolks.
EXPERIMENT 5.9
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the gel formation properties of proteins.
• To explain why some fruits prevent gelatin from solidifying.
• To explain the effect of temperature on enzyme action.

• 2 kiwi fruits
• 1 envelope powdered animal-based gelatin (dessert gelatin)
• Water
• Ice
• 2 pots
• Large bowl
• Colander
• Skimmer
• Paper towels
• 3 dessert cups (glass)
• Cutting board
• Spoon
• Knife
• Stove
• Refrigerator
Method
1. Label the dessert cups “control,” “blanched,” and “fresh.”
2. Peel and wash the kiwis.
3. Boil a large pot of water.
4. Slice the kiwi on a cutting board.
5. Place half of the kiwi into boiling water.
6. Blanch for 2 min.
7. Immediately place the blanched kiwi into a bowl of ice water.
8. Drain the blanched fruits using a colander.
9. Place the blanched fruits on a paper towel and pat to dry.
10. Prepare the gelatin with water according to the directions given on the
package.
11. Stir well with a spoon until all gelatin is dissolved.
12. Place equal amount of gelatin mixture into each dessert cup.
13. Do not add any fruits into the “control” cup.
14. Add blanched kiwi and fresh kiwi to the corresponding cups.
DATA TABLE 5.13

Sample Observationa
Control
Gelatin dessert with fresh kiwi fruits
Gelatin dessert with blanched kiwi fruits

a Use the terms liquid, semisolid, and solid to describe the texture of the sample.
5. Refrigerate all the samples overnight.

1
16. After 24 h, check the contents of each cup for solidification of the contents.
17. Record your observations in Data Table 5.13 (EXP 5.14–5.20).
EXP 5.14 EXP 5.15

EXP 5.16 EXP 5.17
EXP 5.18 EXP 5.19
EXP 5.20
Gelatin is a water-soluble protein prepared from collagen that is obtained from

various animal sources. It is commonly used as a gelling agent in foods. Examples
include desserts, ice cream, yogurt, and marshmallows.
When collagen is heated in water long enough, its structure unwinds and the
chains separate, and it dissolves to form gelatin. When gelatin cools, the protein
strands form a network (cross-links) that can trap liquid, turning the liquid into
solid gels.
The strength of a gel depends on the following:
• Concentration of the gelatin (protein): The higher the concentration of the pro-
tein, the stronger the gel due to increased protein–protein interactions.
• Rate of cooling: The higher the rate of cooling, the weaker the gel. The slower
the cooling, the stronger the gel.
• Interactions with the other ingredients in the recipe, such as sugar, acidic ingre-
dients, salt, or enzymes.
For example, the addition of sugar weakens the gels because sugar decreases the
protein–protein association, which is required for the formation of a network. The
presence of acidic ingredients and salt affects the bridges in the protein structure
held together by ionic charges; therefore, a weaker gel is formed.
Proteolytic enzymes (proteases) break down the proteins into their peptides or
amino acids by cleaving certain bonds in the protein structure (denaturation).
Papaya contains papain, kiwi contains actinidin, pineapple contains bromelain,
and the fig contains ficin enzymes. Therefore, using these fruits will prevent gela-
tin from solidifying. On the other hand, proteases also are proteins themselves.
Heating of these fruits before adding them to the gelatin will allow the gelatin to
solidify because heat denatures the enzymes in these fruits.
EXPERIMENT 5.10
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the synergistic effects of acids and enzymes on proteins.
• To explain the synergistic effects of acids and heat on proteins.
Case 1
Cheese making
• 900 mL (30 fl oz) pasteurized milk
• Yogurt culture (you can use 2 tablespoons of existing fresh yogurt)
• pH meter
• 1 pot
• 1 spoon
• Colander
• Rennet
• Cheese-pressing frame or curd knife
• Cheesecloth
• Stove
Method
1. Place the cheesecloth in the colander.
2. Pour 450 mL (15 fl oz) milk into the pot and heat it to 35°C (95°F).
3. Add one spoonful of yogurt to provide yogurt culture.
4. Mix the milk and yogurt thoroughly.
5. Cover the inoculated milk.
6. Let it sit in a warm place while occasionally measuring the pH of the milk.
7. Add rennet when the pH of the medium reaches close to 5 (follow the direc-
tions provided by the producers for the amount of rennet). This may take as
long as 8 h.
8. Cover and leave it undisturbed for 2–3 h.
9. Put your finger into the curd and lift. If the action of rennet is complete, the
curd should break cleanly away and the whey should pool in the hole that
has been left behind. If not, wait a little longer.
10. Cut the curds into 2–3 mm (0.7–0.11 in.) squares. First cut parallel straight
lines 2–3 mm (0.7–0.11 in.) apart, rotate the pot 90 degrees and cut parallel
straight lines 2–3 mm (0.7–0.11 in.) apart perpendicular to the first lines.
The knife or the frame must touch the bottom of the pot.
11. Place the pot over a very low heat.
DATA TABLE 5.14

Sample Textural Propertiesa
Product prepared from milk

pasteurized at 35°C (95°F)
Product prepared from milk

pasteurized at 78°C (172°F)
a Use the terms runny, semisolid, and solid to describe the texture of the sample.
2. Stir curds gently and cut larger curds.

1
13. When the curds are firm enough, slowly pour them into the colander lined
with cheesecloth.
14. Cover the curds with the corners of the cheesecloth and lift and press the
curds to remove excess whey.
15. Place it back into the colander and put a heavy weight on top.
16. Let it sit until all excess whey has been removed.
Repeat the same experiment, but heat the milk to 78°C (172°F) for 15 min at Step 2.
Study Questions
1. Explain your observations for the changes in the milk with the actions of
the starter culture.
2. Explain your observations for the changes in the milk after the addition of
rennet.
3. Compare the textural properties of the final products prepared from the
milk pasteurized at 35°C (95°F) and the milk pasteurized at 78°C (172°F)
(use Data Table 5.14).
Case 2
Poached Egg
• Ingredients and Equipment
• 4 eggs
• 1,400 mL (47.4 fl oz) water
• 2 tablespoons vinegar
• 2 tablespoons salt
• Pot
• Skimmer
• Stove
Method
1. Fill a medium pot with 700 mL (23.7 fl oz) of water.
2. Add vinegar and salt.
3. Move the pot to the stove over low heat.
4. Bring to a simmer.
5. Using skimmer, stir the water with a clockwise motion (form a vortex).
6. Gently crack two eggs into the center of the vortex, letting the water swirl
around eggs.
7. Describe the shape and texture of the egg white and record in Data
Table 5.15.
8. Let the eggs cook for 4 min.
9. Use a skimmer to take the eggs out of the water.
10. Feel the white for firmness and record your observations in Data Table 5.15.
Repeat the same experiment without vinegar and compare the results.
DATA TABLE 5.15

Texture of the Egg White Cracked into the Texture of the Cooked Egg
Watera Whitea
With vinegar
Without
vinegar
a Use the terms set, separated, liquid, semisolid, and solid to describe the texture.
The basic principle behind natural cheese production is coagulation of milk pro-
tein with synergistic effects of acids and enzymes.
Rennet is a proteolytic enzyme obtained from the mammalian stomach. It coagu-
lates casein in milk by cleaving particular bonds in the protein structure, causing
milk to solidify.
Rennet requires specific temperatures and pH to coagulate milk.
Mild heat speeds up the enzyme reaction. The optimum temperature for milk
coagulation with rennet is 35°C–42°C (95°F–107°F).
The optimum pH for rennet activity is around 5.8. This is one of the reasons for
inoculating specific types of bacteria into milk during natural cheese production.
As the bacteria grow, milk sugar (lactose) is converted into lactic acid. Therefore,
the pH of the medium decreases (as in Experiment 5.7) and coagulation starts.
When the pH of the milk goes down to 5.8, which is optimum for rennet activity,
rennet is added in milk for further coagulation.
In poached egg process, heat and acid work together to denature the proteins.
Acid addition (such as vinegar) in the poaching liquid helps to speed up protein
coagulation so that the egg white stays solid and compact.
Note: Milk is not supposed to be heated above 65°C (149°F) to make cheese and
yogurt because high temperature denatures the milk protein and coagulation will
not occur.
EXPERIMENT 5.11
OBJECTIVES
• To demonstrate the properties of wheat protein.
• To demonstrate the functional properties of gluten in baking.
Case 1
Gluten washing
• 2 cups hard wheat flour (13% protein)
• Water
• Large bowl
• Sink
Method
1. Mix water with the wheat flour.
2. Knead to make the dough structure homogeneous.
3. Wash the dough under slow running cold water while kneading it through-
out the process with your fingers.
4. Continue washing until the water is clear and no longer a “milky” white.
5. Squeeze the resultant ball with your fingers to remove excessive water.
6. Stretch to observe the elasticity (EXP 5.21–5.24).
EXP 5.21 EXP 5.22

EXP 5.23 EXP 5.24
Case 2
Bread recipe
• 565 g (20 oz) bread flour (13%–13.5% gluten)
• 565 g (20 oz) g cake flour (7.5%–8% gluten)
• 2 teaspoons baker’s yeast
• 680 g (24 oz) water
• Tray
• 2 bowls
• Oven
• Stretch film
• Baking paper
• 2 kitchen towels
• Knife
• Wire rack
Method
1. Line a tray with baking paper.
2. Label the bowls “bread flour” and “cake flour.”
3. In the bowl labeled “bread flour,” mix the bread flour and 1 teaspoon baker’s
yeast with your hands.
4. Slowly pour 340 g (12 oz) water while kneading the dough.
5. Sprinkle the counter with flour.
6. Place the dough over the counter, and knead it well until it’s soft and uni-
form in texture, and not sticky.
7. Form the dough into a ball shape.
8. Place it back into the same bowl and cover with stretch film.
9. Complete the same procedure with the cake flour. Keep the time between
two processes at a minimum.
10. Let them rise in a warm place until doubled in size (takes about an hour).
11. Remove the dough prepared with the bread flour from the bowl and knead
gently a little more.
12. Form the dough in a loaf shape.
13. Divide the tray into two sections and place the dough on the left half of the
tray. The placement of the dough on the baking tray must be recorded to
remember.
14. Complete stages 11 and 12 with the dough prepared with the cake flour.
15. Place the dough on the right half of the tray. The placement of the dough on
the baking tray must be recorded to remember.
16. Cover them both with kitchen towels and let stand for about 30 min.
17. Meanwhile, set the oven to 200°C (392°F).
18. Bake the breads for about 40 min until the top is golden brown.
19. Cool them down on a wire rack.
20. Cut one slice from each bread, and record your observations in Data

Table 5.16. Compare your results.
DATA TABLE 5.16

Flour Type Colora Chewinessb
Bread flour
Cake flour
a Use the terms bright golden, dark golden, and brown to describe the color.
b Use the terms soft, chewy, crumbly, and hard to describe the chewiness.
Case 3
Chocolate Chip Cookie recipe
• 226 g (8 oz) cookie flour (with 7.5%–9% gluten)
• 226 g (8 oz) bread flour (with 13%–13.5% gluten)
• 226 g (8 oz) softened butter
• 226 g (8 oz) brown sugar
• 2 eggs
• 1 teaspoon baking soda
• 1.5 teaspoon salt
• 1 tablespoon vanilla extract
• 2 cups semi-sweet chocolate chips
• Baking paper
• 2 bowls
• Scale
• Mixer
• Tray
• Oven
• Scoop
• Wire rack
Method
2. Line a tray with baking paper.
3. Label the bowls “bread flour” and “cookie flour.”
4. In the bowl labeled “cookie flour,” mix together 226 g (8oz) flour, ½ tea-
spoon baking soda, and ¾ teaspoon salt.
5. In a separate bowl, stir cream 113 g (4 oz) butter, 113 g (4 oz) white sugar,
and 113 g (4 oz) brown sugar on medium speed, until the mixture is smooth,
for about 5 min.
6. Combine 1 egg and ½ tablespoon vanilla extract, add to the butter-sugar
mixture, and mix thoroughly.
7. On low speed, stir in the dry ingredients and 1 cup chocolate chips until
just incorporated.
8. Divide the tray into two sections. Scoop out 1 tablespoon of dough, and
place it on the right half of the tray. The placement of the dough on the bak-
ing tray must be recorded to remember.
9. Complete stages from 3 to 7 with the bread flour.
10. Scoop out 1 tablespoon of dough, and place it on the left half of the tray. The
placement of the dough on the baking tray must be recorded to remember.
11. Bake the cookies at 190°C (374°F) for 8–10 min, or until the cookies are set.
2. Cool them down on a wire rack.
1
13. Cut one cookie in half from each batch, and record your observations in
Data Table 5.17. Compare your results.
DATA TABLE 5.17

Flour Type Colora Chewinessb
Bread flour
Cookie flour
a Use the terms bright golden, dark golden, and brown to describe the color.
b Use the terms soft, chewy, crumbly, and hard to describe the chewiness.
To understand the results, we need to begin by understanding the structure of the

protein in flour.
Gluten is the protein that gives the elastic structure of dough.
Gliadin and glutenin are the two major protein components in wheat flour. Glutenins
are large proteins that provide the elasticity and strength of the dough. Gliadins
are smaller compared to glutenins; they ensure the elastic structure of the dough
because they are more mobile due to their small size.
When water and flour are mixed, gliadin and glutenin combine to form weak glu-
ten networks. Kneading of the dough separates these disorganized weaker protein
networks, and makes the protein strands align and bind into smoother, stronger,
and more organized gluten networks. Dough becomes stronger and stretchable.
Inefficient kneading or excessive kneading may affect the strength of the dough
because kneading ensures bond formation between the protein strands.
Other ingredients in the recipe may affect gluten development. For example, sugar
and fat interfere with gluten development and the end product becomes more
tender. Acidic ingredients weaken the gluten network because they change the net
charge on the protein strands. On the other hand, addition of a limited amount of
salt helps in formation of the gluten network.
In baking, carbon dioxide gas is produced by yeast or leavening agents. The car-
bon dioxide is trapped in the gluten network. During baking, the gas entrapped
in this network expands so that the volume of the dough increases with increased
temperature. As baking continues, the heat denatures the gluten proteins; a rigid
framework of the baked product with small holes inside is formed.
Most of the cereal grains, such as wheat, oats, and barley, contain gluten, but the
amounts and the structures of their glutens are different.
Different kinds of wheat flours are made from different kinds of wheat. Bread flour is
milled from hard wheat and has high gluten content (12%–14% gluten content). Cake
flour is milled from soft wheat, and its gluten content is less than hard wheat flour
(6%–8% gluten content). The more gluten in the flour, the stronger and more elastic
the dough becomes. The stronger structure holds more gas and expands more easily.
Note: In the experiment 5.11 in Case 1, the milky white liquid that is obtained
during washing contains starch granules and other water-soluble constituents.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The primary functional properties of proteins in food processing include:

• Foam formation
• Gelation
• Dough formation
• Flavor
• Viscosity control
• Water binding
• Color formation
Understanding the basic structure of food proteins is crucial for chefs
because the functional properties of proteins in foods are primarily
related to their structures.
Proteins have four structures held together by different types of bonds.
The secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins can be dis-
rupted or destroyed (protein denaturation) during food processing by:
• Heat
• Mechanical force
• Salt
• pH
• Enzymes
Different proteins may give different reactions during food processing,
because they do not share the same molecular structures.
Presence or lack of the other ingredients in the recipe may affect the func-
tional properties of the proteins.
More Ideas to Try
1. What do you expect to observe if you repeat Experiment 5.6, Case 1, adding
cream of tartar (acidic ingredient) at the fifth stage?
2. The most common application of using combined effects of acids, salts, and
enzymes on protein denaturation in food preparation is meat marination.
Marination enriches the flavor, increases the water retention, and improves
the tenderness of the meat. The major ingredients used in marinades include
salt solutions (2%); acidic ingredients, such as vinegar; and the enzymes,
such as papain, bromelain, or enzyme-containing ingredients, such as onion.
Design an experiment to show the effects of marination on the textural prop-
erties of the meat.
3. Repeat Experiment 5.11 using cookie flour, and compare your observations.
Study Questions
1. Old eggs produce poor foam stability. What is the reason for this?
2. Papain and bromelain are often used as meat tenderizers. Why?
3. What is the function of acidic ingredients in meat marination?
4. Mechanical methods such as pounding or piercing the meat, are sometimes
applied to tenderize meat. What is the purpose for it?
SELECTED REFERENCES
Bradley, F. A., and A. J. King. 2004. Egg basics for the consumer: Packaging, storage, and nutri-
tional information. Hollister, CA: University of California, Division of Agriculture
and Natural Resources. Online at: http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8154.pdf.
Chemistry in the meat industry resources. New Zealand Institute of Chemistry. Online at:
http://nzic.org.nz/ChemProcesses/animal/5A.pdf.
Crosby, G. and editors. 2012. The science of good cooking: Master 50 simple concepts to enjoy
a lifetime of success in the kitchen. Brookline, MA: America’s Test Kitchen; Cook’s
Illustrated.
Denaturation of protein. 2003. Elmhurst College. Online at: www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/
vchembook/568denaturation.html.
Food and Agriculture Organization. Meat, fat and other edible carcass parts resources.
Rome: FAO. Online at: www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai407e/AI407E03.htm.
Forrest, J. C., E. D. Aberle, H. B. Hedrick, and R. A. Merkel. 1975. Principles of meatscience.
New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Gilbert, P. Baking Basics. Online at: www.extension.iastate.edu/sites/www.extension.
iastate.edu/files/guthrie/ExtCon091504.pdf.
Guerrero-Legarreta, I., and Y. H. Hui. 2010. Handbook of poultry science and technology,
secondary processing. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Gustavo, G. 2009. Meat color and pH. Online at: www.docstoc.com/docs/122703427/
Meat-color-and-pH.
Kurt, L., and S. Ozilgen. 2013. Failure mode and effect analysis for dairy product manu-
facturing: Practical safety improvement action plan with cases from Turkey. Safety
Science 55:195–206.
Lomakina, K., and K. Mikova. 2006. A study of the factors affecting the foaming proper-
ties of egg white—A review. Czech Journal of Food Sciences 24(3):110–118.
Martens, H., E. Stabursvik, and M. Martens. 1982. Texture and colour changes in meat
during cooking related to thermal denaturation of muscle proteins. Journal of Texture
Studies 13(3):291–309.
McGee, H. 2004. On food and cooking, 1st rev ed. New York: Scribner.
Moore Family Center for Whole Grain Foods, Nutrition and Preventive Health. 2012.
Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human
Sciences. Online at: http://food.oregonstate.edu/learn.
Raikos, V., L. Campbell, and S. R. Euston. 2007. Effects of sucrose and sodium chloride on
foaming properties of egg white proteins. Food Research International 40(3):347–355.
Ruhlman, M. 2010. Ratio: The simple codes behind the craft of everyday cooking. New York:
Scribner.
This, H. 2007. Kitchen mysteries: Revealing the science of cooking. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Chapter 6
Fats and Oils in Culinary

Transformations
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FATS

AND OILS IN CULINARY PROCESSES
Fats and oils are the organic compounds naturally found in animals and plants
(Figure 6.1).
The primary functional properties of fats and oils in food processing can be
listed as:
1. Enhancement of flavor and mouth feel: Fats and oils provide a rich flavor and
smoother mouth feel that most people find very satisfying.
2. Development of texture: Fats and oils make foods softer and easier to chew.
3. Shortening: In baking, fats and oils physically separate water and gluten
molecules and provide a flaky, tender, or crumbly texture.
4. Emulsification: Fats and oils are the primary components of most emulsions,
such as mayonnaise, certain salad dressings, sauces, and gravies.
5. Medium for transferring heat: During cooking, fats and oils transfer heat to the
foods.
6. Development of appearance: Fats and oils provide a creamy, moist, fluffy, and
shiny appearance to foods.
213
Fats Oils
Animal Plant Animal Plant

originated originated originated originated
The most The most The most The most

common common common common
examples: examples: examples: examples:
• Butter • Cocoa butter • Fish oil • Vegetable oils

• Cream • Palm oil • Flax seed oil
• Lard • Rapeseed oil
• Olive oil
Figure 6.1 The most common food sources of fats and oils.
Selection of fats and oils in food processes is a critical factor because not every
fat or oil is suitable for all food processing operations. For example, as butter
gives tender texture in pastry and a smooth mouth feel in breads, sunflower oil is
primarily used in frying processes.
Understanding the basic structure of fats and oils is crucial for chefs because
their functional properties are primarily related to their structures.
FAT AND OIL STRUCTURE
Fats and oils belong to a group of substances called lipids. They are made up of
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). Lipids are most commonly the triglyc-
erides, which are composed of one molecule of glycerol bonded to three fatty acid
molecules (Figure 6.2).
All lipids are hydrophobic. This means that lipids are insoluble in water. In the fig-
ure, the R groups of fatty acids represent the long hydrocarbon chains. The hydro-
carbon chains of the fatty acids can be either saturated (has no carbon–carbon
double bond, C=C), monounsaturated (has one C=C), or polyunsaturated (has more
than one C=C) (Examples are given in Figure 6.3). Naturally occurring fats and oils
are the mixtures of different fatty acids in varying proportions. The degree of satu-
ration of different lipids depends upon their various fatty acids content (Table 6.1).
The physical and chemical properties of any specific lipid primarily depend on the
chemical structure of the fatty acids, such as the length of the hydrocarbon chains
and degree of unsaturation that constitute it (Table 6.2).
Fats and Oils in Culinary Transformations 215
H H O
HO
H C OH C R1 H C O C R1
O
O
HO
H C OH C R2 H C O C R2 + 3H2O
O Water
O
HO
H C OH C R3 H C O C R3
O
H H
Glycerol Fatty acids Triglyceride
Figure 6.2 Formation of fats and oils.
R Group
H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C H
O
H H H H H H
Carboxyl Saturated
Group
H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C H
O
H H H H H H
Monounsaturated
H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C C H
O
H H H H H H H H
Polyunsaturated
Figure 6.3 Examples for R groups of fatty acids.

TABLE 6.1
Examples for the Saturated, Monounsaturated, and Polyunsaturated Lipids
Degree of Saturation Example
Saturated Butter, lard, coconut oil, tallow
Monounsaturated (MUFA) Olive oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil, peanut oil
Polyunsaturated (PUFA) Corn oil, cotton seed, soy bean oil
TABLE 6.2
Physical and Chemical Properties of Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
Saturated Lipids Unsaturated Lipids
• Hydrocarbon chains do not • One or more double bonds exist in the

have double bonds between hydrocarbon chain:
carbons. • Monounsaturated Fatty Acids have
• They are stable, and they one double bond.
have longer shelf life • Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids have two
compared to unsaturated or more double bonds.
lipids. • They are less stable, and easily undergo
• Their melting point is high oxidation compared to saturated lipids.
compared to unsaturated • They have lower melting points
lipids. compared to saturated lipids.
• They are solid at room • They are liquid at room temperature.
temperature. • They are mostly plant originated.
• They are mostly animal • Generally speaking, they are known as
originated. oils.
• Generally speaking they are
known as fats.
EXPERIMENT 6.1
OBJECTIVE
To explain smoke points of different types of lipids.

• 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) pure olive oil
• 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) pure corn oil
• 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) pure peanut oil
• 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) melted clarified butter
• 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) melted lard
• 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) soybean oil
• 6 frying pans
• Liquid measuring cup
• Food thermometer
• Stove
Method
1. Pour the olive oil into a frying pan.
2. Place the thermometer in the frying pan. Position the thermometer so that the
bulb is in the center of the oil and not touching the sides or bottom of the pan.
3. Heat the oil over medium-high heat until visible smoke appears from the
surface of the oil.
4. Record the temperature, at which the visible smoke appears from the surface
of the oil in Data Table 6.1.
Complete the same procedure for each of the fats and oils.
DATA TABLE 6.1
Type of Lipid Smoke Point (°C)
Olive oil
Corn oil
Soybean oil
Peanut oil
Clarified butter
Lard
In cooking, selecting a correct type of lipid is very important because each lipid
performs best within a certain range of temperature.
The melting point of lipids can be defined as the temperature at which a solid fat
becomes a liquid.
Different types of lipids have different melting point temperatures due to the dif-
ferences in their chemical structures (Table 6.3). As a general rule:
• The lipids with longer hydrocarbon chains have higher melting points. In
other words, the melting point increases as the molecular weight of lipids
increases.
• The unsaturated lipids tend to have lower melting points than saturated lipids
of the same length. In other words, the melting point of lipids decreases as the
degree of unsaturation in fatty acids increases. For example, butter has a higher
melting point compared to olive oil (Table 6.3). The structure of saturated
fatty acids is relatively linear compared to the structure of unsaturated fatty
acids. This structure allows fatty acid molecules to get closely stacked together.
Therefore, close intermolecular interactions result in relatively high melting
points. On the other hand, double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids result in
TABLE 6.3
Examples for R groups of fatty acids
Types of Lipid Melting Temperature (°C/°F)
Corn oil −11/12.2
Coconut oil 24/75.2
Olive oil −6/21.2
Sunflower oil −17/1.4
Soybean oil −20/−4
Peanut oil −2/28.4
Butter 36/96.8
Lard 33/91.4
bends in their molecular structures. Therefore, these molecules do not stack

very well. The intermolecular interactions are much weaker than saturated
molecules. This is because the melting points are much lower in unsaturated
fatty acids compared to the saturated fatty acids of the same length.
The smoke point of the lipid is one of the main properties to consider when select-
ing a lipid for high-temperature cooking.
Smoke point is the temperature at which lipids give off a visible bluish smoke.
Different types of lipids have different smoke points and smoke point tempera-
tures due to the differences in their chemical structures. It is important to know
the smoke point temperature of various lipids because the structure of lipids
begins to decompose at that temperature (Table 6.4). The chemical decomposi-
tion results in off-flavor development, nutritional loss, and generation of harmful
cancer-causing chemical components. As a general rule:
• The saturated fatty acids have lower smoke points than unsaturated fatty
acids. For example, butter gives off a visible bluish smoke at lower tempera-
tures compared to sunflower oil. Therefore, sunflower oil is a better choice
for deep-frying processes than butter.
TABLE 6.4
Smoke Points of Selected Fats and Oils
Types of Lipid Smoke Temperature (°C/°F)
Refined corn oil 232/449.6
Extra virgin olive oil 191/375.8
Refined sunflower oil 227/440.6
Refined soybean oil 238/460.4
Peanut oil 225/437.4
Refined canola oil 204/399.2
Coconut oil 175/347
Lard 188/370.4
Butter 121–149/249.8–300.2
• The smoke point decreases as the free fatty acid content increases. Prolonged
or repeated heating decomposes the structure and produces free fatty acids.
That is one of the reasons not to use the same oil for repeated frying processes.
• The smoke point also depends on the purity of the lipids. For example, refined
oils have higher smoke points compared to the unrefined ones. The presence
of food particles also reduces the smoke point.
EXPERIMENT 6.2
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the importance of selecting a correct type of lipid for cooking.
• To explain that not every fat is suitable for high-temperature processes.

• 1 kg (2.2 lb) peeled potatoes
• 1 L (4¼ cups) corn oil
• 1 L (4¼ cups) peanut oil
• 1 L (4¼ cups) canola
• 1 L (4¼ cups) soybean oil
• 1 L (4¼ cups) sunflower oil
• Water
• 5 plates
• 5 medium-sized bowls
• Knife
• Skimmer
• Colander
• Measuring cup
• Paper towels
• 5 medium-sized frying pans
• Kitchen scale
• Stove
Method
1. Label the plates “corn oil,” “peanut oil,” “canola oil, “soybean oil,” and “sun-
flower oil,” and line them with paper towels.
2. Slice the potatoes. Make sure slices are close to the same thickness.
3. Weigh and portion the potatoes equally into 5 bowls, so that each bowl will
have 200 g (7 oz) of potatoes.
4. Cover the potatoes with water.
5. Set the bowls aside for 30 min.
6. Place 1 L (4¼ cups) corn oil into a frying pan; 5–6 cm (2–2.3 in.) of space
between the top of the oil and the top of the pan is required because the oil
will bubble up when potatoes are added.
7. Drain the potatoes in the first bowl and thoroughly pat dry.
8. Place the pan on the stove.
9. Heat the oil to 200°C (392°F).
10. Put the potatoes into the hot oil.
DATA TABLE 6.2

Sample Colora Crunchinessb Tasteb Smellb
Corn oil
Peanut oil
Canola
Soybean oil
Sunflower oil
a Use the terms light yellow, golden, and dark yellow to describe the color.
b Evaluate for crunchiness, taste, and smell, and rate the sample on a scale of 1–5:
1 = very soft, 5 = very crunchy.
1 = less tasty, 5 = very tasty.
1 = strong odor, 5 = acceptable nutty smell.
11. Fry the potatoes until they are golden brown.

2. Transfer the potatoes onto the plate labeled “corn oil.”
1
13. Wait for one minute and remove the paper towel from the plate.
14. Evaluate the color, appearance, taste, and crunchiness of the fried potatoes
and record in Data Table 6.2.
Complete the same procedure for the other oil types. Do not forget to use a separate frying
pan for each type of oil.
EXPERIMENT 6.3
OBJECTIVE
To explain the factors affecting the sensory properties of fried foods.

• 850 g (1.87 lb) peeled potatoes
• 4 L (17 cups) corn oil
• Water
• Ice
• 4 plates
• 4 medium-sized bowls
• Knife
• Colander
• Measuring cup
• Paper towels
• 1 medium-sized frying pan
• Kitchen scale
• Stove
Method
1. Slice the potatoes. Make sure slices are close to the same thickness.
2. Weigh and portion 600 g (1.3 lb) of the potatoes equally into three bowls so
each bowl will have 200 g (7 oz) of potatoes.
3. Cover the potatoes in the first two bowls with water and cover the potatoes
in the third bowl with ice.
4. Place 250 g (8.8 oz) of the pota-
toes into the last bowl and cover
them with water.
5. Set the bowls aside for 30 min.
Case 1
1. Label one of the plates “control”
and line it with a paper towel.
2. Drain the potatoes in the first
bowl, and thoroughly pat dry.
3. Place 1 L (4¼ cups) corn oil into Control
a frying pan; 5–6 cm (2–2.3 in.)

of space between the top of the EXP 6.1
oil and the top of the pan is required, because the oil will bubble up when
potatoes are added.
7. Measure the temperature of the oil.
8. Measure the time it takes to heat the oil back to 185°C (365°F).
11. Transfer the potatoes onto the plate.
13. Evaluate the color, oil absorption, and crunchiness of the fried potatoes and
record in Data Table 6.4.
DATA TABLE 6.3

Temperature of Oil Time It Takes to
Initial Temperature Just After Placing Heat Oil Back to
of Frying Oil Potatoes in Oil 185°C (365°F)
Sample (°C/°F) (°C/°F) (min)
Control 185/365
Cold oil Room Temperature
Cold 185/365
potatoes
More initial 185/365

potato load
DATA TABLE 6.4

Sample Colora Crunchiness Oil Absorption
Control
Cold oil
Cold potatoes
More initial potato load

a se the terms light yellow, golden, and dark yellow to describe the color of the samples. Evaluate
U
for crunchiness and oil absorption, and rate the sample on a scale of 1–5:
1 = very oily, 5 = less oil absorption.
Case 2
1. Label one of the plates “cold oil” and
line it with paper towels.
2. Drain the potatoes in the second
bowl, and thoroughly pat dry.
3. Place 1 L (4¼ cups) corn oil into a
frying pan; 5–6 cm (2–2.3 in.) of
space between the top of the oil
and the top of the pan is required
because the oil will bubble up when
potatoes are added. Cold Oil
4. Put the potatoes into the cold oil.
5. Place the pan on the stove. EXP 6.2
7. Measure the time it takes to heat the
oil to 185°C (365°F).
8. Record your measurements in Data
Table 6.3.
9. Fry the potatoes until they are
golden brown.
11. Wait for one minute and remove the
paper towel from the plate. Cold
12. Evaluate the color, oil absorption,
Potatoes
and crunchiness of the fried pota-
toes and record in Data Table 6.4. EXP 6.3
Case 3
1. Label one of the plates “cold potatoes” and line it with paper towels.
2. Drain the potatoes in the third bowl, which has been covered with ice
water, and thoroughly pat dry.
3. Place 1 L (4¼ cups) corn oil into a frying pan; 5–6 cm (2–2.3 in.) of space
between the top of the oil and the top of the pan is required because the oil
will bubble up when potatoes are added.
record in Data Table 6.4.
Case 4
1. Label one of the plates “more pota-
toes” and line it with paper towels.
2. Drain the potatoes in the last bowl,
and thoroughly pat dry.
3. Place 1 L (4¼ cups) corn oil into a fry-
ing pan; 5–6 cm (2–2.3 in.) of space
between the top of the oil and the top
of the pan is required because the
oil will bubble up when potatoes are More
added. Potatoes
5. Heat the oil to 185°C (365°F). EXP 6.4
6. Put potatoes into the hot oil.
record in Data Table 6.4 (EXP 6.1–EXP 6.4).
Frying is cooking of foods in hot oils or fats. It is a popular method used in the
food industry because it is possible to heat fats and oils to very high temperatures,
well above the boiling point of water.
The optimal temperature for frying most foods lies between 180° and 190°C
(356°F and 374°F).
During frying, several physical and chemical changes occur both in foods and
lipids. These changes affect the sensory properties of the end products.
The sensory properties of fried foods are primarily influenced by:
• The type of lipids used: During frying, a number of deteriorating chemical

changes, such as structural decomposition of lipids, occur. The degree of
these deteriorating chemical changes primarily depends on the chemi-
cal structure of the lipids that are used in the process. Ideal frying lipids
have a high smoke point that is well above the optimal frying temperature
(Table 6.4).
• The temperature of lipids: The frying process involves simultaneous heat and
mass transfer. During food frying, when food is immersed in the hot lipid,
heat is immediately transferred from the lipid to the product. As the food
heats up, water vapor escapes from the food surface into the hot lipid, which
results in the crust formation on the surface of the food. As frying proceeds,
the crust becomes thicker and firmer. It acts as a barrier to the release of
water vapor from the food, and also decreases the lipid absorption. Food
becomes juicy inside and crispier outside. If the temperature of the lipid is
below the optimal frying temperature or if it drops below the optimal frying
temperature during the process, the crust does not form on the surface of
the food. This allows lipid absorption into the food and the food becomes
soft and oily.
• The amount and the initial temperature of foods cooked: Placing a large amount of
foods in hot lipids at one time and/or starting with cold foods will decrease
the temperature of the lipids below the optimal frying temperature, hence
increasing lipid absorption.
• The processing time: Prolonged heating will result in decomposition of lipids.
Preheating the lipids any longer than required and repeated heating of the
same batch of lipid must be avoided.
• The formulation of foods: Increased liquid content of the foods and the use of
some ingredients, such as eggs and cookie flours in batters, may increase
lipid absorption.
EXPERIMENT 6.4
OBJECTIVE
To explain the shortening power of different fats and oils.
Sugar Cookie Recipe

• 2,000 g (4.41 lb) flour
• 480 g (1.05 lb) powdered sugar
• 250 g (0.55 lb) butter
• 250 g (0.55 lb) olive oil
• 250 g (0.55 lb) margarine
• 250 g (0.55 lb) shortening
• Oven
• Tray
• Bowl
• Wooden skewer
• Ruler
• Baking/parchment paper
Method
2. Mix 120 g (0.26 lb) sugar with butter in a bowl.
3. Add 500 g (1.1 lb) flour. Knead thoroughly to form homogeneous dough.
4. Shape the cookie dough into balls, approximately 2 cm (¾ in.) in diameter
each.
5. Measure the height of three balls (cookies).
6. Calculate the average height of the balls as explained in Experiment 4.4 and
record in Data Table 6.5, hi. (Hint: The result should be close to 2 cm (¾ in.).)
7. Transfer the balls onto a tray lined with baking/parchment paper.
8. Bake them in the oven for 15 min.
9. Cool the cookies at room temperature.
10. Measure the height of three cookies.
11. Calculate the average height of the cookies and record in Data Table 6.5, hf.
12. Calculate the percent changes in the height of the cookies and record in
Data Table 6.5.
13. Evaluate the crunchiness of the cookies and record in Data Table 6.5.
14. Evaluate the sensory properties of cookies and record in Data Table 6.5.
Complete the same procedure for the other lipid types.

DATA TABLE 6.5
Sensory
Properties of
The Average The Average Cookies After
Height of Balls Height of Balls Cooking (Taste,
Before Cooking After Cooking % Change in Shape, Smell,
Lipid (cm/in.) (cm/in.) Crunchinessa Height and Color)b
Butter
Olive oil
Margarine
Shortening
a Evaluate for crunchiness of the sample on a scale of 1–5:

b Use the terms round, flat, and irregularly shaped to evaluate the shape of the cookies. Use your own terms to evaluate the taste, smell, and the color
of the cookies.
Hint:
% change in the height =

( h i − hf ) × 100
hi
Study Questions
1. Which type of lipid is more suitable for making these types of cookies?
Explain your answer.
2. Discuss the possible reasons for the differences between the sensory proper-
ties of the cookies prepared with different lipids.
Tenderness and flakiness are the primary quality attributes of baked food prod-
ucts. In batter or dough, lipids physically prevent a contact between water and
gluten (flour protein) by coating the gluten molecules. Therefore, lipids inhibit the
formation of long gluten chains in the dough. Final products become more tender
and crumbly, the lipid is said to shorten the dough. Without shortening, the dough
structure gives the feeling of hardness when chewed. This is known as shortening
power of the lipids.
The shortening power of lipids primarily depends upon:
• Proportion of lipid to flour: The product gets more tender with increasing
amounts of lipids.
• Water contents of lipids: Water in lipids may enhance the gluten development
as it hydrates the medium. Therefore, the lipids with little water content have
more shortening power than the lipids with high water content. Because of
this, hydrogenated fats and lard have higher shortening power than butter
and margarine because the later ones contain more water compared to lard
and hydrogenated fats.
• The kind of flour used: High-gluten flours produce more elastic and less tender
pastry due to extensive gluten development.
• The homogeneous distribution of the lipids within the mixture.
Flakiness is different from tenderness. It is characterized by the thin dough lay-

ers within the pastry. The lipid melts during baking and leaves empty spaces.
Steam collected in these empty spaces lifts the layers of the dough.
Flakiness of the pastry primarily depends upon:
• Degree of saturation of the lipids: More saturated lipids produce greater flaki-
ness than less saturated lipids because they are solid at room temperature,
have higher melting points, and produce more empty spaces in the dough
upon melting.
• Temperature of the lipids: Lipids must be well chilled to ensure that they can
withstand mixing, rolling out, and handling without being creamed and or
absorbed by the flour.
• Size of the fat pieces: Fat is cut into small pieces, but chilled to prevent it from
becoming melted before cooking.
• The kind of flour used: High-gluten flours produce flakier but tougher baked
products.
• The homogeneous distribution of the lipids within the mixture.
EXPERIMENT 6.5
OBJECTIVES
• To explain basic structure of emulsions.
• To explain the function of an emulsifier.
• To explain the parameters affecting the emulsion structure.
Case 1: With Emulsifier

Mayonnaise Recipe
• 4 egg yolks
• 1 tablespoon of vinegar
• 550 mL (2¼ cups) olive oil
• A mixing bowl
• Whisk
Method
1. Place the egg yolks in a bowl.
2. Add the vinegar and whisk to blend.
3. Add a very small amount of the oil and whisk until it’s well blended.
4. Continue adding the oil while whisking thoroughly between each addition.
5. Observe the appearance and texture of the mixture when all the oil has been
whisked in and record in Data Table 6.6.
DATA TABLE 6.6

Appearance and Texture of the Mixturea
Mixture with emulsifier

(with egg yolk)
Mixture without
emulsifier (without egg
yolk)
a Use the words viscous, thick, and thin to evaluate the appearance and texture of the mixtures.
Case 2: With No Emulsifier

• A mixing bowl
• Whisk
Method
1. Place the vinegar in a bowl.
whisked in, and record in Data Table 6.6.
Case 3: Amount of Emulsifier

• 2 egg yolks
• A mixing bowl
• Whisk
Method
Case 4: Rate of Oil Addition

• 4 egg yolks
• A mixing bowl
• Whisk
Method
3. Add the oil all at once and whisk until it is well blended.
Case 5: A Mechanical Force

• 4 egg yolks
• A mixing bowl
• Whisk
Method
EXP 6.5
3. Add a very small amount of the oil
and whisk until it’s well blended.
5. Continue whisking 10 more minutes when all the oil has been whisked in.
6. Observe the appearance and texture of the mixture, and record in Data
Table 6.7 (EXP 6.5).
DATA TABLE 6.7

Appearance and Texture of the Mixturea
Amount of
emulsifier
Rate of oil
addition
Mechanical force
a Use the words viscous, thick, and thin to evaluate the appearance and texture of the mixtures.
Oil and water are immiscible liquids, meaning they do not mix. They do not mix
since oil is nonpolar (hydrophobic) and water is polar. When oil and water are
mixed and then left to stand, they will separate into two layers. The oil will float
above the water because it is less dense than water.
Mixtures of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible are called emul-
sions. In emulsions, fine droplets of one liquid are dispersed in another liquid.
Lipids and water are the common liquids in food emulsions. Emulsions contain
three components:
1. A dispersed phase: A liquid that is suspended in the form of fine droplets in a

continuous phase.
2. A continuous phase: A liquid phase that contains fine droplets of the other
liquid (dispersed phase). The volume of the continuous phase is larger than
that of the dispersed phase.
3. The emulsifier: A substance that holds water and oil in place in emulsions.
Emulsifiers have both polar (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) ends.
In the mixture, the polar end of the emulsifier attracts the water and the
nonpolar end attracts the oil. It forms a film at the boundary of oil and water,
which coats the droplets of the dispersed phase. Therefore, the oil droplets
stay suspended in the water or the water droplets stay suspended in the oil
phase. Emulsifiers are usually produced from natural sources. Some food
ingredients are used as emulsifiers. For example, egg yolk contains lecithin,
which is known to be a good emulsifier. In the emulsion, if the water is the
continuous phase and the oil is the dispersed phase, the emulsion is called
an oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion. Milk is a good example of natural oil-in-water
emulsions, with fat droplets dispersed in a larger amount of the water phase.
Mayonnaise and certain salad dressings are the other common examples of
oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions. If the oil is the continuous phase and the water
is the dispersed phase, the emulsion is said to be a water-in-oil (w/o) emul-
sion. Butter and margarine are examples of w/o emulsions.
Stable emulsions do not separate under normal handling and storage conditions.
The major factors affecting emulsion stability can be listed as:
• The average droplet size of the dispersed phase: Larger droplets have a tendency
to coalesce and form a separate phase.
• The density differences between the continuous and dispersed phases: Emulsions
are more stable when density differences between the phases are small. There
is a possibility of phase separation when the difference between the densities
of the phases is large because the less dense phase has a tendency to rise to
the surface through the emulsion.
• The viscosity of the continuous phase: The mobility of the droplets in the emul-
sion decreases with increased viscosity. Therefore, emulsions are more stable
when the viscosity of the continuous phase is high.
• Type and amount of the emulsifier: To form stable emulsions, the surface of all
the droplets must be coated with an emulsifier.
• Acidity: Changing the pH of the medium may decrease the stability of
emulsions by changing the net charge on the emulsions. As explained pre-
viously, the attraction between the emulsifier and the polar and nonpolar
phases forms the emulsions. Changes in the charge of the emulsions may
break down this attraction. For example, acid addition may break down the
emulsion stability because acids provide high amounts of positively charged
hydrogen ions (H+).
• Ionic strength: Addition of salts may decrease the stability of emulsions. Some
salts drastically change the net charge of the emulsions when they are dis-
solved in one of the phases.
• Temperature: Heating or cooling of emulsions affects the emulsion stabil-
ity. Heating may cause phase separation because the oil droplets melt and
coalesce when heated. Upon freezing, destabilization of emulsions occurs
because the ice crystals that are formed during freezing physically disturb
the film between the phases.
• Extended storage time: Over time, droplets may combine to form a larger
droplet, so the average droplet size increases and phase separation occurs.
Extended storage of the emulsified foods should be avoided.
• Mechanical force: Violent shaking or extended mixing may physically disturb
the interfacial film formed by the emulsifier and break the emulsion.
EXPERIMENT 6.6
OBJECTIVE
To explain the effects of storage temperature and light on the oxidation of lipids.
Cornmeal Cookie Recipe

• 2/3 cup cookie flour
• 1/4 cup cornmeal
• 2 tablespoons corn starch
• 1/4 teaspoon salt
• 1/2 cup softened butter
• 1/3 cup sugar
• 1/2 teaspoon pure vanilla extract
• Measuring cup
• 2 bowls
• Cookie cutter
• 3 dark-colored jars
• 1 transparent cookie jar
• Baking/parchment paper
• Rolling pin
• Mixer
• Tray
• Oven
Method
1. Label dark-colored jars “room temperature,” “refrigeration temperature,”
and “oven at 40°C (104°F),” respectively.
2. Label the transparent jar “exposed to light at room temperature.”
4. Mix the flour, cornmeal, corn starch, and salt together.
5. Blend the butter, sugar, and vanilla until they are creamy.
6. Add all of the flour mixture into the butter mixture and mix until the dough
just begins to come together.
7. Roll out the dough on a well-floured surface to 1 cm (⅓ in.) thickness.
8. Using a cookie cutter, cut out 16 cookies, each with a 5 cm (1.9 in.) diameter.
9. Transfer the cookies to a tray lined with baking/parchment paper.
10. Bake them until they become pale golden in color.
11. Let them cool down at room temperature.
12. Place four cookies in each jar and close the lids.
3. Store each jar according to the conditions marked on the label.

1
14. Take one cookie from each jar and evaluate the aroma and taste of the
cookies.
16. Repeat the sensory taste every two days.
DATA TABLE 6.8

Storage Conditions
Dark-Colored Transparent
Dark-Colored Jar, Dark-Colored Jar, Exposed
Jar, Room Refrigeration Jar, to Light,
Storage Temp. Temp. 40°C/104/°F Room Temp.
Time
(days) Aromaa/Tastea Aroma/Taste Aroma/Taste Aroma/Taste
8
a Describe and rate the aroma and taste of the samples on a scale of 1–5:
1 = smells normal, no rancid smell, 5 = strong rancid smell.
1 = no rancid/bitter taste, 5 = strong rancid/bitter taste.
During storage of lipids and food products rich in lipids, development of off-odor
and off-flavors may occur as a result of deteriorating changes in the structures of
lipids. This phenomenon is called rancidity or lipid oxidation.
Lipid oxidation is generally classified into two broad classes:
• Enzymatic rancidity: This type of rancidity occurs when the enzymes natu-
rally present in the foods break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. For
example, lipoxygenase enzymes in soybeans may cause development of off-
odor and off-flavors in food products that contain soybeans.
• Oxidative rancidity: This type of rancidity occurs when oxygen combines
with the fatty acids in the lipids. Oxidative rancidity involves a series of
complex reactions (Figure 6.4). When lipids are exposed to various factors,
such as heat, their structures are degraded and highly reactive compounds
that are called free radicals are formed. Free radicals combine with environ-
mental oxygen and give further chain reactions. Compounds responsible
for the characteristic unpleasant smell and flavor associated with oxidative
rancidity are formed as a result of these reactions.
The various factors that affect the development of oxidative rancidity in foods
can be listed as:
• The degree of unsaturation of fatty acids: Unsaturated lipids are more prone
to oxidative rancidity than saturated lipids. For example, lipids in nuts,
peanuts, and whole wheat products are more prone to rancidity compared
to butter.
• Oxygen, heat, light, metal, and moisture: They increase the rate of oxidative
rancidity.
Several precautions that can be taken to reduce the rate of oxidative rancidity in
foods include:
• Storing the sensitive foods (the foods that are prone to oxidative rancidity)
in dark places.
• Reducing the exposure of sensitive foods to direct light (including sunlight).
• Packaging the foods in selectively light-absorbent packaging materials, such
as dark-colored bottles.
• Keeping sensitive foods away from heat.
• Storing highly sensitive foods at refrigeration temperature.
H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C Fatty acid
O H H H
Light, metal, heat
H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C Free radical
O H H
O2
H H H H H H H
HO
C C C C C C C C Peroxy radical
O H H O
Fatty acids
H H H H H H H
HO Compounds that
Degradation
C C C C C C C C give rancid smell and
taste
O H H O
OH
Figure 6.4 Mechanism of oxidative rancidity.

• Reducing the environmental oxygen concentration to very low levels, such as

vacuum packaging the sensitive food products.
• Avoiding direct contact of foods with copper and iron equipment and
containers.
• Using approved natural (i.e., ascorbic acid, tocopherol) or synthetic (BHA,
BHT) antioxidants.
EXPERIMENT 6.7
OBJECTIVE
To demonstrate the effects of fat crystals on sensory attributes of some food
products.

• 3 blocks of untempered bitter chocolate couvertures (2.5 kg [5.5 lb] each)
• Water
• 1 milk chocolate
• 1 pot
• 4 medium-sized metal containers (they will be placed over the top of the pot;
therefore, the size of the containers must be chosen accordingly)
• 1 metal bowl
• 1 container (this will be placed in the metal bowl; therefore, the size of the
container must be chosen accordingly)
• Stretch film (plastic wrap)
• Thermometer
• Spatula
• Stove
• Refrigerator
Method
Case 1: Fat Blooming
1. Label four medium containers “Tempered,” “Untempered,” “Temperature,”
and “Humidity.”
2. Place one of the couvertures in the container labeled “Untempered.”
3. Store at a constant temperature of 16°C–17°C (60.8°F–62.5°F).
4. Break one of the chocolate couvertures into small pieces.
5. Put them in the container labeled “Tempered.”
6. Place a small amount of water into the pot.
7. Place the container over the top of the pot. The bottom of the container
should not touch the water.
8. Heat the water until it is very gently simmering, not boiling.
9. Check the temperature of the chocolate continuously while stirring gently.
10. When the temperature of the chocolate reaches 50°C (122°F) on a ther-
mometer, remove the container from the pot.
11. Stir the chocolate with a spatula to melt it homogeneously.
12. As soon as the temperature cools to 28°C (82.4°F), return the container to
the pot and reheat, stirring gently.
13. When the temperature of the chocolate reaches 32°C (89.6°F) on a ther-
mometer, remove the container from the pot.
14. Store with the untempered sample.
15. Break the last chocolate couverture into small pieces.
16. Place the chocolate pieces into the container labeled “Temperature.”
17. Place the container over the top of the pot.
18. Heat the water until it is very gently simmering, not boiling.
19. Remove the container from the pot once the chocolate appears to have
melted.
20. Cover the container with paper towel and store with the other two samples.
21. Next day, take the sample from the storage area and place it in a warm place
that has a temperature of 30°C–35°C (86°F–95°F), for a few hours.
22. Return the container to its storage area.
Case 2: Sugar Blooming

Meanwhile,
1. Place the milk chocolate into a container

labeled “Humidity.”
2. Put a small amount of water into the metal
bowl.
3. Place the container inside the metal bowl.
4. Cover them tightly together with stretch
film (plastic wrap). That will create a humid
environment.
5. Remove the container from the metal bowl
after 48 h.
6. Store it with the other samples.
7. Check the surface of the samples every day.
Continue the observation for 5–10 days.
Record your observations in Data Table 6.9
(EXP 6.6).
EXP 6.6
Note: In this experiment, a special technique,

which is called a bain-marie technique, is applied to melt the chocolate in Case 1.
DATA TABLE 6.9

Surface Appearancea
Sample Exposed Sample Stored

Storage Tempered Untempered to Fluctuating in a Humid
Time (days) Sample Sample Temps. Environment
…
a Use the terms no change, sign of white spots, and cloudy to evaluate the surface of the samples.
White, cloudy-looking coating, “bloom,” develops on the surface of chocolates if

chocolates are processed, stored, or served improperly.
There are two main types of chocolate blooms:
1. Fat bloom
2. Sugar bloom
Fat bloom is primarily related to the crystallization of cocoa butter found in

chocolate products on the surface of chocolate. Cocoa butter is composed of six
different fat crystals melting at different temperatures. Some of the crystals are
stable, but other crystals are not. Unstable crystals change form over time and
form a cloudy-looking coating on the surface of the chocolate. During chocolate
manufacturing, a process called tempering is used to ensure that only the stable
crystals are formed in the final chocolate products. Tempering is a directed pre-
crystallization process to promote the formation of the stable crystal forms only.
Tempering is a three-step process:
Step 1: Melting chocolate at:
• 50°C–55°C (122°F–131°F) for bitter chocolate.

• 45°C–50°C (113°F–122°F) for milk chocolate.
• 45°C–50°C (113°F–122°F) for white chocolate.
Step 2: Rapid cooling to about:
• 28°C–29°C (82.4°F–84.2°F) for bitter chocolate.

• 27°C–28°C (80.6°F–82.4°F) for milk chocolate.
• 26°C–27°C (78.8°F–80.6°F) for white chocolate.
Step 3: Warming to:
• 31°C–32°C (87.8°F–89.6°F) for bitter chocolate.

• 30°C–31°C (86.0°F–87.8°F) for milk chocolate.
• 29°C–30°C (84.2°F–86.0°F) for white chocolate.
The primary reasons for fat bloom on the surface of chocolate include the following:
• Improper tempering of the chocolate: If chocolate is not tempered or if the

tempering process is not carried out properly, the unstable forms of cocoa
butter crystals will form and fat bloom will

occur on the surface of the chocolate dur-
ing storage.
• High temperature: The chocolate should be
stored below the melting point of cocoa
butter to avoid surface fat bloom.
• Temperature fluctuation: During storage, tem-
perature fluctuation must be avoided. The
chocolate is best when stored in an area
of stable temperature (15°C–18°C/59°F–
64.4°F) to avoid fat blooming.
• Sugar bloom is caused by moisture condens-
ing on the chocolate. Chocolate is usually
composed of ground cocoa beans, sugar,
and sometimes emulsifiers and milk. When EXP 6.7
chocolate is exposed to moisture, water dis-
solves the sugar on the surface of the chocolate. The dissolved sugar crystal-
lizes on the surface of the chocolate as the water dries. The resulting small
sugar crystals give the chocolate a cloudy appearance. For example, if the
chocolate is placed in the refrigerator and then removed and placed at room
temperature, moisture from the air will condense on the cold chocolate, and,
as water dries, the sugar bloom will appear on the surface of the chocolate.
Sugar bloom also may occur if the chocolate is stored in an environment with
very high humidity.
Chocolate is best stored in an area of low humidity and stable temperatures of

15°C–18°C (59°F–64.4°F) to avoid fat and sugar blooms (EXP 6.7).
Fat bloom and sugar bloom on the surface of chocolate products do not have any
adverse health affect, but they make the products unappealing to consumers.
More Ideas to Try
Put 50 mL (1.7 fl oz) each of sunflower oil, olive oil, and peanut oil in separate
bottles and keep the bottles in the refrigerator overnight. Observe the physical
changes in oils that occur during storage. Discuss the results.
Study Questions
1. Explain the differences between saturated and unsaturated lipids.

2. Is coconut oil a fat or oil?
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Fats and oils are the organic compounds naturally obtained from animals
and plants.
Understanding the basic structure of fats and oils is crucial for chefs
because the functional properties and shelf life of fats and oils are pri-
marily related to their structures.
Fats and oils belong to a group of substances called lipids.
The primary functional properties of lipids in food processing can be
listed as:
a. Enhancement of flavor and mouthfeel
b. Development of texture
c. Shortening
d. Emulsification
e. Medium for transferring heat
f. Development of appearance
Lipids with longer carbon chains have higher melting points.
The saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than unsaturated fatty
acids of corresponding size.
The saturated lipids have lower smoke points than unsaturated lipids.
Ideal frying lipids have a high smoke point that is well above the optimum
frying temperature.
During storage, lipids and products rich in lipids may undergo lipid oxida-
tion reaction.
The unsaturated lipids are more prone to lipid oxidation due to the double
bonds in their structures.
Oxygen, heat, light, metal, and moisture increase the rate of oxidative
rancidity.
The shortening power of the lipid determines the tenderness of the pastry.
A mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible is called an
emulsion.
Emulsions contain three components: a dispersed phase, a continuous
phase, and the emulsifier.
Fat crystallization may develop on the surface of chocolate if it is not pro-
cessed, stored, or served properly.
Tempering is a directed precrystallization process to promote the formation
of the stable fat crystal forms in chocolates.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Brown, A. C. 2007. Understanding food: Principles and preparation, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing.
Costa, R. M., F. A. R. Oliveira, O. Delaney, and V. Gekas. 1999. Analysis of the heat trans-
fer coefficient during potato frying. Journal of Food Engineering 39(3):293–299.
Costa, R. M., F. A. R. Oliveira, and G. Boutcheva. 2001. Structural changes and shrinkage
of potato during frying. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 36:11–23.
Culinary Institute of America. 1995. The new professional chef, 6th ed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Functional properties of fats and oils. 2009. Cereal Chemistry Journal (AACC
Int’l) 86(3):May/June. Online at: http://cerealchemistry.aaccnet.org/doi/
pdf/10.1094/9780913250907.001.
Ghotra, B. S., S. D. Dyal, and S. S. Narine. 2002. Lipid shortenings: A review. Food Research
International 35(10):1015–1048.
Lonchampt, P., and R. W. Hartel. 2006. Surface bloom on improperly tempered chocolate.
European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 108(2):159–168.
McGee, H. 2004. On food and cooking. The science and lore of the kitchen, 1st rev. ed. New
York: Scribner.
Meulenaer, B. D., and J. V. Camp. Factors that affect fat uptake during French fries production.
Online at: www.euppa.eu/_files/factors-french-fries.pdf.
Ozilgen, S., and M. Ozilgen. 1990. Kinetic model of lipid oxidation in foods. Journal of
Food Science 55:498–502.
Paul, S. R. 2006. Food frying. In Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS), food engineer-
ing theme. Online at: www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C10/E5-10-04-06.pdf.
University of California/Davis. What is the smoke point of butter? Online at: http://drinc.
ucdavis.edu/dairychem.7htm.
Weaver, C., and J. Daniel. 2003. The food chemistry laboratory, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.
Chapter 7
Keys to Developing the

Perfect Bite: New Food
Product Development and
Sensory Evaluation Tests
REASONS TO DEVELOP A NEW FOOD PRODUCT
Competition in the food industry grows tremendously as a result of:
• Fast changing consumer trends.

• Increased consumer demand for new tastes.
• Increased consumer demand for safe food products.
• Increased consumer awareness of health.
• Increased consumer demand for specific food products, i.e., gluten-free food
products, diabetic food products.
• Increased capacity of the production units that leads to producing more
food. Companies can produce more varieties of similar food products in the
same production area. For example, dairy producers can produce different
types of cheeses at the same production area with the help of new processes
and new equipment.
257
Ingredient Food Food

Marketing purchasing science processing
research and methods
consumer survey
Quality control
Cost control
Food Product Preservation
Development and storage
Sensory techniques
evaluation
Marketing
and sales Packaging
National/
International food Food safety
laws and regulations
Figure 7.1 Product development is multidisciplinary team work, and it requires knowledge of
all items shown in the figure.
New food products and new processes need to be developed continuously to keep the
company competitive in a changing food market. Food providers must work hard
through innovations and improved processes to meet the consumer’s expectations.
Companies invest money, staff, and equipment in new product development.
Developing new food products is a reward for the company when it meets the con-
sumers’ needs and demands. On the other hand, possibility of failures of the new
food products in the marketplace is a frightening risk for the companies. To mini-
mize the risks, the companies should adopt a multidisciplinary approach. The new
food product development process requires multidisciplinary teamwork (Figure 7.1).
In properly formed and managed product formulation teams, the individuals
come from different disciplines, their contributions are properly harmonized,
and they all work toward a common goal.
STAGES IN NEW FOOD PRODUCT

DEVELOPMENT
The new food product development process may involve:
1. Formulation of completely new food products.

2. Modification of an existing food product, which is called line extension.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT & SENSORY EVALUATION 259
The same processing steps are followed in both cases, but line extension requires
less financial resources and less time to develop a new food product.
The new food product development process has three major stages:
1. Idea development
2. Product development
3. Commercialization
Idea Development
The objective of this stage is to gather as many new ideas as possible. For the suc-
cess of this stage:
• The mission of the organization must be considered.

• The goal of the company must be clearly identified.
• The consumer demands for new food products must be considered.
• Gaps in the market must be identified.
The team members carry out financial and technical reviews, feasibility studies,
and legal analysis at this stage. The ideas that are weak in terms of their chances
of market success should be filtered out at this stage. The most feasible ideas are
carried to the product development stage.
Product Development
At this stage:
1. The expected quality attributes of the food product are identified.

2. The product is formulated. Specifications and the amounts of the ingredients
are determined.
3. The processing steps and parameters are set.
4. A prototype is prepared.
5. Sensory evaluation tests are carried out.
6. If required, changes are carried out to the prototypes depending on the feed-
back from the sensory evaluation tests.
7. A trial production (pilot plant production) is carried out to produce large
quantities of the improve prototype.
8. The prototypes from the pilot plant production are tested with a range of
consumers through the sensory evaluation tests.
9. The product is either modified or discarded based on feedback gained from
consumers through sensory evaluation tests. The information gained at this
stage is used to move the production to the commercialization stage.
Commercialization
Once the consumers accept the product, the producers move forward to produce
the product on a large scale. Finally, the product is introduced to the consumers
in the marketplace (launching).
HOW TO CARRY OUT SENSORY

EVALUATION TESTS
Sensory evaluation tests scientifically measure and analyze the consumers’

responses to the sensory attributes of the food products, such as appearance, odor,
sound, texture, and taste. They involve both qualitative observations and quantita-
tive measurements that were previously explained in Chapter 1. In sensory evalu-
ation tests, five senses are used to observe the characteristics of foods (PIC 7.1).
Sensory evaluation tests translate qualitative observations to quantitative data to
• improve the quality of food products;

• understand which attributes make the food products more acceptable to
consumers;
Appearance color, siz

e, shape
, texture
Odor volatile flavor molecules
, bitter
our, salty
sweet, s
Taste op
b b le, p
, bu
crackle
fizz,
Sound
rough and smooth textures,
hot, cold, warm,
Touch
PIC 7.1
FIVE SENSES ARE USED TO OBSERVE THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF FOODS: SIGHT, SMELL, TASTE, HEARING, AND TOUCH.
• understand whether differences exist between the ranges of food products;

• understand how big the differences are in a range of food products; and
• understand whether a final food product meets its targeted specifications.
Requirements for sensory evaluation tests can be listed as:
1. Test environment: Sensory evaluation tests should be carried out in a quiet

area with adequate lighting and ventilation. Separate sections/booths that
are free from distractions must be used for each panelist. The walls should
be white or off-white in color.
2. Timing: Morning is the best time for sensory evaluation tests.
3. Panelists: Panelists are used to evaluate the food samples. The number
and specifications of the panelists depend on the purpose of the study.
Untrained (consumers), semitrained (experienced), or trained (highly
experienced) panelists are incorporated in the tests depending on the
purpose of the study. Willingness to participate, availability, food aller-
gies, and food intolerances are the major factors to be considered when
choosing the panelists. The panelists should be clearly informed about the
purpose and the procedure of the sensory test. Potential consumers are
the best panelists.
4. Samples: All food samples of the same type should be served to the panel-
ists at the same temperature. The size, shape, and types of plates and/or
cups should be the same for all samples of the same type. Size or volume
served should be equal for all samples. The optimum number of samples to
be tested in each session should be decided depending on the properties of
the food. The samples must be coded to make sure that the panelists can-
not recognize or identify the samples. Random three-digit alphanumerical
codes, such as GP4, 534, and 1K6, are usually used to label the samples.
To avoid bias among the panelists, samples should not be coded A and Z or
1 and 10, since panelists might feel that samples A and 10 are better than
samples Z and 1. Samples should be served in a random order; therefore,
not all panelists will get the same samples at the same time. For example, if
two samples are served, half of the panelists receive one sample first and the
rest receive the other sample first.
Terminology is very important in sensory evolution tests. It must be consistent

from product to product to minimize the panelist confusion and variability in
defining the product attributes. Basic terms that are used in qualitative observa-
tions are given in Chapter 1.
Statistical techniques are often applied to the interpretation of the sensory test
results. Basic statistical methods are given in Chapter 1.
Sensory evaluation tests are grouped into three categories based on the questions
that they are addressing:
1. Discrimination/difference tests
2. Descriptive tests
3. Consumer acceptance/preference tests
Discrimination/difference tests analyze differences between food products. These

tests are carried out to understand whether differences exist between the food
products and/or how the consumers would define the difference between the
products. For these tests, 25–50 untrained panelists are required.
The most common discrimination/difference tests include:
1. Paired comparison test

2. Triangle test
3. Duo-trio test
The paired comparison test is applied to compare two samples. Two coded sam-
ples are presented to the panelists. Panelists are asked to identify the sample that
has a greater degree of intensity in terms of a specific sensorial attribute. Test
scorecards are distributed to the panelists and they are asked to follow directions
given on the scorecards.
For example, panelists are asked to determine which of two samples of Turkish
Delights are sweeter.
PAIRED COMPARISION TEST SCORECARD

You are provided with two samples. Taste the samples in the
order from left to right and circle the sample that is sweeter.
(Sample A) (Sample B)
918 871
The triangle test is applied to understand if the differences between two samples
are detectable. Three coded food samples are prepared, two of which are the same
and the other is different. Samples are arranged in a triangle on a tray and pre-
sented to the panelists. Test scorecards are distributed to the panelists and they
are asked to follow directions given on the scorecards.
For example, panelists are asked to choose the soup sample that is the most differ-
ent from the other soup samples.
TRIANGLE TEST SCORECARD

You are provided with three samples. Two of the samples are
identical. Taste the samples in the order from left to right and
circle the sample that is different than the order two samples.
(Sample A) (Sample B) (Sample A)

871 63 918
The duo-trio test determines whether or not a sensory difference exists between
two samples. This method is particularly useful when changes are done in ingre-
dients, processing, packaging, or storage of food products currently available.
Three food samples are prepared, two of which are the same. One of the two iden-
tical samples is marked as reference, and the other two samples are coded with
alphanumeric codes. The samples are presented to the panelists. Test scorecards
are distributed to the panelists and they are asked to follow directions given on
the scorecards.
For example, panelists are asked to determine if there is a difference between an
original apple pie recipe and the modified apple pie recipe.
DUO-TRIO TEST SCORECARD

You are provided with three samples and one is marked
as reference. One of the other samples is the same as the
reference. Taste the samples in the order from left to right
and circle the sample that is the same as the reference.
(Reference, B) (Sample A) (Sample B)

191 438
Descriptive tests are applied to detect how food products differ in preselected
sensory attributes. For these tests, 8–12 trained panelists are required. Trained
panelists are able to evaluate each attribute and the range of intensity of similar
products. For example, a trained panelist presented a sample of chocolate would
be able to rate the level of cocoa, cocoa butter, and the crystal structure similar to
any instrument that would give a reading.
The most common descriptive tests include:
1. Descriptive rating test

2. Descriptive ranking test
The descriptive rating test is used to rate the intensity of preselected attributes
of the food products. Test scorecards are distributed to the panelists and they
are asked to follow directions given on the scorecards. The attributes of the food
samples are generally rated on line scales or spider/star graphs.
For example, panelists are asked to rate the intensity of four attributes: crunchi-
ness, texture, color, and taste of the chocolate bar.
DESCRIPTIVE RATING TEST SCORECARD
You are provided with a sample of a chocolate bar. Please

evaluate the sample for each attribute. Decide on the
intensity for each attribute using a scale from 1 to 5.
The higher the number, the greater the intensity (1 = very
week; 5 = very strong). Mark the number on the line scale.
Crunchiness
1 2 3 4 5
Texture
1 2 3 4 5
Color
1 2 3 4 5
DESCRIPTIVE RATING TEST SCORECARD FOR TWO OR MORE SAMPLES

You are provided with two coded chocolate bar samples. Please evaluate the samples for each
attribute. Decide on the intensity for each attribute using a scale from 1 to 5. The higher
the number, the greater the intensity (1 = very week; 5 = very strong). Begin with one sample
and evaluate it for all attribute. Taste the other sample for the same attributes.
Crunchiness
Sample 431
1 2 3 4 5
Sample 132
1 2 3 4 5
Texture
Sample 431
1 2 3 4 5
Sample 132
1 2 3 4 5
Color
Sample 431
1 2 3 4 5
Sample 132
1 2 3 4 5
Taste
Sample 431
1 2 3 4 5
Sample 132
1 2 3 4 5
Crunchiness
10
2
Taste 0 Texture
Color
Sample 1 Sample 2
Figure 7.2 Example of a spider graph chart.
Hint: To draw the spider/star chart, the average score of each attribute is calculated
from the data obtained from each panelist and marked on the matching scale of the
spider/star diagram. The marks are connected to draw the graph. The average scores
of different products can be marked on the same chart to compare the sensory prop-
erties of the products. Shown in Figure 7.2 is an example of a spider graph.
The descriptive ranking test is applied to rank foods in the order of intensity of a
specified attribute. Coded samples are presented to the panelists. Test scorecards
are distributed to the panelists, and they are asked to follow directions given on
scorecards.
For example, panelists are asked to rank milkshake samples depending upon the
intensity of sweetness.
RANK ORDER TEST SCORECARD

You are provided with fi ve coded samples. Taste the samples and place
them into rank order depending upon the intensity of sweetness. Write the
code of the sample on the rank scale given below.
Not sweet Slightly Moderately Very sweet Extremely

sweet sweet sweet
Consumer acceptance/preference tests are used to determine if the product is liked

or disliked by the consumer. These tests also are used to determine the most pre-
ferred food product among the sets of similar products. For these tests, 25–50
untrained panelists (consumers) are required. Statistics are used to analyze the data.
The most common consumer acceptance tests include:
1. Preference tests
a. Paired-preference
b. Ranking for preference
2. Hedonic rating scale
The paired-preference test determines the preference of the consumer between two
products. Two coded samples are presented to the panelists. Test scorecards are dis-
tributed to the panelists and they are asked to follow directions given on the scorecards.
For example, two lemon cake samples are presented to the panelists and they are
asked to choose the one that they prefer.
PAIRED PREFERENCE TEST SCORECARD
You are provided with two coded samples.Taste the samples and
circle the sample that you prefer.
(Sample A) (Sample B)
345 762
The ranking for preference test ranks the food samples with respect to the pref-
erence degree. A number of coded samples are presented to the panelists. Test
scorecards are distributed to the panelists, and they are asked to follow directions
given on the scorecards.
For example, panelists are asked to rank the five coded ice cream samples in order
of their preferences.
RANKING FOR PREFERENCE TEST SCORECARD
You are provided with five coded samples. Taste the
samples and rank them in an order of your preference. Please
indicate the code your choices in the boxes given below.
Sample code
1 choice
st
2nd choice
3rd choice
4th choice
5th choice
The hedonic rating scale test is applied to measure the level of liking or disliking
food products by the consumers. Coded samples are presented to the panelists.
Test scorecards are distributed to the panelists, and they are asked to follow direc-
tions given on scorecards.
For example, panelists are asked to indicate the extent of their liking for each of
five meatball samples.
HEDONIC RANKING TEST SCORECARD

You are provided with five coded samples. Taste the samples and indicate your degree of liking.
Check a box, from 1 to 9, to indicate your preference.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
code dislike dislike dislike dislike neither like like like like
extremely very moderately slightly like or slightly moderately very extremely
much dislike much
POINTS TO REMEMBER
New products and new processes need to be developed continuously to keep

the company competitive in a changing food market.
A new food product development process requires a multidisciplinary
teamwork.
A new food product development process has three major stages:
a. Idea development
b. Product development
c. Commercialization
Sensory evaluation tests scientifically measure and analyze the consumers’
responses to the sensory attributes of the food products, such as appear-
ance, odor, sound, texture, and taste.
Sensory evaluation tests are grouped into three categories based on the
questions that they are addressing:
a. Discrimination/difference tests
b. Descriptive tests
c. Consumer acceptance/preference tests
Sensory evaluation tests provide excellent information for chefs to evaluate
and improve their new dishes.
SELECTED REFERENCES
British Nutrition Foundation. 2010. Sensory evaluation: Teachers’ guide. Online at: www.
foodafactoflife.org.uk/attachments/276dbf05-695c-44942bb55825.pdf
Crawford, I. M. 1997. New product development. In Marketing and Agribusiness texts. Rome:
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Online at: www.fao.org/docrep/004/
w3240e/w3240e04.htm
Experimental design and sensory analysis. Pullman, WA: Washington State University.
Online at: http://public.wsu.edu/~rasco/fshn4202005/EDSA.pdf.
Lawless, H. T., and H. Heymann. 2010. Sensory evaluation of food: Principles and practices,
2nd ed. Berlin: Springer.
Mason, R. M., and S. L. Nottingham. 2002. Sensory Evaluation Manual. Alimentos Food.
Online at: www.scribd.com/doc/890001/sensory.
Naes, T., P. B. Brockhof, and O. Tomic. 2010. Statistics for sensory and consumer science.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
O’Mahony, M. 1986. Sensory evaluation of food: Statistical methods and procedures. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Ozer, M. 2009. What do we know about new product idea selection? NC State University,
Center for Innovation Management Studies. Online at: http://cims.ncsu.edu/down-
loads/Research/69_Ozer-%20New%20Prod.%20Idea%20Selection.pdf.
Ozilgen, S. 2011. Factors affecting taste perception and food choice. In The sense of taste,
ed. E. J. Lynch and A. P. Petrov (pp. 115–126). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science
Publishers.
Rudolph, M. J. 2000. The food product development process. In Developing new food prod-
ucts for a changing marketplace. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Woods, T. W., and A. Demiralay. 1998. An examination of new food product development
processes: A comparative case study of two hazelnut candy manufacturers. Lexington, KY:
University of Kentucky. Online at: http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/ bitstream/31979/1/
sp980384.pdf.
Chapter 8
The Science of Flavor

and Flavor Pairing
Why do different varieties of the same food such as Granny Smith, Golden, Jonathan,
and McIntosh apples have different flavors?
Why do we like strawberry jam on toast?
Would you choose the same wine if the fish was dipped in a hot and sour sauce?
What should I consider when pairing the foods/drinks?
Why do certain foods taste particularly good together?
How do we know which foods combine well together?
Knowledge of basic flavor chemistry is crucial for chefs to understand the

p rinciples behind the flavor pairings, and to create new food combinations.
271
The Science of Flavor and Flavor Pairing 273
EXPERIMENT 8.1
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the difference between taste and flavor
• To explain the importance of odor on food flavor and food perception
Case 1
• 1–2 teaspoonful of cumin or cinnamon
• Teaspoon
Method
1. Hold your nose (it needs to be fully blocked).
2. Take half a teaspoonful of the spice and place it on your tongue.
3. Chew on the spice while still holding your nose.
4. Record your observations in Data Table 8.1
5. Keep your mouth close and release your nose.
DATA TABLE 8.1

Flavor Sensation with Nose Closed Flavor Sensation after Releasing the Nose
Use your own words to describe the flavor sensation

Although people often use the terms taste and flavor interchangeably, they are
different sensory attributes. Flavor is a complicated combination of mainly taste
and odor.
Each food has its own chemical structure; hence its own hundreds or even
thousands of taste and odor molecules that make up its flavor (Table 8.1). For
example, aromatic substances such as ketones, alcohols, esters, and terpens
give the characteristic flavor of fruits and vegetables. Acids, esters, acetals, and
aldehydes are the main flavor components of alcoholic beverages. Heterocyclic
compounds such as furans, thiazoles, pyrazines, pyrroles, and oxazoles give the
characteristic flavor of roasted, baked, and fried foods such as bread, coffee, and
French fries.
Taste molecules in foods are detected by specialized sensory cells (chemorecep-
tors) on the tongue. These specialized sensory cells bundle to form taste buds. As
food is chewed and mixed with saliva, its particle size reduces, surface area
increases, and taste (sweet, sour, etc.) molecules release. These molecules interact
and activate the specialized sensory cells, and the signals are sent to the brain.
Therefore, the brain detects the taste. Each taste—sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and
umami—has specific corresponding type of sensory cells.
Similarly, as surface area of the food increases by chewing and mixing with
saliva, more volatile odor molecules release. Specialized cells in the nose receive
those molecules from the back of the mouth, and send signals to the brain. The
concentration of the odor molecules must be above the thresholds to be able to be
detected by the brain.
Taste and odor signals work together to create the person’s perception of flavor.
That is because people with congested nasal passages cannot detect the flavor of
the foods.
Although some foods may share the similar flavor compounds, they may have
completely different flavors due to the differences in their composıtıons. Food is
a complex structure. Interaction between food components such as proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates may affect the volatility and solubility of the flavor
molecules; hence their transfer to the specialized sensory cells, which ultimately
influences the perception of food flavor.
TABLE 8.1
The Most Common Food Flavor Molecules and Their Chemical Structures
Major Chemical Compound, Formula Flavor Examples
Diacetyl, C4H6O2 Buttery, naturally occurs in

alcoholic beverages
Cinnamic aldehyde, C9H8O Cinnamon
Isoamyl acetate, C7H14O2 Banana
Butyl acetate, C6H12O2
Limonene, C10H16 Citrus fruit rinds
Ethyl propionate, C5H10O2 Pineapple, kiwi, and strawberry
Allyl hexanoate, C9H16O2 Pineapple
Hydrogen cyanide, HCN Bitter almond
Benzaldehyde, C7H6O
Methyl anthranilate, C8H9NO2 Grape
Acetic acid, CH3COOH Vinegar
2-Isobutyl-3-methoxy pyrazine, C9H14N2O Bell pepper
Eugenol, C10H12O2 Clove
Trimethylamine, C3H9N Fish
Vanillin, C8H8O3 Vanilla
2-isobutylthiazole, C7H11NS Tomato
Diallyl disulfide, C6H10S2 Garlic
Anethol, C10H12O Anise seed
Ethyl decadienoate, C12H20O2 Pear
Ethanol, C2H5OH Alcoholic beverages

EXPERIMENT 8.2
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the effects of food/drink temperature on food flavor perception.
• To explain the effects of temperatures of the foods/drinks that are served
together on overall taste perception.
Case 1
• 1 orange
• Warm water
• Knife
• Drinking water at room temperature
Method
1. Cut the orange in half.
2. Place one of the halves in the refrigerator.
3. Keep the second half at room temperature.
4. Wait for 1 h.
5. Wash your mouth with warm water.
6. Take the orange from the refrigerator.
7. Peel and slice it immediately.
8. Taste one of the slices, and record your observations in Data Table 8.2.
9. Peel and slice the second half at room temperature.
10. Wash your mouth with warm water.
11. Taste one of the slices, and record your observations in Data Table 8.2.
DATA TABLE 8.2

Sample Overall Experiencea
Orange at room temperature
Orange at refrigeration temperature

a se the terms fruity, sweet, acidic, flavorful, rich, tasteless, and aromatic to describe the overall
U
experience.
Case 2
• 1,200 mL (40.6 fl oz) milk at refrigeration temperature 4°C–5°C (39°F–41°F)
• 3 drinking glasses
• Small saucepan
• Thermometer
• Graduated cup
• Stove
Method
1. Take the milk from a refrigerator and pour 200 mL (6.76 fl oz) into the first
glass.
2. Taste and record your observations in Data Table 8.3.
3. Place the rest of the milk into a small saucepan.
4. Place the saucepan over low heat.
5. Place the thermometer in the pan. Be sure the thermometer does not touch
the bottom of the pan.
6. Heat until the thermometer reaches 25°C (77°F).
7. Pour 200 mL (6.76 fl oz) into the second glass.
8. Taste and record your observations in Data Table 8.3.
9. Heat the rest of the milk until reaches 35°C (95°F)
DATA TABLE 8.3

Milk Temperature, °C (°F) Flavora
Refrigeration
25 (77)
35 (95)
45 (113)
55 (131)
65 (149)
a se the terms pleasantly sweet, sweet, very sweet, creamy, flat, no after taste, strong after taste, mild
U
after taste, no odor, and milky odor to describe the flavor.
Repeat the experiment for the temperatures of 45°C (113°F), 55°C (131°F), and
65°C (149°F).
10. Compare your results.
Case 3
• 2 pieces of chocolate
• 2 tablespoons double cream
• Icy cold water
• Drinking water at room temperature
Method
1. Drink a glass of water at room temperature.
2. Taste one piece of chocolate and record your observations in Data Table 8.4.
Do not let it melt in your mouth more than 3–5 min before chewing.
3. Wait for 3–5 min, and clean your mouth with warm water to wash the
chocolate residues away from your mouth.
4. Drink a glass of icy cold water at once.
5. Immediately taste the second piece of the chocolate and record your
observations in Data Table 8.4.
Repeat the same experiment with double cream.
DATA TABLE 8.4

Sample Overall Experiencea
Chocolate
Chocolate/icy cold water
Double cream
Double cream/icy cold water

a se the terms creamy, silky, smooth, bulky, melting, dry, aromatic, acidic, mouth
U
coating, dense, sweet, and sticky to evaluate the overall experience.
The same food may taste different at different temperatures. There are two major
reasons for this.
First, the foods are the combinations of different flavor molecules, and the effect
of temperature is not uniform across these molecules. In general, increasing tempera-
ture of the food between 15°C and 35°C (59°F and 95°F) intensifies the sweet
and bitter tastes, but may not have significant effect on perceptions of sourness
and saltiness. Similarly, heating or cooling may activate or deactivate (increase or
decrease the kinetic energy of) odor volatile compounds associated with certain
flavors. For example, red wines are served at higher temperatures than white
wines because they usually contain more volatile flavor compounds, and low tem-
perature decreases their mobility. In addition, increase or decrease in temperature
may change the textural properties of the foods, which may positively or nega-
tively affect the release of activated flavor molecules from the food structure.
Second, hot or cold foods and drinks may adversely affect the specialized sensory
cells bundled on the tongue; hence taste recognition. It is especially important if
the food is going to be eaten in combination with hot or cold foods/drinks, as this
might affect the perception of the product.
For example, eating immediately after drinking cold water may decrease the per-
ceived intensities of sweetness, specific flavors, and the texture of the consumed
food.
EXPERIMENT 8.3
OBJECTIVES
• To understand ingredients sharing the key chemical compounds may pair
well in the recipes.
• To understand the use of ingredients in the recipe to modify/mask the
sensory effects of other ingredients.
Case 1
Cauliflower and chocolate
• 1 medium cauliflower
• 4 oz (113 g) block of chocolate
• Water
• Large saucepan
• Colander
• Small bowl
• Plate
Method
1. Bring a large saucepan of water to the boil over high heat.
2. Cut the cauliflower into small florets.
3. Add the florets into the boiling water.
4. Cook for 5–10 min or until cauliflower is tender.
5. Drain, cool, and return them onto a plate.
6. Grade the chocolate, and place them in a small bowl.
7. Take two florets in similar sizes.
8. Taste the first one.
10. Dip the second one into the bowl with chocolate. Completely cover the
head of the cauliflower floret with chocolate.
DATA TABLE 8.5

Taste Aroma Flavor
Plain cauliflower
Cauliflower dipped in chocolate
Use your own words to describe the taste, aroma, and flavor of the samples.
11. Taste it.

13. Compare the results (EXP 8.1)
EXP 8.1
Case 2
Onion and coffee
• 2 medium onions
• ½ teaspoonful Turkish coffee
• Cooking spray
• 1 skillet
• Cutting board
• Knife
• Two plates
• Spoon
• Stove
Method
1. Label one plate “plain” and the other, “onion-coffee.”
2. Chop the onions into uniformly sized pieces.
3. Spray the skillet with cooking spray.
4. Place the half of the onions in the skillet, and cook over medium heat while
stirring.
5. Continue stirring and watch, as the onion’s color turns light brown in color.
6. Remove them onto the plate labeled “plain.”
8. Clean and spray the skillet with cooking spray.
9. Place the remaining onion in the skillet, and cook over medium heat while
stirring.
10. Continue stirring and watch, as the onion’s color turns light brown in color.
DATA TABLE 8.6

Colora Smellb Tastec
Plain
Onion-coffee
a Use the words light golden, golden, and brownish to evaluate the color.
b Use the words strong onion smell, onion smell, and no-onion smell to evaluate the smell.
c Use the words strong onion taste, onion taste, and no-onion taste to evaluate the taste.
11. Sprinkle the coffee over the onion and stir to combine.
12. Cook for 1 more minute while stirring.
13. Remove them onto the plate labeled “onion-coffee.”
Note: Use the same temperature and time combination to cook the samples.
EXPERIMENT 8.4
OBJECTIVE
To understand ingredients sharing the key chemical compounds may pair well in
the recipes.
Case 1
Eggplant salad
• 2 medium eggplants
• 1 teaspoonful chopped fresh cilantro
• 1 teaspoonful chopped fresh dill
• ¼ cup chopped chives
• 4 tablespoonsful olive oil
• Salt and pepper
• Oven
• Tray
• Bowl
• Knife
Method
• Preheat the oven to 200°C (392°F).
• Cut the eggplants into approximately 3 cm × 3 cm × 3 cm (1.2 in. × 1.2 in. ×
1.2 in.) cubes.
• Put the eggplants on a greased tray.
• Sprinkle with a little salt and pepper.
• Drizzle them with 1 tablespoonful olive oil.
• Bake in the oven for approximately 30 min, turning once half way through.
• Place the eggplant in a bowl.
• Sprinkle the chopped cilantro, dill, chives, and the rest of olive oil and then
mix them together.
• Taste the sample and record your observations in Data Table 8.7.
Case 2
Eggplant-Orange salad
• 2 medium eggplants
• 2 oranges
• 1 teaspoonful chopped fresh cilantro
DATA TABLE 8.7

Color Smell Taste Overall Flavor
Eggplant salad
Eggplant-Orange salad
Use your own words to describe the sensory attributes of the samples.
• 1 teaspoonful chopped fresh dill

• ¼ cup chopped chives
• 4 tablespoonsful olive oil
• Salt and pepper
• Oven
• Tray
• Bowl
• Knife
Method
• Preheat the oven to 200°C (392°F).
• Cut the eggplants into approximately 3 cm × 3 cm × 3 cm (1.2 in. × 1.2 in. ×
1.2 in.) cubes.
• Put the eggplants on a greased tray.
• Sprinkle with a little salt and pepper
• Drizzle them with 1 tablespoonful olive oil.
• Bake in the oven for approximately 30 min, turning once half way through.
• Meanwhile, peel the orange and cut into small cubes.
• Squeeze the half of the second orange.
• Mix it with the rest of the olive oil to prepare the dressing.
• Place the eggplant, and the orange in a bowl.
• Sprinkle the chopped cilantro, dill, chives, and the dressing, and mix them
together.
• Taste the sample and record your observations in Data Table 8.7
• Compare the results from Cases 1 and 2.
The flavor compounds of foods determine the acceptable food pairing. The com-
mon, complementing, and contrasting flavor compounds in different foods may
create new flavors when they come together.
In general, foods those share common or complementing flavor compounds (espe-
cially volatile odor compounds) are more likely to pair well in the recipes
(Table 8.2). They may interact with each other so; the brain detects it as a new
flavor. Although this might be a good starting point in food pairing (flavor pair-
ing), sharing the common or complementing flavor compounds is not solely
enough to produce an acceptable new flavor. Besides that, the amount of flavor
compounds in foods must be at the detectable level (threshold) by the brain, and
the flavor compounds that may be produced as a result of chemical reactions (such
as fermentation, dextrinization, and Maillard reaction) during food processing
must also be taken into consideration.
Some flavor compounds can suppress the specialized sensory cells on the tongue,
which may modify the perceived intensity of the other flavor compounds. For
example, miraculin (glycoprotein) in miracle fruit affects the taste receptors,
therefore foods eaten after miracle fruits taste much sweeter than usual. Cynarin
in artichokes inhibits the sweet-perceiving receptors; when it is washed away with
water or another food, perceived sweet taste intensity of the next bite is higher
than usual. Similarly, eating and drinking acidic foods (such as lemon) activates
the sweet receptors. Therefore, the sequence of foods in tasting sessions (such as
cheese-wine) and/or the sequence of food layers (such as canapé, and layered bars)
are very important for the success of food-pairing designs.
TABLE 8.2
Example for Foods Sharing the Common Flavor Compounds
Selected Ingredient Pairing Number of Common Compounds
Tomato
Tea (green leaf) 186
Potato 159
Apple 158
Cocoa 149
Passion fruit 141
Melon 139
Celery 132
Plum 136
Olive 125
Coconut 119
Clove 110
Coffee 95
Pasta 93
Feta cheese 57
Red beet (Beetroot)
Green beans 111
Cucumber 109
(Continued)
TABLE 8.2 (Continued)

Peanut 108
Cocoa 104
Strawberry 103
Olive 102
Orange 102
Peppermint 100
Garlic 97
Dates 94
Lemon balm 94
Vanilla 94
Coffee 44
Butter 24
Garlic
Onion 120
Peanut 108
Carrot 106
Ginger 104
Rice 103
(Continued)

Fig 102
Grape 101
Strawberry 100
Orange 100
Cucumber 100
Pineapple 99
Cumin 98
Banana 95
Milk 29
Rum 24
Chicken 19
Yogurt 11
Orange
Tea 170
Apple 152
Pepper (spice) 148
Carrot 140
Basil 140
(Continued)

Grape 138
Potato 132
Mushroom 128
Corn 124
Cocoa 123
Peas 122
Mint 118
Olive 116
Melon 116
Anise 114
Sunflower 109
Cauliflower 109
Eggplant 107
Onion 105
Garlic 100
Cheddar cheese 51
Chicken 35
Pork 32
Beef 28
(Continued)

Fennel
Lemon 124
Black current 120
Tea (green leaf) 118
Fig 110
Papaya 110
Tomato 109
Garlic 102
Cocoa 99
Hazelnut 97
Wasabi 93
Beer 45
Coffee 33
Cheddar 25
Beef 14
Turkey 6
Vanilla
Mushroom 126
(Continued)

Mango 123
Rice 118
Buckwheat 115
Green beans 113
Corn 110
Ginger 108
Capsicum 108
Fig 105
Sour cherry 104
Anise 102
Carrot 100
Avocado 100
Lettuce 98
Cabbage 97
Okra 96
Garlic 94
Swiss cheese 49
Feta cheese 44
(Continued)

Beef
Tea (green leaf) 45
Apple 40
Tomato 40
Coffee 37
Rice 39
Blue cheese 35
Grape 32
Strawberry 28
Apricot 28
Vanilla 23
Coconut 24
Garlic 14
Chicken
Tea (green leaf) 66
Coffee 57
Peanut 55
Mushroom 51
(Continued)

Tomato 51
Mango 46
Blue cheese 43
Lima beans 37
Asparagus 36
Grape 33
Feta cheese 33
Banana 28
Onion 25
Cucumber 23
Almond 20
Mustard 20
Olive 20
Pork
Coffee 79
Beer 76
Chicken 69
Tea (green leaf) 64

(Continued)

Peanut 57
Butter 56
Apple 48
Parmesan 45
Papaya 42
Cranberry 36
Banana 34
Peas 33
Barley 31
Vanilla 29
Pecan 27
Mustard 21
Garlic 20
Cinnamon 19
Olive 18
Black tea 15
Egg
Coffee 42
(Continued)

Tea (green leaf) 41
Potato 37
Rice 37
Cocoa 34
Milk 33
Tomato 31
Mango 30
Corn 29
Pork 26
Apple 24
Banana 23
Okra 23
Strawberry 22
Vanilla 21
Avocado 21
Beef 20
Lemon 19
Garlic 19
(Continued)

Cattle milk
Beer 70
Tea (green leaf) 67
Soybean 57
Cocoa 57
Potato 55
White wine 53
Tomato 53
Grape 50
Lima beans 47
Pork 44
Oats 37
Vanilla 35
Egg 33
Walnut 29
Red meat 26
Honey 22
Eggplant 20
Oyster 18
(Continued)

Coffee
Beer 118
Tomato 95
Processed beef 93
Rum 86
Apple 84
Rice 79
Capsicum 78
Strawberry 75
Parmesan cheese 70
Corn 69
Onion 59
Barley 60
Chicken 57
Olive 57
Cabbage 57
Butter 54
Plum 54
Almond 54
(Continued)

Avocado 46
Broccoli 41
Garlic 39
Chickpea 36
Honey
Apple 50
Pineapple 38
Coffee 33
Tea (green leaf) 33
Cocoa 33
White wine 34
Mushrooms 31
Tomato 31
Parmesan cheese 28
Potato 24
Olive 23
Capsicum 21
Black tea 11
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Knowledge of basic flavor chemistry is crucial for chefs to understand the

principles behind the flavor pairings, and to create new food
combinations.
Flavor and taste are different sensory attributes. Flavor is a complicated com-
bination of mainly taste and odor.
Taste molecules in foods are detected by chemoreceptors on the tongue.
Chemoreceptors bundle to form taste buds.
Specialized cells in the nose receive the volatile odor molecules in the foods
from the back of the mouth, and send signals to the brain.
Each food has its own hundreds or even thousands of taste and odor
molecules that make up its flavor.
Some foods may share similar flavor compounds, but may have completely
different flavors due to differences in their compositions.
The same food may taste different at different temperatures.
The flavor compounds of foods determine the success of food pairings. The
common, complementing, and contrasting flavor compounds in different foods
may create new flavors when they come together.
The amounts of flavor compounds and the chemical compounds that are
produced during food processing are also the key factors for acceptable
food pairings.
More Ideas to Try
1. Repeat Experiment 8.2 Case 3 with a slice of chocolate-cream cake but rub
your tongue with an ice cube at Step 4.
2. Repeat Experiment 8.3 Case 2 using 1 teaspoon, 11/2 teaspoon, and

2 teaspoons Turkish coffee and compare your results.
SELECTED REFERENCES
American Chemical Society National Historic Chemical Landmarks. Flavor Chemistry

Research at the USDA Western Regional Research. Center Online at: www.acs.org/
content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/usda-flavor-chemistry.html
(accessed Month Day, Year).
Bachko, K. 2008. Taste the magic: A tropical berry makes sour foods taste sweet. Online
at: http://jscms.jrn.columbia.edu/cns/2008-04-15/bachko-magicfruit.html.
Briscione, J., and B. Parkhurst. 2018. The flavor matrix: The art and science of pairing common
ingredients to create extraordinary dishes. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Brown, L. 2008. The flavor bible. The Essential Guide to Culinary Creativity, Based
on the Wisdom of America’s Most Imaginative Chefs, Little, Brown, and Company,
USA.
Engelena, L., R. A. de Wijka, J. F. Prinza, A. M. Janssena, H. Weenena, and F. Bosman.
2003. The effect of oral and product temperature on the perception of flavor and
texture attributes of semi-solids. Appetite 41:273–281.
Flavor DB: a database of flavor molecules. Online at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC5753196/.
Flavor DB search: A resource for exploring flavor molecules. Online at: https://cosylab.
iiitd.edu.in/flavordb/search.
Food Flavors: Chemical, Sensory and Technological Properties. 2011. Chemical and
Functional Properties of Food Components. Jelen, H. Ed. CRC Press, USA.
Green, B. G. 1993. Heat as a Factor in the Perception of Taste, Smell, and Oral Sensation
in Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments: Applications for Military Personnel in Field
Operations. The National Academies Press, USA. www.nap.edu/read/2094/
chapter/12.
Green, B. G., and S. P. Frankmann. 1987. The effect of cooling the tongue on the perceived
intensity of taste. Chemical Senses 12(4):609–619. doi:10.1093/chemse/12.4.609.
How do we sense the flavors of food? Online at: https://serendipstudio.org/sci_edu/
waldron/pdf/SensesProtocol.pdf.
Mark T., R. Burke, M. O’Sullivan, J. Hannon, and C. Barry-Ryan. 2013. Sensory and
Chemical Interactions of Food Pairings (Basmati Rice, Bacon and Extra Virgin
Olive Oil) with Banana.
Olga Lipatova, O., and Campolattaro, M. M. 2016. The miracle fruit: An undergradu-
ate laboratory exercise in taste sensation and perception. Journal of Undergrad
Neuroscience Education 15(1):A56–A60. Online at: https://arrow.dit.ie/cgi/
viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com.tr/&httpsredir=1&article=1200&
context=tfschafart.
Physiology of Taste. Online at: www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/
pregastric/taste.html.
Rowe, L. 2015. Taste: The infographic book of food. London: Aurum Press.
Segnit, N. 2012. The flavor thesaurus: A compendium of pairings, recipes and ideas for the cre-
ative cook. New York: Bloomsbury.
Talavera, K., Y. Ninomiya, C. Winkel, T. Voets, and B. Nilius. 2007. Influence of tempera-
ture on taste perception. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 64:377.
Talavera, K., K. Yasumatsu, T. Voets, G. Droogmans, N. Shigemura, Y. Ninomiya,
R. F. Margolskee, and B. Nilius. 2005. Heat activation of TRPM5 underlies thermal
sensitivity of sweet taste. Nature 438:1022–1025.
Taste and Smell. Online at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/
chapter/taste-and-smell/.
Taste, texture and temperature. Online at: https://maxfacts.uk/help/oral-food/ttt.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Taste and Smell Researches. Online at:
www.nidcd.nih.gov/about/strategic-plan/2017-2021/taste-and-smell-research.
Chapter 9
Food Additives in Culinary

Transformations
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ADDITIVES
Food additives are any substances usually added to foods during production,
preparation, processing, packaging, and transportation.
They become a part of the food product.
Food additives are generally divided into two groups: intentional/direct food
additives and unintentional/indirect food additives.
Intentional/Direct Food Additives
They are often added during processing to perform a specific purpose. Intentional
food additives are usually added to foods to:
1. Maintain and improve nutritional quality. Certain food additives are used
either to replace vitamins and minerals lost in processing (enrichment) or
to add nutrients to foods that may not have initially contained that nutri-
ent (fortification). Fruit juices with vitamin C added are the best examples
of enriched foods. Margarine is a good example of fortified foods because
vitamin A, which is not naturally found in margarine, is added to it during
processing.
307
2. Preserve or improve quality and freshness. Preservatives are used to extend the
shelf life of food products. They decrease the rate of microbial growth and
chemical reactions in foods. Organic acids, nitrites, sulfides, sugar, and salts
are the best-known examples of antimicrobial preservatives. Antioxidants,
such as vitamin C, BHA, and vitamin E maintain the color and flavor of the
food products. They prevent rancidity in lipids and the products that are
rich in lipids, such as cooking oils, cookies, and nut spreads. In addition,
antioxidants keep peeled or cut fresh fruits and fresh vegetables from turn-
ing brown when they are exposed to air. The rate of spoilage and quality loss
is usually higher than the rate expected by consumers when these additives
are not added to foods during production.
3. Help in processing or preparation. Anticaking agents, humectants, leavening
agents, maturing and bleaching agents, pH control agents, thickeners, and
stabilizers are the most common food additives used to assist in processing
and preparation of foods. For example, emulsifiers, such as lecithin, keep
products from separating. Stabilizers and thickeners provide an even con-
sistency or texture. Anticaking agents, such as silicone dioxide, keep foods
from absorbing moisture. Humectants, such as glycerol, keep food moist
and soft.
4. Make food more appealing. Some additives are added to improve, maintain,
or enhance the taste, color, and aroma of foods. They are used in foods to
replace the color and aroma lost during processing and storage; to produce
a uniform product from raw materials that vary in color intensity; and to
enhance the natural colors and aroma of foods.
Intentional/direct food additives may be natural, synthetic, or nature identical.

Natural food additives are primarily derived from plants and animals. For
example, strawberries and beet roots are used to produce red food colorants,
and carrots and turmeric are used to produce orange food colorants. Synthetic
food additives do not occur in nature, but are made in factories. Petroleum-
based chemical compounds are the basic sources of synthetic food additives.
Nature-identical additives are factory-made copies of substances that occur
naturally.
Unintentional/Indirect Food Additives
These are substances that enter foods in trace quantities during their produc-
tion, processing, storage, or packaging. Indirect additives are commonly known
as contaminants.
Food Additives in Culinary Transformations 309
Unintentional/indirect food additives may enter foods through:
1. Polluted air, water, and soil, such as heavy metals.

2. Intentional use of various chemicals, such as pesticides, animal drugs, and
fertilizers.
3. Natural sources, such as mycotoxins produced by certain types of microor-
ganisms in foods.
4. A process, such as the chemicals that are formed during deep frying as a
result of decomposition of lipids.
Indirect/unintentional food additives may imply a short- or long-term risk to

human health, and measures must be taken to minimize contaminants in food-
stuffs. The summary of food additives is given in Table 9.1.
TABLE 9.1
Summary of Food Additives
The Most
Common Examples of Uses
Purpose of Use Categories Examples in Foods
Intentional/Direct Food Additives
To maintain Nutrients, Vitamin C, vitamin D, Flour, breads,

and ımprove primarily vitamin A, omega 3, cereals, rice,
nutritional vitamins, iodine, calcium macaroni,
quality minerals, margarine, milk,
essential fruit juices
fatty acids
To preserve or Antioxidants Citric Oils and

ımprove acid, phosphoric margarines,
quality and acid, ascorbic acid, cereals
freshness vitamin E, BHA, BHT
Antimicrobial Sorbates, sodium Cured meats,

preservatives nitrite, calcium sauces, baked
propionate, sulfites, goods, cheese,
salt, and sugar snack foods
(Continued)

Summary of Food Additives
The Most
Common Examples of Uses
Purpose of Use Categories Examples in Foods
To help in Emulsifiers Monoglycerides, Salad dressings,

processing or diglyceride, lecithin, mayonnaise,
preparation polysorbate 60 chocolate,
margarine, butter
Leavening Sodium bicarbonate, Baked goods

agents calcium carbonate
To make food Color Blue 1 and 2, citrus Confection, fruit

more red 2, yellow 5 and juices, cakes,
appealing 6, paprika oleoresin, frostings, jams,
caramel color, many processed
saffron, fruit and foods
vegetable juices
Flavoring Quinine, spices, plant Snack foods,

extracts sauces, soda,
confection,
gelatin desserts,
jams, marmalades
Flavor Monosodium Dry soups, cereals,

enhancers glutamate, many processed
hydrolyzed vegetable foods
protein
Indirect Additives
The most common indirect food additives are the antibiotics, growth-
promoting hormones, pesticide residues, radioactive residues, chemicals from
environmental pollution, polluted water, packaging materials, metals, and
industrial wastes.
Consumers should feel confident about the safety of the foods that they consume.
The intentional food additives must be considered safe in order to be used in
food products. The safety of food additives is approved only on the basis of scien-
tific studies and is strictly regulated and controlled by governmental bodies. The
risks and benefits of all food additives are scientifically assessed by considering
the typical amount of consumption, chemical structure of the food additive, and
short- and long-term health effects among different consumer groups, such as
children, the elderly, and people with chronic diseases. All food additives are sub-
ject to ongoing safety studies. If new scientific studies suggest that a food additive
is approved to be safe, but still may not be safe, the legal authorities may prohibit
its use.
Food legislation in many countries require clear labeling of food additives in the
list of ingredients. The E-code given to each food additive indicates that it is a
“European Union approved” food additive.
Food additives cannot be used
1. to mask faulty processing and food spoilage;

2. if they decrease the nutritional value of the food products; or
3. if the same quality of the foods can be produced without food additives.
EXPERIMENT 9.1
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate how color additives influence the acceptance of food products by
consumers.
Lemonade Recipe
• 400 g (14.1 oz) sugar
• 800 mL (27 fl oz) water
• 8–10 lemons
• Lemon rinds
• Yellow food coloring
• 2 pitchers
• 200 transparent drinking cups
• Saucepan
• Bowl
• Stove
Method
1. Squeeze juice from lemons into a bowl.
2. Heat the sugar, lemon rinds, and 500 mL (16.9 fl oz) of water in a saucepan
until the sugar is dissolved completely. Set aside.
3. Discard rinds.
4. Combine the lemon juice, the sugar syrup, and rest of the water, and mix
well.
5. Divide the lemonade into two pitchers.
6. Add two to three drops of yellow food coloring in one of the pitchers and mix
well.
7. Refrigerate both pitchers until well chilled (both should come to the same
temperature).
8. Carry out sensory analysis tests.
Sensory Test
Method
Prepare two different scorecards 9.1 and 9.2 for each of 60 consumers. Give codes
to your sample, i.e., 397 and 298. Carry out the acceptance sensory analysis test
(follow the procedure explained in Chapter 7).
SCORECARD 9.1
You Are Provided with Two Coded Samples. Taste the Samples and Indicate Your Degree of Liking. Check a Box, from 1 to 9, to Indicate
Your Preference
2 5 8
1 (Dislike 3 4 (Neither 6 7 (Like 9
Sample (Dislike Very (Dislike (Dislike Like or (Like (Like Very (Like
Code Extremely) Much) Moderately) Slightly) Dislike) Slightly) Moderately) Much) Extremely)
397
298
SCORECARD 9.2
Check the Corresponding Boxes to Indicate the Reasons for Liking or Disliking Each Sample
Sample Number
Attributes 397 298
It looks appealing
It smells good
It tastes great
It is a good-quality product
It does not look appealing
It does not smell good
It does not taste nice
It is not a good-quality product
Analysis of the Results

1. Calculate the average scores of scorecard 1 for each sample using the equa-
tion given in Chapter 1.
2. Count the number of responses for each attribute of both samples and record
in Data Table 9.1.
3. Draw a graph to compare the results for Data Table 9.1.
4. Compare and discuss the results.
Tips: Let’s assume the overall responses are found as given in Sample Table 9.1.
Figure 9.1 is how a chart on that dataset would look.
DATA TABLE 9.1

Total Number of Responses for Each
Attribute
Attributes Sample 397 Sample 298
It looks appealing
It smells good
It tastes great
It is a good-quality product
It does not look appealing
It does not smell good
It does not taste nice
It is not a good-quality product
SAMPLE TABLE 9.1

Total Number of Responses for Each Sample
Attributes Sample 397 Sample 298
It looks appealing 60 39
It smells good 55 43
It tastes great 52 24
It is a good-quality product 80 19
It does not look appealing 30 51
It does not smell good 25 47
It does not taste nice 38 66
It is not a good-quality product 10 71

90
Sample 397 Sample 298
80
70
60
Number of Responses
50
40
30
20
10
0
It looks It smells It tastes It is a It does It does It does not It is not
appealing good great good- not look not smell taste nice a good-
quality appealing good quality
product product
Figure 9.1 Sample figure to compare the attributes of the samples.
HYDROCOLLOIDS IN CULINARY
TRANSFORMATIONS
Food hydrocolloids are biopolymers, which are made of long chains of carbohy-
drate or protein monomers with side groups (R) on the backbone chain
(Figure 9.2).
They are known with their affinity for binding water molecules.
The size and type of monomers (sugar or protein) and the side groups affect the
properties of hydrocolloids such as solubility, gelling property, shear stability,
and susceptibility to acid and salts. Carboxyl (COO−), sulfate (OSO3−), and car-
boxymethyl (OCH2COO−) are the good examples for the side groups found in the
structures of the most common hydrocolloids used in food processing (Figure 9.3).
R R
Figure 9.2 Representation of a typical hydrocolloid.

Figure 9.3 K appa-carrageenan (Example).
Food hydrocolloids are extracted from the natural sources such as seaweed,
cereal grains, plants, animals, and fermentation byproducts. Some are slightly
modified or functionalized to serve more specific purposes.
Food hydrocolloids are widely used as intentional food additives in many food
products to produce functional food products, to increase the shelf life of the products, to
keep or improve the sensory attributes of the foods and drinks, to make the production
processes easier and efficient.
EXPERIMENT 9.2
OBJECTIVE
To explain the functional properties of the most common hydrocolloids used in
culinary transformations.
Case 1
Direct spherification
Apple juice spheres
• 2 L (67.6 fl oz) apple juice (with no pulp)
• 10 g (0.022 lb) sodium alginate
• 10 g (0.022 lb) calcium chloride
• Water
• Syringe or pipette
• Colander
• Measuring cup
• Immersion blender
• 3 bowls
• Plate
• Scale
Method
1. Using an immersion blender, mix 4 g (0.14 oz) sodium alginate into 150 mL
(5.07 fl oz) apple juice in a bowl until it is completely dissolved.
2. Add in 350 mL (11.8 fl oz) apple juice, and continue mixing.
3. Rest the mixture for 45 min.
4. Using an immersion blender, dissolve the calcium chloride in 1.5 L (50.7 fl oz)
cold water in a bowl (this mixture is usually called as a calcium bath).
5. Fill the last bowl with cold fresh water (plain water bath) and set aside.
6. Fill syringe or pipette with the apple juice and sodium alginate mixture.
7. Extract it drop by drop into the calcium bath.
8. Collect the apple juice spheres with a colander.
9. Place them carefully in a plain water bath to
rinse.
10. Collect them with a clean colander and place
them on a plate (EXP 9.1).
11. Evaluate the transparency, shape, color, and
hardness; record your observations in Data
Table 9.2. EXP 9.1
Complete the same procedure for 3 g (0.11 oz), 2 g (0.07 oz), and 1 g (0.035 oz) sodium
alginate. Keep the amount of the apple juice the same (EXP 9.2).
EXP 9.2
DATA TABLE 9.2

Amount of Sodium
Alginate (g) Transparencya Shapeb Colorc Textured
1
a Use the terms transparent, translucent, and opaque to evaluate the transparency.
b Use the term sphere, irregular sphere, and flat to describe the shape.
c Use the terms bright golden, dark golden, and brown to describe the color.
d Use the terms soft, semisoft, and firm to describe the texture.
Case 2
Reverse spherification

• 100 g (3.53 oz) yogurt
• 7.5 g (0.26 oz) sodium alginate
• Water
• Syringe or pipette
• Colander
• Measuring cup
• Spoon
• 2 bowls
• Plate
Method
1. Dissolve the sodium alginate in 1.5 L (50.7 fl oz) cold water in a bowl (this
mixture is usually called as a sodium bath).
2. Leave in the fridge 12 h to eliminate excess air.
3. Fill the last bowl with cold fresh water (plain water bath) and set aside.
4. Fill syringe or pipette with the yogurt.
5. Extract it drop by drop into the sodium bath.
6. Collect the yogurt spheres with a colander.
7. Place them carefully in a plain water bath to rinse for 2 min.
8. Collect them with a clean colander and place them on a plate.
Complete the same procedure but use plain carrot juice (or any other non-calcium con-
taining food with pH > 3.6) instead of yogurt. Compare your results with your results
from Case 1 in Data Table 9.3.
DATA TABLE 9.3

Food Shapea Textureb
Yogurt
Carrot juice
a Use the terms sphere, irregular sphere, and flat to describe the shape.
b Use the terms liquid, soft, semisoft, and firm to describe the texture.
Case 3
Coating
• 2 red apples
• 12.5 g (0.44 oz) chitosan
• 5 mL (0.17 fl oz) vinegar
• 2 perforated trays
• Water
• Colander
• Measuring cup
• Bowl
• Magnetic stirrer
• Knife
• Spoon
Method
1. Label the two trays as “coated apples” and “un-coated apples.”
2. Mix 500 mL (16.9 fl oz) water with vinegar in a bowl.
3. Dissolve the chitosan in water–vinegar solution over a magnetic stirrer for
90 min.
4. Place the perforated trays on the same bench with their upsides down.
5. Peel the apples and slice them in equal pieces.
6. Immediately, place half of the slices into chitosan solution for 2–3 min (for
coating).
7. Take them out with a colander and place them on the tray labeled “coated
apples” in a single layer.
8. Place rest of the apples (un-coated) on the tray labeled “un-coated apples.”
9. Keep both trays on the bench throughout the observation periods.
10. Compare the samples and record your observations in Data Table 9.4.
11. After the first 5 h, continue to check the samples every 24 h for the first
mold growth sign on the surface of one of the sample groups.
DATA TABLE 9.4

Time (min) Coated apples Un-coated apples
0 aColor: Color:
bTexture: Texture:
cMicrobial growth: Microbial growth:
60 Color: Color:
Texture: Texture:
Microbial growth: Microbial growth:
120 Color: Color:
Texture: Texture:
180 Color: Color:
Texture: Texture:
240 Color: Color:
Texture: Texture:
300 Color: Color:
Texture: Texture:
Time (day) Coated Apples Un-coated Apples
2 aColor: Color:
bTexture: Texture:
3 aColor: Color:
bTexture: Texture:
…
a se the terms no color change, no significant color change, and color change to evaluate the
U
samples.
b Use the terms firm, soft, and wilted to evaluate the samples.
c Use the terms no growth, not significant sign of mold growth, and significant mold growth to evaluate
the samples.
EXPERIMENT 9.3
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the functional properties of the most common hydrocolloids used
in culinary transformations.
• To explain the effects of concentration of the hydrocolloids, processing tem-
perature, and the other ingredients in the recipe on thickening and gelling
properties of hydrocolloids.
Case 1
Concentration effect
• 990 g (2.18 lb) gum Arabic
• 5 L (169.1 fl oz) water at 25°C (77°F)
• Five 2 L (68 fl oz) beakers or cups
• Measuring cups
• Spoons
• Thermometer
Method
1. Label the beakers “40 g (1.41 oz) gum Arabic,” “100 g (3.53 oz) gum Arabic,”
“150 g (5.29 oz) gum Arabic,” “300 g (10.58 oz) gum Arabic,” and “400 g
(14.11 oz) gum Arabic.”
2. Place 40 g (1.41 oz) gum Arabic and 1 L (33.81 fl oz) water into “40 g (1.41 oz)
gum Arabic” beaker. Do not forget to check the temperature of water to make
sure it is at 25°C (77°F).
3. Stir with a spoon thoroughly.
5. Repeat Steps 2–4 for 100 g (3.53 oz), 150 g (5.29 oz), 300 g (10.58 oz), and
400 g (14.11 oz) gum Arabic.
DATA TABLE 9.5

Amount of Gum Arabic g (oz) Viscosity of the Solutiona
40 g (1.41 oz)
100 g (3.53 oz)
150 g (5.29 oz)
300 g (10.58 oz)
400 g (14.11 oz)

a Use the terms thin, thick, viscous, and less viscous to evaluate the viscosity.
Case 2
Temperature effect
• 20 g (0.71 oz) agar
• 1 L (33.81 fl oz) water at 25°C (77°F)
• Pan
• Thermometer
• Spoon
• Stove
Method
1. In a saucepan, combine the agar and cold water.
2. Stir gently with a spoon, measure the initial temperature of the mixture, and
record your observations in Data Table 9.6.
3. Place the thermometer into the solution. Thermometer should not touch the
sides or bottom of the saucepan.
4. Move the pan to the stove over low heat. Stir the mixture gently throughout the
experiment.
5. Record your observations in Data Table 9.6 when the solution reaches 30°C
(86°F).
6. Continue heating, and record your observation at temperatures indicated in
Data Table 9.6.
7. Remove the saucepan from the stove when the solution comes to 100°C
(212°F).
8. Record your observations during the cooling period at temperatures indi-
cated in Data Table 9.6.
DATA TABLE 9.6

Viscosity of the
Temperature (ºC/ºF) Solubility a solutionb Gel formationc
Initial:
30/86
40/104
50/122
60/140
70/158
80/176
90/194
100/212
90/194
80/176
70/158
60/140
50/122
40/104
30/86
a Use the terms soluble, insoluble, and partially soluble to evaluate the solubility.
b Use the terms thin, thick, more viscous, and less viscous to evaluate the viscosity.
c Use the terms gel formation and no gel formation to evaluate the gel formation.
Case 3
Temperature effect
• 3 g (0.11 oz) guar gum
• 1 L (33.81 fl oz) water at 25°C (77°F)
• Pan
• Thermometer
• Stove
Method
1. In a saucepan, combine the guar gum and water.
2. Stir with a spoon, measure the initial temperature of the mixture, and record
your observations in Data Table 9.7.
3. Place the thermometer into the solution. Thermometer should not touch the
sides or bottom of the saucepan.
4. Move the pan to the stove over low heat. Stir the mixture gently throughout the
experiment.
5. Record your observations in Data Table 9.7 when the solution reaches 30°C
(86°F).
6. Continue heating, and record your observation at temperatures indicated in
Data Table 9.7.
7. Remove the saucepan from the stove when the solution comes to 100°C (212°F).
8. Place the pan on a bench, and leave it to cool down to 25°C (77°F) and
record your observations in Data Table 9.7.
DATA TABLE 9.7

Viscosity of the Gel
Temperature (ºC/ºF) Solubilitya Solutionb Formationc
Initial:
30/86
40/104
50/122
60/140
70/158
80/176
90/194
100/212
25/77
a Use the terms soluble, insoluble, and partially soluble to evaluate the solubility.
b Use the terms thin, thick, more viscous, and less viscous to evaluate the viscosity.
c Use the terms gel formation and no gel formation to evaluate the gel formation.
Case 4
Ingredient effect
For the effects of other ingredients in the recipe on thickening and gelling proper-
ties of hydrocolloids, go over Experiment 4.9 and the results obtained from the
experiment.
Based on their molecular weight and confirmation, surface charge density, and
polymer chain interactions, hydrocolloids play specific roles such as binding,
stabilizing, thickening, gelling, film forming, and coating in food processing (see
Table 9.2). Nowadays, these functional properties make their application obvious
in the professional kitchens as in molecular gastronomy.
Understanding the basic structure of hydrocolloids is crucial for chefs because the
functional properties of hydrocolloids are primarily related to their structures.
By definition, hydrocolloids, to various degrees, are water-soluble. A high number
of polar groups in chemical structures of hydrocolloids markedly increases their
affinity for binding to water molecules. They also directly interact and cross-link
with each other to form a three-dimensional network, which holds a large amount
of water. These properties make them to form a dispersion that exhibits the prop-
erties of colloid (that is, because they are termed as “hydrocolloids”); they add viscos-
ity to a solution and/or form gels.
Hydrocolloids that have been commonly used as thickening agents in culinary
transformations include starch, xanthan gum, guar gum, gum Arabic, carboxy-
methyl cellulose (CMC), and locust bean gum (LGB). Hydrocolloids are either
linear (mostly) or branched. In the solution, hydrocolloids come in contact with
each other to form a network. The complex structure of branched hydrocolloids
restricts their movement, and hence their interaction with the other hydrocolloids
in the solution. Therefore, branched hydrocolloids typically show lower viscosities
than linear hydrocolloids of the same size.
While all hydrocolloids modify the viscosity of solutions, a few of them also have
another major property of being able to form gels (see Table 9.2). Gel formation
involves three-dimensional hydrated network formation as a result of association
or cross-linking of the polymer chains. Pectin, agar, alginate, carrageenan, and
gelatin are the major hydrocolloids that have been used as gelling agents in culi-
nary transformations. Sodium alginate is a salt of alginic acid, which can be found
in cell walls of brown algae. In direct spherification, when liquid is dropped into a
calcium bath, calcium ions displace the sodium ion and cross-link the chains of
alginate, since it has positive two charges (Ca2+). The chemical reaction can be
shown as:
Na + − alginate + CaCl 2 → Ca − alginate + NaCl
The calcium ions act like a bridge between alginate polymers, improving their
interactions. This is commonly termed “egg-box” model (Figure 9.4).
- - -
- + - + - + COO COO COO
COO Na COO Na COO Na
- + - + COO- Na + - COO
- -
COO Na COO Na COO COO
Ca +2
Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2
- - -
- + - + - + COO COO COO
COO Na COO Na COO Na
COO
- - -
COO COO
-
COO Na
+ -
COO Na
+ COO- Na +
Sodium Alginate Calcium ion salt bridge
Figure 9.4 Representation of spherification.
The droplet solidifies from the outside inward; the result is a liquid encapsulated
in a gel film. When the solidified droplet is removed from the calcium bath and
rinsed in fresh water, gel formation reaction continues because some calcium ions
have diffused into the droplet. In reverse spherification, sodium ions in a sodium
alginate bath are switched with calcium ions on the surface of the liquid droplet,
forming a sphere gel film outward from the liquid–liquid interface. When the
solidified droplet is removed from the alginate bath and rinsed in fresh water, gel
formation stops since sodium alginate cannot diffuse into the droplet. Therefore,
reverse spherification can be manipulated easily, and gives better results when the
thickness of the gel is a critical factor in the process.
Several hydrocolloids such as chitosan, and cellulose and cellulose derivatives
are used as coating materials or in production of edible films in culinary trans-
formations due to their gel formation properties. In general, film forming hydro-
colloids form networks with hydrogen bonds, and/or electrostatic, and hydrophobic
interactions. These films play a role in controlling biological and chemical reac-
tions such as lipid oxidation and enzymatic browning reactions, and moisture loss
in foods because they act as moisture and gas barriers. Coating foods with edible
films also reduces lipid uptake in food frying processes. In certain cases, macro-
and/or micronutrients or flavor additives are incorporated in edible films to
improve the nutritional values of food products.
Overall, functional properties of hydrocolloids mainly depend on the type of
hydrocolloid, chemical structures of hydrocolloids, chemical properties of foods,
concentration of hydrocolloids, pH of the medium, and temperature (Table 9.2).
TABLE 9.2
Properties of Major Hydrocolloids and Their Most Common Applications
Major Hydrocolloids
Used in Culinary Examples For Uses in
Transformations Main Source Major Properties the Food Industry
Agar Red algae A gelling agent. It is a heterogeneous polysaccharide. • vegetarian gelatin

extract Forms gels at 35°C–45°C (95ºF–113ºF), upon substitute
cooling solutions at 80°C–90°C (176°F–194°F). • jellies
Insoluble in cold liquids, becomes soluble above • water- and milk-
80°C (176°F). Stable in a wide pH range. In culinary based desserts
transformations, required concentration is mostly in • confectionary
between 0.1%–2%. • bakery products
Alginate Brown algae A gelling agent. Soluble in cold water. Forms thermo- • encapsulation
irreversible gel in the presence of calcium ions at pH • film formation
values above 3.6. Gel does not melt on heating; it • coating
must be mixed in cold liquid. In culinary • quick set dessert
transformations, required concentration is mostly in mix gel
between 0.3% and 1.5%. • dressings
• ice-cream
• bakery products
(Continued)
Major Hydrocolloids
Carboxymethyl Plant A thickener. Forms thermo-reversible soft gel at • salad dressings

cellulose (CMC) extract/ 50°C–60°C (122°F–140°F). Soluble in cold water. • deserts
modified Viscosity reversibly decreases with increasing • cake batters
temperature. Tolerates a wide range of pH values. Shear • beverages
thinning but re-thickening a while after the applied • whipped toppings
force is removed. In culinary transformations, required • stabilizer
concentration is mostly in between 0.05% and 0.8%. • fat replacer
Carrageenan (kappa, Red A gelling agent. Forms thermo-reversible transparent • desserts

iota, lamda) seaweeds gels on cooling. All forms are soluble in water at 80°C • puddings
(176°F). At room temperature, viscosity is stable over a • milk shakes
wide pH range. Kappa carrageenan forms firm, brittle • ice-cream
gel with the addition of potassium. Iota type forms soft, • soups
elastic gel in presence of calcium. Iota gives higher • sauces
viscosity compared to kappa. Lamda carrageenan is • water-based jellies
non-gelling, and mostly used as a thickener in cold • cheese spreads
liquid. In culinary transformations, required • salad dressings
concentration is mostly in between 0.02% and 1.5%. • meat texturizer
(Continued)
Major Hydrocolloids
Guar gum Plant extract A thickener. Soluble in cold water. Viscosity is high in • pastry fillings
cold solutions, low in hot solutions. Shear thinning. • dairy products
Viscosity decreases only at extreme pH values and at • cake batter
high temperatures (above 90°C (194°F)). It does not • ice-cream
form a gel. In culinary transformations, required • fruit juices
concentration is mostly in between 0.05% and 0.5%. • bakery products
• soups
• sauces
Gum Arabic Exudate A thickener. Soluble in cold water. Highly branched • soft drinks
from two chemical structure. Viscosity is very low. Stable over a • fruit juices
species of wide range of pH values (4–9). Shear thinning at low • chewing gums
the Acacia shear rates. It does not form gels. 40%–50% of gum • confections
tree Arabic must be used to achieve high viscosities. • brewing
(Continued)
Major Hydrocolloids
Locust bean gum Plant A thickener. Solubility in water is limited at low • diabetic products
temperatures. Forms a viscous opaque solution above • ice-cream
80°C (176°F) upon cooling. Stable over a wide range • chilled dairy
of pH values. Sheer thinning. Forms gels only with dessert
xanthan or kappa-carrageenan. In culinary • meat products
transformations, required concentration is mostly in
between 0.2% and 2.0%.
Pectin (high- Plant extract A gelling agent. It has a high film formation ability. • jam
methoxyl, HM and Viscosity of solutions are low. HMP is soluble in cold • jelly
low-methoxyl, LM) water. Viscosity increases with concentration. LMP is • marmalade
only soluble as Na or K salt. Shear stability is high. • glazes
LMP forms thermo-reversible gels on cooling with • dairy

Ca2+. HMP forms thermo-irreversible gels on cooling • dairy-based
at low pH values (below 3.5) in the presence of sugar. desserts
Both LMP and HMP form transparent gels. In culinary • bake stable fillings
transformations, required concentration is mostly in
between 0.5% and 6.0%.
(Continued)
Major Hydrocolloids
Xanthan gum Microbial A thickener. Soluble either in cold and hot water. • salad dressings
Viscosity is high even at very low concentrations. • sauces
Viscosity of solution is high independent of • dairy desserts
temperature and is not affected by salts, and pH • gluten-free
changes. Forms gels only in combination with locust products
bean gum. Gel is thermo-reversible, and gel • soups
transparency is low. In culinary transformations, • gravies
required concentration is mostly in between 0.1% • ketchup
and 1.5%. • instant dry mix
products
• bakery fillings
EXPERIMENT 9.4
OBJECTIVES
• To explain the functional properties of the most common hydrocolloids used
in culinary transformations.
• To explain the synergistic effects of hydrocolloids
Case 1
Gluten free cupcake
• 1.2 g (0.042 oz) xanthan
• 1.2 g (0.042 oz) guar gum
• 75 g (2.65 oz) soy flour
• 75 g (2.65 oz) rice, potato, or corn flour
• 50 g (1.76 oz) cacao powder
• 200 g (7.05 oz) sugar
• 1 teaspoon baking powder
• ¼ teaspoon baking soda
• 115 g (4.06 oz) butter
• 2 large eggs
• 125 mL (4.23 fl oz) milk
• Electric mixer
• Cupcake tray
• Cupcake cases
• Spoon
• Knife
• Oven
• Two bowls
• Cooling racks
Method
1. Preheat oven to 177°C (350°F). Fill cupcake tray with cupcake cases.
2. In a large bowl add the dry ingredients and mix to combine.
3. In a separate bowl combine the softened butter and sugar, and beat with the
electric mixer until fluffy.
4. Whisk in eggs, one at a time.
5. Set the electric mixer at low speed, add the wet ingredients to the dry ingre-
dients and continue mixing for about 2–3 min until smooth.
6. Spoon the mixture into each cupcake case about 2/3 full.
7. Bake for 18–20 min until golden brown.
8. Place the pan on a cooling rack and rest for 2–3 min.
9. Gently remove the cupcakes from the pan and cool completely.
10. Remove one cupcake from the case and cut it in half.
11. Evaluate the chewiness, color, taste, and texture; record your observations
in Data Table 9.8.
Case 2
Gluten free cupcake without xanthan gum
• 1.2 g (0.042 oz) guar gum
• 200 g (7.05 oz) sugar
• 115 g (4.05 oz) butter
• 2 large eggs
• 125 mL (4.23 fl oz) milk
Method
Complete the same method from Case 1, and record your observations in Data
Table 9.8.
Case 3
Gluten free cupcake without guar gum
• 1.2 g (0.042 oz) xanthan gum
• 200 g (7.05 oz) sugar
• 115 g (4.05 oz) butter
• 2 large eggs
• 125 mL (4.23 fl oz) milk
Method
Complete the same method from Case 1, and record your observations in
Data Table 9.8.
DATA TABLE 9.8

Muffin with
Xanthan Gum Muffin with Muffin with
and Guar Gum Xanthan Gum Guar Gum
Chewiness
a
b Color
Taste
c
d Structure
a Use the terms soft, chewy, and hard to evaluate the chewiness of the samples.
b,c Use your own terms to evaluate the taste and color of the samples.
d Use the terms elastic, firm, with holes inside, and without holes inside to evaluate the structure of the
samples.
In food processing, single or combination of hydrocolloids are used to attain the

desired functional properties. A synergistic interaction occurs between some
hydrocolloids; when combined they create something different from what they form
when using them alone. For example, a blend of guar gum and xanthan gum adds
viscosity and provides the texture that gluten-free breads and bakeries often lack.
Locust bean gum and xanthan gum mixture increases the viscosity and enhances
the gel formation in solutions. Locust bean gum and agar (or alginates) improve
the gel strength and elasticity when they are used together in certain ratios. The
differences in the degree of synergism and the nature of interactions between
hydrocolloids can be attributed to the chemical structure of the hydrocolloids. The
ratios of the hydrocolloids and their concentrations in the solution are important
to attain the desired functional properties.
Study Question
Explain the differences between direct and reverse spherifications.
More Ideas to Try
Place 100 mL (3.38 fl oz) vegetable oil in a refrigerator a few hours before the
experiment. Add 1 g (0.035 oz) agar into 100 mL (3.38 fl oz) apple juice, and mix
gently. Bring it to boil over low heat. With a syringe or a pipette, add the liquid
drop by drop into a very cold oil. Strain and rinse. Observe the fast gelling capa-
bility of agar.
Repeat Experiment 9.1, but color the lemonade with blue food coloring instead
of yellow. Analyze the consumer’s attitudes toward the samples that have unusual
colors. Compare your results with your results from Experiment 9.1.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Food additives are any substances added to foods during production, prepa-
ration, processing, packaging, and transportation.
Food additives are divided into two groups: intentional/direct and uninten-
tional/indirect.
Intentional/direct food additives are often added during processing to per-
form a specific purpose:
a. To maintain and improve nutritional quality
b. To preserve or improve quality and freshness
c. To help in processing or preparation
d. To make food more appealing
Intentional/direct food additives may be natural, synthetic, or nature
identical.
Food additives are approved as safe only on the basis of scientific studies
and are strictly regulated and controlled by governmental bodies.
Food additives cannot be used:
a. To mask faulty processing and food spoilage
b. If they decrease the nutritional value of the food products
c. If the same quality of the foods can be produced without food additives
The E-code given to the food additive indicates that it is a “European Union
approved” food additive.
Unintentional/indirect additives enter foods in trace quantities during their
production, processing, storage, or packaging.
Antibiotics, growth-promoting hormones, pesticide residues, radioactive
residues and chemicals from the packaging materials, metals, and indus-
trial wastes are the most common unintentional/indirect additives in
foods.
Unintentional/indirect additives may show short- or long-term adverse
health effects.
Food hydrocolloids are biopolymers, which are made of high molecular
weight polysaccharides or proteins with side groups. They are widely used
as intentional food additives in many food products.
Hydrocolloids are known with their affinity for water.
The molecular weight and confirmation, surface charge density, and poly-
mer chain interactions of hydrocolloids determine their functional prop-
erties in culinary transformations. Chemical properties of foods,
concentration of hydrocolloids, pH of the medium, and temperature also affect
the efficiency of hydrocolloids.
Hydrocolloids play specific roles such as binding, stabilizing, thickening,

gelling, film forming, and coating in food processing.
In food processing, single or a combination of hydrocolloids are used to
attain the desired functional properties.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Banerjee, S., and S. Bhattacharya. 2012. Food gels: Gelling process and new applications.
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 52(4):334–346.
Brown, A. C. 2007. Understanding food: Principles and preparation, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing.
Dipjoti, S., and S. Bhattacharya. 2010. Hydrocolloids a thickening and gelling agents in
food: A critical review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 47(6):587–597.
Food texture and nutrition: The changing roles of hydrocolloids and food fibers. Online
at: www.aocs.org/stay-informed/read-inform/featured-articles/food-texture-and-
nutrition-the-changing-roles-of-hydrocolloids-and-food-fibers-march-2015.
Gómez-Díaz, D., Navaza, J. M., and L. C. Quintáns-Riveiro. 2008. Intrinsic viscosity
and flow behaviour of arabic gum aqueous solutions. International Journal of Food
Properties 11(4):773–780.
Hoefler, A. C. Introduction to food gums chemistry, functionality, and applications.
Online at: http://web.utk.edu/~jmount/Classes/515/gums.pdf.
International Food Information Council (IFIC) and U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
2004, revised 2010. Food ingredients and colors. Online at: www.fda.gov/downloads/
Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/ucm094249.pdf.
Karaman, S., Kesler, K., Goksel, M., Dogan, M., and A. Kayacier. 2014. Rheological and
some physicochemical properties of selected hydrocolloids and their interactions
with guar gum: Characterization using principal component analysis and viscous
synergism index. International Journal of Food Properties 17(8):1655–1667.
Lersch, M. 2014. Texture: A hydrocolloid recipe collection. Online at: https://blog.khymos.
org/wp-content/2009/02/hydrocolloid-recipe-collection-v3.0.pdf.
McGee, H. 2004. On food and cooking. The science and lore of the kitchen, 1st Scribner rev.
ed. New York: Scribner.
McGee, H. 2010. Modern gastronomy A to Z. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group.
Nussinovitch, A., and M. Hirashima. 2013. Cooking innovations: Using hydrocolloids for
thickening, gelling, and emulsification. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Ozilgen, S., and S. Malta. 2018. Functional properties of biopolymers in food manu-
facturing in “Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 20”. Elsevier Publishing
Company.
Purdue University. 2002. Food additives. Online at: www.four_h.purdue.edu/foods/
Food%20additives.htm.
Shepherd, E. Hydrocolloids for cooks: A simple introduction to hydrocolloids & other

modern ingredients for chefs & home cooks. Online at: www.veggiechef.co.uk/Blog/
files/hydrocolloids-for-cooks.pdf.
Tanja Wüstenberg, T. 2014. General overview of food hydrocolloids in cellulose and cellulose
derivatives in the food industry. Wiley online library. doi:10.1002/9783527682935.
ch01.
This, H. 2007. Kitchen mysteries: Revealing the science of cooking. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Van der Linden, E., McClements, D., and Ubbink, J. 2008. Molecular gastronomy: A food
fad or an interface for science-based cooking? Food Biophysics 3(2): 246–254.
Wang, K., Lu, F., Li, Z., Zhao, L., and C. Han. 2017. Recent developments in gluten-free
bread baking approaches: A review Food Science and Technology 37: 1–9.
Chapter 10
Food Safety and Hygiene in

Culinary Transformations
CONSUMERS HAVE A RIGHT TO EXPECT

THAT THE FOODS THEY CONSUME WILL
BE SAFE AND OF HIGH QUALITY
Consumption of contaminated foods or drinks is the most common cause of

foodborne illnesses.
Food allergies (such as proteins allergies) and sensitivities (such as gluten and
lactose intolerance) may also be considered as foodborne illnesses because some
foods or food ingredients that most consumers can tolerate without any problem
may have adverse health effects on certain people.
For the food business, safe food production is critical to protect the health of the
consumers, to minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses, to build and maintain the
loyal consumer volume, to avoid financial loss due to loss of business, to satisfy
government laws and regulations, and to avoid unexpected expenses on disposal,
recalls, and fines.
347
FOOD SAFETY HAS TO DO WITH CONTROLLING

POTENTIAL FOODBORNE HAZARDS
A foodborne hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause illness or injury
when consumed by the people along with the food.
Foodborne hazards may be:
1. Biological
The most common are:
• bacteria
• molds
• viruses
• parasites
Bacteria are the major concern since they are the major causes of 90% of
biological contaminations. They can be found everywhere, and most of them
grow fast under proper conditions. Molds rarely cause illnesses but they spoil
the foods. Viruses need a host cell to grow. They cannot reproduce in the
foods; they may cause foodborne illness once consumed. Parasites need a
host cell to grow. Proper heat treatment can kill the parasites. The primary
sources of microorganisms into foods are the soil, water, environment, tools
and utensils, plants and animals, insects and pets, food handlers, and so on.
2. Chemical
Such as detergents, sanitizers, antibiotics, pesticides, herbicides, natural toxins,
heavy metals, and unapproved uses of food additives.
3. Physical
Such as hair, fingernail, stones, pips, bone pieces, glass, staples, and toothpicks.
Taking safe steps at every stage of food production is crucial for chefs to prevent
foodborne hazards and related foodborne illness. This is commonly known as
“food safety from farm to table or food safety from farm to fork.”
FOOD SAFETY AND HYGIENE 349
EXPERIMENT 10.1
OBJECTIVES
• To understand the types of bacteria in foods.
• To explain the beneficial bacteria in foods.
Case 1
Sour Cream Production
• 242 g (0.53 lb) pasteurized cream (20%–36% butterfat)
• 0.4 g (0.014 oz) sour cream starter culture (bacterial culture)
• 1 tall large saucepan (to make a double boiler)
• 1 medium saucepan (must fit on the large pan)
• 1 spoon
• Water
• Paper towel
• Elastic band
Method
1. Fill the large saucepan with about 4 cm (1.57 in.) of water.
2. Place the saucepan on the stove and heat until boiling.
3. Reduce heat to the temperature at which the water reaches a steady simmer.
4. Analyze the cream and record your observations in Data Table 10.1.
5. Pour the cream into the medium saucepan.
6. Place the medium saucepan over the simmering pot.
8. Heat until the cream reaches 65°C (149°F).
9. Remove the medium saucepan from heat and hold it at this temperature for
30 min.
10. Check the temperature of the cream frequently and place the saucepan over
the large saucepan if temperature drops during this period.
11. Cool the cream to 25°C (77°F).
12. Add the starter culture and mix it into the cream thoroughly.
13. Pour the mixture into the jar and cover with double folded paper towel and
secure the towel with an elastic band.
14. Place the jar in an environment at around 25°C (77°F) for 7–8 h.
15. Remove the paper towel and the elastic band.
DATA TABLE 10.1

Cream Sour Cream
Texturea
Smellb
Tastec
Colord
a Use the terms smooth, soft, runny, thick, and thin to evaluate the texture.
b Use the terms fresh, buttery, and acidic to evaluate the smell.
c Use the terms fresh, milky, buttery, and acidic to evaluate the taste.
d Use the terms white and yellowish white to evaluate the color.

1
17. Place the lid on the jar and refrigerate.
Case 2
• To understand types of bacteria in foods.
• To explain the spoilage bacteria in foods.
Ingredients and equipment

• 100 mL (3.38 fl oz) whole milk
• 1 medium-sized jar or a water glass
Methods
1. Pour the milk in the jar.
2. Set the jar in open air at room temperature.
3. Record your observation in Data Table 10.2 daily.
4. Stop the experiment when you notice an unpleasant smell and curdling in
the milk.
5. Pour out the milk.
Note: Never taste the samples

DATA TABLE 10.2

Smell Color Appearance
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Use your own words to describe the attributes.

Are all microorganisms harmful?

The answer is NO!
Foodborne microorganisms can be classified in three groups:
1. Beneficial/Fermentative (The Good)

2. Pathogenic (The Bad)
3. Spoilage (The Ugly)
The beneficial microorganisms are intentionally added into foods to preserve

and/or to produce food products. For example, lactic acid bacteria are used in
yogurt, sour cream, cheese, and kefir production. Special types of yeasts are used
to make bread and beer, and some types of molds are used to make certain cheeses
such as blue cheese.
The pathogenic microorganisms are the major causes of foodborne illness. They
cause health problems in two primary ways:
• Infection: caused by ingestion of live bacteria in or on food. Bacteria can grow

in the human digestive system.
• Intoxication: usually caused by ingestion of toxins produced by bacteria in
food. The live microorganism does not have to be consumed for intoxication.
Pathogenic microorganisms usually do not change the sensory characteristics of

foods. No one can see, smell, or taste the changes in foods caused by pathogenic
bacteria, and this makes them difficult to detect. Tasting, smelling, and/or looking
does not predict the safety of the foods. Therefore, do not count on your five senses to
judge the safety of the foods.
The spoilage microorganisms change the sensory properties of foods that make
foods undesirable (spoiled). The food contaminated with spoilage microorgan-
isms usually look and/or smell unappealing, and this makes them easy to detect.
They usually do not cause short-term illness. Discolored, mushy, or fuzzy fruits
and vegetables, moldy bread, sour milk, and slimy meat are the examples for
spoiled foods.
EXPERIMENT 10.2
OBJECTIVE
To explain microbial growth requirements
Case 1
Temperature and time effects
• 300 mL (10.14 fl oz) pasteurized whole milk
• Oven
• Plastic wrap
• Graduated cup
Methods
1. Label the drinking glasses “room temperature,” “refrigeration temperature,”
and “oven temperature.”
2. Set the oven at 40°C (104°F).
3. Pour 100 mL (3.38 fl oz) (milk in each glass and cover them tightly with a
plastic wrap.
4. Place the glass labeled “room temperature” in a safe place in the room with
no direct sunlight, the jar labeled “refrigeration temperature” in the refrigera-
tor, and the jar “labeled oven temperature” in the oven.
5. After 24 h, record your observations in Data Table 10.3.
6. Continue observation until clear spoilage in all the samples are detected.
7. Discard the samples and clean drinking glasses thoroughly.
Note: Never taste the samples.
Case 2
Initial microbial load effect
• 400 mL (13.5 fl oz) UHT whole milk
• Oven
• Plastic wrap
• Graduated cup
Method
1. Complete the same stages of Case 1 with UHT milk, and record the results
in Data Table 10.3.
DATA TABLE 10.3

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 …
Changes in pasteurized milk

sample stored at room
temperature (Case 1)
Changes in UHT milk

sample stored at room

sample stored at
refrigeration temperature
(Case 1)
Changes in UHT milk

sample stored at
refrigeration temperature
(Case 2)

sample stored at oven
Changes in UHT milk

sample stored at oven
Use the terms no changes in consistency, no changes in color, yellowish in color, smells milk, slightly

smells sour, smells sour, thin white layer is formed around the surface, thick white layer is formed
around the surface, some curdling, and more curdling to evaluate the samples.
Case 3
Food moisture content and time effects
• 5 equal slices of bread (from the same loaf or the package)
• Bread toaster or a toaster oven
• 5 Ziploc© bags
• Kitchen scale
• Paper towel
Methods
1. Label the Ziploc© bags “control,” “1 min heated,” “2 min heated,” “3 min
heated,” and “4 min heated.”
2. Place a slice of bread into “control” Ziploc© bag.
3. Weigh another slice and record the weight in Data Table 10.4.
4. Place it in the toaster and heat for 1 min.
5. Cool it down on the paper towel for 2 min.
6. Weigh and record the result in Data Table 10.4.
7. Place the slice into “1 min heated” Ziploc© bag and close tight.
8. Calculate the moisture loss, and record the result in Data Table 10.4.
DATA TABLE 10.4

% Moisture Time for the First
İnitial Final Loss after Sign of Mold
Weight Weight Heating Growth (days)
Control -
1 min heated
bread sample
2 min heated
bread sample
3 min heated
bread sample
4 min heated
bread sample
9. Repeat Steps 3–8 with “2 min heated,” “3 min heated,” and “4 min heated”
bread samples.
10. Store all the samples at room temperature under the same conditions.
11. Observe the samples every day for the first sign of mold growth and record
your observations.
12. Discard all the samples after clear sign of mold growth on every sample.

Method to calculate the moisture loss:
Moisture loss (g) = Initial weight of the slice (g) − Final weight of the slice (g)
Moisture loss ( g )
% Moisture loss = × 100
Initial weight (Initial weight of the slice ( g ))
Case 4
Acidity effect
Cucumber Pickle
• 2 kg (4.41 lb) cucumber (gherkin or ridget)
• 3 L (0.8 gal) water
• 450 mL (15.2 fl oz) vinegar
• 20 garlic cloves
• 4 tablespoons salt
• 4 large jars with lids
• Saucepan
• Bowl
• Kitchen scale
• Graduated cup
• Thermometer
• Stove
Methods
1. Label the jars “control,” “250 mL vinegar,” “150 mL vinegar,” and “50 mL
vinegar.”
2. Place 500 g (1.10 lb.) cucumber and 4 garlic cloves into each jar.
3. Place 750 mL (25.4 fl oz) water in the bowl.
4. Add 1 tablespoon salt to the water. Mix until all salt crystals dissolve.
5. Pour the salt solution into the “control” jar and cover the jar tightly with lids.
6. Place 750 mL (25.4 fl oz) of water in a saucepan.
7. Add 50 mL (1.69 fl oz) of vinegar and 1 tablespoon of salt. Mix until all salt
crystals dissolve.
8. Boil the solution for a minute or two.
9. Cool the solution down to 25°C (77°F).
10. Pour the solution into the “50 mL (1.69 fl oz) vinegar” jar and cover the jar
tightly with lids.
11. Repeat Steps 6–10 with 150 mL (5.07 fl oz) vinegar and 250 mL (8.45 fl oz)
vinegar, respectively (always start with lower concentration if you are going
to use the same saucepan for all concentrations).
12. Store all the samples at room temperature protected from direct light under
the same conditions.
13. Observe the surface of the liquids (do not remove the lids) every day at the
same time for signs of microbial growth.
DATA TABLE 10.5

Microbial Microbial
Microbial Growth on Growth on
Microbial Growth on the the Surface of the Surface of
Growth on the Surface of 150 mL 250 mL
Surface of 50 mL (1.69 (5.07 fl oz) (8.45 fl oz)
Time Control fl oz) Vinegar Vinegar Vinegar
(day) Sample Sample Sample Sample
Use the terms no growth, no significant sign of microbial growth, and significant microbial growth to

evaluate the samples.
Case 5
Environmental moisture content effect
• 1 cube feta cheese slice (approximately 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm/3.9 in. ×
3.9 in. × 3.9 in.) feta cheese slices
• 2 equal-sized (approximately 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm/3.9 in. × 3.9 in. ×
3.9 in.) hard cheese slices
• 2 medium-sized glass storage containers with lids
Method
1. Label the containers “control” and “higher environmental humidity.”
2. Place a slice of hard cheese into the containers marked “control.”
3. Place a slice of hard cheese and a slice of feta cheese into the same containers
marked “higher environmental humidity.” The slices should not touch each other.
Note: During storage, due to the difference in free water contents of cheeses, the
relative humidity of the environment will increase.
4. Cover the containers tight with lids.

5. Store both containers at room temperature in a safe place.
6. Check the surface of the samples every day at the same time for signs of
microbial growth. Do not open the lids.

DATA TABLE 10.6
Microbial Growth on the
Microbial Growth on Surface of the Samples
the Surface of Control Stored at Higher
Time (day) Sample Environmental Humidity
1
2
3
4
…
Use the terms no growth, no significant sign of microbial growth, and significant microbial growth to

evaluate the samples.
Bacteria are living organisms. Under optimum conditions, they multiply through
binary fission process, in which a single bacterium grows and divides to form two
new bacteria. This means production of billions of bacteria from one cell in a few
hours (Figure 10.1).
Microorganisms have six major requirements to grow:
• Food
• Acidity
• Temperature
• Time
• Oxygen
• Moisture
Proper control of these requirements is necessary to control microbial growth.

Foods are used as an energy source by microorganisms to grow and multiply.
Foods that promote the rapid growth of microorganisms are called Potentially
Hazardous Foods (PHF). These foods are rich in especially proteins and/or
Figure 10.1 Binary fission process.

carbohydrates. Some examples are meat, poultry, milk, some dairy products, fish,
eggs, cooked potatoes, cooked dry beans, cooked rice, some bakery products,
melons, and tomatoes. The amount and type of nutrients required for growth
depend on the microorganisms.
Acidity is measured with a scale called pH (potential of hydrogen) that ranges
from 0 to 14. Foods with pH values 7 are considered neutral, lower than 7 are
acidic, and above 7 are basic. Low-acid foods have pH values higher than 4.6,
while high-acid foods have pH values 4.6 or lower. Most foodborne bacteria pre-
fer neutral to mildly acidic foods. That’s why most of them do not grow on/in
acidic foods like pickles, citrus fruits, yogurt, and vinegar; however, they may
survive. Molds predominate in low-pH foods because they can grow in a wide
range changing from pH 2 to 9. Approximate pH values of selected foods are
given in Table 10.1.
Temperature is one of the key requirements for microbial growth. While every
bacterial species has specific optimum growth temperature, almost all can grow in
a temperature range between 5°C (41°F) and 60°C (140°F), called Temperature
Danger Zone (TDZ).
Most pathogenic bacteria grow best between 20°C (68°F) and 45°C (113°F) hav-
ing optimum growth temperature 37°C (98.6°F). These are called Mesophiles (mid-
dle-loving). Mesophilic bacteria are the most common causes of foodborne
poisonings and food spoilage. Psychrophiles (cold-loving) are responsible for most
refrigerated food spoilage. They grow best between −5°C (23°F) and 20°C (68°F)
having optimum growth temperature 10°C (50°F). Thermophiles (hot-loving) have
high optimum growth temperatures (55°C/131°F). They grow best between 45°C
(113°F) and 80°C (176°F).
Always remember!!! Bacteria do not die when stored at or below 5°C/41°F; only
their rate of growth decreases. That means most bacteria grow during cold stor-
age, but the generation time is high. Recommended cold storage temperature and
time combination of food depends on types of food (Table 10.3).
Time required for a single bacterium to grow and divide to form two new bac-
teria is called generation time. When bacteria are first introduced to a food,
they need time to get used to the medium and new conditions. During this
period (known as lag phase), generation time is long, and rate of growth is low. If
the conditions are optimum (growth requirements are satisfied), they start to
grow rapidly after the lag phase (known as log phase). Generation time in the log
phase varies considerably from one bacterium to another; under the optimum
conditions, it is 15–20 min for most foodborne bacteria. Log phase should be
delayed/avoided to keep the food safe. On the contrary, lag phase should be kept
short, and growth in the log phase must be controlled in food production (such
as yogurt).
TABLE 10.1
Approximate pH Values of Selected Foods
Name of the Food pH Value
Fresh egg white 7.96
Fish (most of them) 6.6–6.8
Milk, cow 6.40–6.80
Chicken 6.2–6.4
Pork 5.9–6.1
Fresh egg yolk 6.10
Cooked white rice 6.00–6.70
Spaghetti 5.97–6.40
Beef 5.1–6.2
Salmon, cooked (boiled or broiled) 5.36–6.50
Watermelon 5.18–5.60
Cucumbers 5.12–5.78
Tomatoes 4.30–4.90
Pickled cucumbers 4.20–4.60
Yogurt 3.8–4.2
Orange 3.60–4.34
Apple eating 3.30–4.00
Vinegar 2.40–3.40
Lemon juice 2.00–2.60

Microorganisms have different needs for oxygen. Some need oxygen to grow (aer-
obes). Others can only grow without oxygen (anaerobes). Most can grow with or
without oxygen (facultative anaerobes).
Moisture is another major requirement for bacterial growth. Microorganisms
require certain amount of free water to survive and grow. The shelf life of foods
increases as their free water content decreases. That is why foods like dried
legumes, dried meat and fish, and dried fruits last longer compared to their
fresh forms. Curing, drying, freezing, and binding free water with hydrophilic
substances such as salt and sugar are the most common methods for decreasing
free water content in foods.
Rapid growth is usually wanted with beneficial microorganisms in controlled
food processes, such as in sour cream production. However, it is undesirable
when it occurs with spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. It is required to
focus on these requirements to control the rate of microbial growth based on the
purpose.
Combined effects of growth factors, such as heat and moisture, time and tem-
perature, oxygen and heat, and heat, oxygen, and cold storage can be used to
produce safe and high-quality food (hurdle concept). Time and temperature com-
bination is the most commonly used food safety control in the kitchen. Example
includes:
• Not leaving foods in the TDZ for more than 2 h. Proper hot and cold holding.
• Proper cooking temperature-time combination (Table 10.2).
• Estimation of shelf life of foods under different storage temperatures
(Table 10.3).
TABLE 10.2
Safe Cooking Time-Temperature Combinations of Selected Foods
Internal (Center
Food Temperature) (°C/°F) Holding Time (s)
• Poultry (including patties) 74/165 15

• Duck and goose
• Casseroles
• Stuffing with poultry,
meat, fish, and/or duck
and goose
• Stuffed foods
• Eggs and egg dishes 71/160 15

• Ground meat
Steaks and chops from: 63/145 180

• Pork
• Veal
• Lamb
• Beef
Fruits and vegetables 57/135 Hold hot

TABLE 10.3
Safe Refrigerator and Freezer Storage and Time Combinations of Selected Foods
Time at Refrigeration Time at Freezer

Food Temperature Storage
Eggs (fresh, in shell) 3–5 weeks Don’t freeze
Bacon 7 days 1 month
Meat 3–5 days 6–12 months

Steaks 3–5 days 4–6 months
Chops 3–5 days 4–12 months
Roasts
Raw, whole chicken, or turkey 1–2 days 1 year

Raw, whole chicken, or turkey parts 1–2 days 9 months
Fried or boiled chicken 3–4 days 4 months
Ground meat and hamburger 1–2 days 3–4 months
Lean fish 1–2 days 6–8 months
Offal 1–2 days 3–4 months
Whipped cream 2–3 h 1 month

EXPERIMENT 10.3
OBJECTIVE
To understand safe practices to prevent potential hazards in foods.
Case Analysis
Last Saturday, 783 of 1,220 guests got food poisoning with the symptoms of bad
gastroenteritis, which caused nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea after the
wedding dinner. The local authority inspected the establishment, and also talked
to the head chef, Sibel, about the production process in the kitchen. She says,
she woke up a bit late that day. When she got out of bed, her stomach had a few
cramps and she did not feel her best, but blamed that on the drinks she con-
sumed from the previous night. Sibel did not have time to see the doctor since
she was already late. On the way to the restaurant, she stopped by the butcher,
bought 60 kg (132.3 lb) chicken breast, and placed them in the car. When she
arrived at the restaurant the manager was very angry and put her to work right
away, she says. First, she grabbed the sanitizer stored in the dry food storage room,
and wiped the bench with a sponge soaked in sanitizer. Afterwards, she prepared
the soup and put it on the stove for cooking. Meanwhile, she grabbed one of the
cutting boards and chopped the vegetables, and set them aside. After finishing her
first preparation, Sibel went to the car to get the chicken breast that she bought on
her way to the restaurant. Then wiped the cutting board off and sliced the chicken,
placed them in a big shallow tray, added some oil and seasonings, covered it tight,
and kept it refrigerated until roasting. There was a little chicken on the cutting
board, so she put some detergent on the board and gave it a quick wipe. Then she
cut the bread on the board, and prepared the garlic bread. The soup must be ready
by now. She dipped a spoon into the soup for a taste, seasoned, and tasted again
with the same spoon. Half an hour before the wedding, Sibel quickly roasted the
surface of chicken slices and placed them back to its tray until service. The food
was ready on time.
1. Analyze the case and record your findings in Data Table 10.7.
2. Go over your findings and correct/complete Data Table 10.7 after in class
discussion hour.
DATA TABLE 10.7

Mistakes Observed Suggested Solutions
…
Safe Practices are Important to Avoid Foodborne Illness
Sick food handlers should not work with food since they can cause foodborne
disease outbreaks. They must be excluded from food handling and food handling
area especially if they have diarrhea, vomiting, fever, continual sneezing, cough-
ing, any discharge from the nose or eyes, infected wounds, and any diagnosed
infection that can be spread through foods. The length of exclusion is usually 48 h
after the symptoms stop. Medical report is usually required to ensure the person
has recovered and can return to work. People can also be carriers of disease with-
out showing any symptoms, so good managerial control and appropriate actions
are very important to ensure the health conditions of the staff.
Poor personal hygiene of food handlers is one of the major factors in food con-
tamination. To avoid physical, chemical, and biological hazards that may arise
from poor personal hygiene, food handlers should:
• bathe daily
• wear clean and proper uniforms
• change into uniforms in the designated dressing rooms
• wash hands with warm water and soap for at least 20 s when they first arrive
at work, before touching foods, after handling raw foods such as raw meat,
between different processes, after handling dirty equipment, tools, dishes or
utensils, after using bathroom, after touching nose, ears or any part of the
body, after coughing and sneezing, after taking out the trash
• restrain their hair
• have short and clean nails
• have no nail polish, and no fake nails
• have no jewelries (only a plain wedding ring is allowed)
• have no make-up
• have no mustache or beard (or restrain them properly)
• not smoke in the food preparation area
• not eat or drink in the food preparation area
• take the uniforms off before going to bathroom, and outside of the
establishment.
Cross contamination is a transfer of microorganisms from one place to another.

In the kitchen, this transfer commonly occurs from raw foods and c ontaminated
food surfaces to ready-to-eat foods via different means. Major precautions to pre-
vent cross contamination in safe food production can be listed as follows:
• Wash hands frequently.

• Always use different cutting boards to cut ready-to-eat and raw foods (espe-
cially raw meat, poultry, eggs, and fish).
• Always use different tools and utensils to handle ready-to-eat and raw foods
(especially raw meat, poultry, eggs, and fish).
• Always clean and sanitize the food contact surfaces, utensils, equipment,
and work areas.
• Always separate ready-to-eat and raw foods-during receiving, storing,
preparing.
• Always ensure personal hygiene.
• Always store ready-to-eat foods over raw foods. Store raw meat, poultry,
eggs, and fish in the bottom shelves of the refrigerator.
• Always store the foods at least 15 cm (6 in.) above the floor.
• Always use separate spoons and forks for multiple tasting.
Chemicals such as soap, detergent, grease-dissolving agent, sanitizers, and

bleach are used in the kitchen to decrease the number of unwanted microorgan-
isms (sanitation). On the other hand, misuse of these chemicals and/or using non-
food grade chemicals can contaminate foods and cause foodborne illness. Staff must
be trained about types of kitchen chemicals, and proper cleaning, sanitizing, and
rinsing procedure to produce safe foods.
Remember! Bacterial growth requirements (Food, Acidity, Time, Temperature,
Oxygen, and Moisture) must be controlled throughout the process for safe food
production…!!!
Systematic and well-documented analysis of potential physical, chemical, and
biological hazards in product, place, and people at each stage of the process is the
key for high-quality and safe food production.
Food producers also must know about and comply with national standards and
codes addressing design and layout of the food establishments, sanitary condi-
tion of the facility, equipment, sanitation management, food safety control proce-
dures from farm to table, storage and transportation, garbage management, air
circulation and ventilation, pest control, and staff training.
EXPERIMENT 10.4
OBJECTIVES
• To understand some people are more susceptible to foodborne illness
• To understand importance of dose effect in food poisoning.
Case Study
Last Saturday, 783 of 1,220 guests got sick with the symptoms food poisoning
after the wedding dinner. The illness had varied between people from a couple
of sick-days at home to staying at the hospital. Sadly, the contaminated food was
responsible for the deaths of 14 children and the serious injury of 312 other vic-
tims, including permanent stroke, kidney and brain damages. Analyze the case.
Does everybody on the table necessary get sick after sharing the
same contaminated food?
The answer is No…
The immune system is one of the major factors. Some people are highly suscep-
tible to foodborne illness and may experience severe health consequences and
even death due to their weak immune systems. This group of people includes
infants, young people, elderly people, pregnant women, and people with chronic
illnesses, such as cancer patients, HIV positive, and diabetics.
Another factor is the amount of exposure to the disease-causing agents (microor-
ganisms or their toxins). Ingestion of a certain amount of organisms/toxins is
required to cause serious illness. This amount depends on the types of bacteria.
Usually ingestion of large amounts of pathogenic bacteria are required to get food
poisoning, however a much smaller dose of certain types of bacteria may be fatal.
People that consumed the contaminated part of the shared food may get sick while
the others may not if they did not consume the contaminated part or consume enough
number of pathogens to get sick.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Consumers have a right to expect that the foods they consume will be safe
and of high quality.
Consumption of contaminated foods or drinks is the most common cause of
foodborne illnesses.
A foodborne hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause illness
or injury when consumed by the people along with the food. Foodborne
hazards may be:
1. Biological
2. Chemical
3. Physical
Foodborne microorganisms can be classified into three groups:
1. Beneficial/Fermentative
2. Pathogenic
3. Spoilage
Under optimum conditions, bacteria multiply through binary fission
process.
Requirements for bacterial growth are:
1. Food
2. Acidity
3. Time
4. Temperature
5. Oxygen
6. Moisture
Safe practices are important to avoid foodborne illness.
Cross contamination is a transfer of microorganisms from one place to
another.
The immune system of the person, and the amount of exposure to the
disease-causing agents are the most important factors on the risk of
developing food poisoning.
Food producers must know about and comply with national standards and
codes addressing food hygiene and safety in product, place, and people.
More Ideas to Try
Repeat Experiment 10.2 Case 3 but place the slices in vacuum food containers or
vacuum pack them at stage 2. Compare your results with Experiment 10.2 Case 3.
Study Questions
1. Explain the safe methods for thawing frozen foods.

2. UHT milks are stored at room temperature in the markets. The label says
“Refrigerate after opening.” Explain the reason for it.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Factors that Influence Microbial Growth Chapter 3. 2001. Online at: http://msue.anr.msu.
edu/uploads/234/48511/Safe_Practices_for_Food_Processes_Chpt._3_Factors_
that_Influence_Microbial_Growth.pdf.
FDA. Approximate pH of Foods and Food Products. Online at: http://ucfoodsafety.
ucdavis.edu/files/266402.pdf.
FDA. Refrigerator and freezer storage chart. Online at: www.fda.gov/downloads/food/
resourcesforyou/healtheducators/ucm109315.pdf.
Food Contamination and Risk Factors. Online at: wwwapp1.bumc.bu.edu/lphi/
publichealthtraining/onlinecourses/foodprotection/FoodProtection5.html.
Food poisoning (foodborne illness). Online at: https://food.unl.edu/food-poisoning-food-
borne-illness.
Hassan, A., and I. Amjad. 2010. Nutritional evaluation of yoghurt prepared by different
starter cultures and their physiochemical analysis during storage. African Journal of
Biotechnology 9(20):2913–2917.
Introduction to food microbiology. Online at: https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/
food-technology/food-processing-entrepreneurs/microbiology-of-food/.
Keep food safe with time and temperature control. Online at: https://extension.umn.edu/
food-service-industry/keep-food-safe-time-and-temperature-control.
King, H. 2013. Food safety management: Implementing a food safety program in a food retail
business (food microbiology and food safety). New York: Springer.
McSwane, D., N. R. Rue, R. Linton, A. G. Williams. 2003. Food safety fundamentals:
Essentials of food safety and sanitation. Prentice Hall: New Jersey.
Ozilgen, S. 2010 Application of failure mode and effect analysis model to foodservice
systems operated by chefs in practice and by chefs from a culinary school in Turkey.
Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety 5:333–343.
Ozilgen, S. 2012. Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) for confectionery manufac-
turing in developing countries: Turkish delight production as a case study. Ciênc.
Tecnol. Aliment 32(3):505–514.
Potentially hazardous food. Online at: https://web.uri.edu/foodsafety/potentially-

hazardous-food/.
Potentially Hazardous Foods: Safe Food is Good Business. Online at: www.health.state.
mn.us/divs/eh/food/fs/hazard.html.
Suleimenova, S. 2016. Biochemical and sensory profile of meat from dairy and beef cattle.
Online at: http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_nbn_fi_uef-20161261/urn_nbn_fi_
uef-20161261.pdf.
Temperature classification. Online at: http://iws2.collin.edu/dcain/CCCCD%20Micro/
temperatureclassification.htm.
World Health Organisation. 2006. Five keys to safer food manual. Online at: http://apps.
who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43546/9789241594639_eng.pdf;jsessionid=3
6F5C36897B3622C17615262493D1955?sequence=1.
Extended Glossary
This glossary gives brief definitions of the entire key terms used in the
book, and brief explanations of the most common culinary terms used in
the kitchen.
Aging of meat: A process that gives meat a flavor and also increases tenderness.
After an animal is slaughtered, blood circulation and oxygen transpor-
tation to the muscles stop. Tenderness of meat decreases immediately
because the meat muscles remain locked in a permanent contraction as a
result of lack of oxygen supply for muscle relaxation in the energy mech-
anism. This process is called rigor mortis or postmortem rigidity and
usually takes 6–18 h to complete. After the rigor process, muscle under-
goes enzyme-caused progressive natural changes that result in a gradual
increase in tenderness. Aging is simply holding a carcass or the cuts until
this natural process is complete. Time for aging process varies from sev-
eral hours to several days mainly depending on type, age, breed, diet,
and activity level of the animals. Meat aging has been widely applied by
the food industry to improve palatability attributes, but could adversely
affect some quality attributes of the meat such as color and shelf life, if the
temperature, relative humidity, air circulation, and sanitary quality of the
aging rooms are not controlled properly.
Amino acid: Monomers of proteins. They contain an amino (NH2) group and
a carboxyl (COOH) group. Amino acids are joined together by peptide
bonds to form polypeptide chains.
Amorphous: Has no crystalline structure, such as lollipops, marshmallows, and
cotton candies.
Amylase: An enzyme (protein) that breaks down starch.
Amylopectin: A fraction of starch. It is a highly branched polymer of glucose.
Amylose: A fraction of starch. It is a linear chain polymer of glucose.
Antioxidant: A substance that prevents or slows down oxidation reaction by
interfering with the chain reaction.
Atom: The smallest particle of a substance having the chemical properties of the
substance. An atom consists of a central nucleus surrounded by negatively
377
378 EXTENDED GLOSSARY
charged electrons. The nucleus is positively charged, and contains posi-

tively charged protons and uncharged neutrons. The number of electrons,
protons, and neutrons of each atom determines the chemical reactions
that the atom may have with other atoms.
Baking: A cooking process in which foods are surrounded by hot and dry air,
usually between 163°C and 218°C (325°F and 425°F). The heat is trans-
ferred by convection in a closed environment, such as in an oven. Dry
heat causes the food’s surface to have a crispy and crusty texture, brown
surface, and tender and moist interior.
Basting: A process of spooning or pouring liquid such as melted butter or other
fat, meat drippings, and stock over food while it cooks. This process pre-
vents foods from drying out, and helps brown the surface of the foods.
Basting does not produce moisture or improve the interior flavor of the
foods since it cannot penetrate the food.
Blanching: A cooking technique in which food is briefly immersed in boiling
water for a few seconds and then placed in cold water for sharp cool-
ing. The primary purpose of blanching is to deactivate the enzymes
in foods. If the process is not done properly, the enzymes continue to
be active causing off-colors, off-flavors, and toughening. Blanching is
usually applied to prepare fruits and vegetables for long-term freezer
storage.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a compound changes from a liquid to a
gas.
Bound water: Type of water, which cannot be easily removed from the food. It is
not available for chemical and biological reactions.
Braising: A cooking method that combines dry and moist cooking methods. It is
a two-step process. First, the food is browned at high temperature. This
step is key to building flavor, color, and texture in final dish. After the
food has been browned, the liquid (stocks, wine, water, etc.), vegetables,
and flavoring are added for moist cooking. The food cooks slowly in that
liquid either on the stovetop or in the oven until very tender. This cooking
method is excellent for large and tough cuts of meats such as shoulder and
chuck, poultry, and some vegetables like cabbage.
Broiling: A dry cooking method in which direct and intense radiant dry heat is
transferred from a heat source located above the food. It accelerates the
chemical reactions on the surface giving it a nutty flavor, brownish color,
crispy and crusty texture on the surface while keeping the food moist on
the inside.
Caramelization: A nonenzymatic browning reaction. It is a complex set of sugar
degradation reactions, which happens only at high temperatures.
Casein: A milk protein.
Chemical change: An irreversible change. A chemical reaction occurs and a

new substance is formed. Cooking eggs, for instance, is an example of a
chemical change; the egg white and egg yolk change from liquid to solid.
Clarification: A process of removing the suspended substances that can lead
to turbidity, taste and odor problems mainly in mainly liquid foods.
Filtration, centrifugal force, use of enzymes, and use of charged s ubstances
are the main methods applied in the kitchen for clarification. Clarification
of stocks and soups with egg white is one of the common practices in the
kitchen. In this process, as egg white coagulates, the bridge is formed
between the coagulant and the solid particles with the action of heat
that traps the solid particles into large clumps. Once solid particles are
formed into larger particles, they can easily be removed from the liquid
by filtration or straining.
Coagulation: Transformation of native protein structure into a soft semisolid or
solid mass. Coagulation of protein occurs when the denaturation process
reaches an advanced state. Once proteins are coagulated, they cannot be
returned to their native state.
Compound: Made up of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,
such as carbohydrates and fats. Components may be separated by c hemical
means. Atoms of elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
Conduction: A mode of heat transfer. Heat always flows from a hot surface to a
cold surface. In conduction, direct contact is required for heat flow. When
the substances gets hot, the kinetic energy of their molecules increases.
Therefore, they start to move faster, and collide against each other. As they
collide, slow molecules gain energy from the fast molecules, start to move
faster, and collide with other slow molecules. Heat is generated and trans-
ferred as a result of the collisions. This continues until the two surfaces
come to equilibrium. Examples for conduction heating may include such
cases as follows: the stove conducts heat to the pan, and the pan conducts
heat to the contact surfaces of the foods being cooked in it; or a container
gets hot from the hot food microwaved inside. Heat transfer from surfaces
of solid and semisolid foods, and stagnant liquid to their centers also
mainly occurs by conduction during cooking.
Convection: A mode of heat transfer. Heat always flows from a hot to a cold
surface. Convection occurs when heat is transferred by means of mov-
ing hot liquid or air. There are two types of convection: natural con-
vection and forced convection. Density gradients are generated when
liquids are heated, which cause hot liquids to rise up. This movement
is the main reason for natural convection in the fluid. For example, dur-
ing cooking (without mixing) the bottom of the liquid food gets hot
first. The molecules gain energy, start to move faster, and spread apart.
So the heated liquid becomes less dense and rises up to the surface.
As heating continues, this natural movement (natural convection) con-
tinues until it comes to equilibrium. Forced convection occurs through
the forced motion of the fluid or gas. Mixing liquid during heating
forces the transfer of heat (forced convection), and speeds up the heat-
ing process. Ovens with fans use the principle of forced convection
heat transfer. In general, heat is transferred in fluids by combinations
of conduction and convection.
Covalent bond: A strong chemical bond that joins two atoms together by the
sharing of electrons in the outer atomic orbitals.
Crystallization: The formation of solid crystals from a solution in a precise orderly
structure.
Deglazing: A process of dissolving the flavorful glaze of juices and cooked food
particles from the surface of a pan in which food has been cooked. In this
process, the liquid such as wine, water, and stocks are added to the pan
in which food has been cooked, and heated while stirring and scrubbing,
and simmering to loosen the remainings. Deglazing is usually used to add
flavor to sauces.
Denaturation: Change of protein structure from its natural state. Denaturation
involves the disruption of the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
structures of proteins.
Dextrinization: The breakdown of starch polymers into smaller molecules when
heated to high temperatures without liquid.
Disaccharide: A carbohydrate that is composed of two molecules of simple sugars
(monosaccharide) linked to each other upon condensation.
Element: One of the basic substances that are made of atoms of only one kind
and that cannot be separated by ordinary chemical means into simpler
substances.
Emulsion: A mixture of two immiscible liquids in which minute droplets of one
liquid are dispersed in another.
Enzymatic browning: A chemical change. It occurs when the phenolic substances
in foods react with oxygen, in the presence of specific types of enzymes.
Browning of foods occurs as a result of enzymatic browning reaction, e.g.,
the browning of peeled apples.
Enzyme: A chemical substance produced by living organisms, such as animals,
plants, and microorganisms. Enzymes are capable of initiating certain
chemical changes and/or increasing the rate of chemical reactions.
Fats: Substances that are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. They are solid at
room temperature. Animals are the primary sources of fats.
Fatty acids: Building blocks of fats and oils. They are carboxylic acids with long
hydrocarbon chains. Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated.
Fermentation: Transformation of sugar primarily into acids, gases, and/or alcohol

by the action of microorganisms, e.g., lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose
to lactic acid in the yogurt manufacturing process.
Fibrous proteins: Proteins that are composed of polypeptide chains assembled
along the straight axis, e.g., collagen and elastin. They are shaped like
rods or wires and are usually insoluble. They are primarily found in meat,
chicken, fish, and wheat.
Folding: A process of combining ingredients together using a gentle over-and-
under motion without agitating the mixture. The motion is mainly top to
bottom by gently lifting ingredients from the bottom of the container over
the ingredients on the top rather than mixing round and round. It is a
technique most commonly used to combine a lighter, airy mixture with a
heavier mixture. Folding is usually executed with a rubber spatula, a wire
whisk, or hand mixing without knocking air out of the mixture.
Food additives: Substances that are directly or indirectly added to foods during
food processing.
Free water: Available water for chemical and biological reactions. Not chemically
or physically bound. Free water can be easily removed from food by cut-
ting, squeezing, pressing, or drying.
Freezing point: The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.
Fructose: A simple monosaccharide that is known as fruit sugar. It occurs natu-
rally in many fruits.
Globular proteins: Proteins composed of polypeptide chains twisted into a
rounded, compact shape as globs or spheres. They are usually soluble and
are primarily found in milk and eggs.
Glucose: A simple monosaccharide (sugar).
Gluten: A stretchy cereal protein that gives structure to baked goods.
Glycerol: An alcohol.
Grilling: A dry cooking method in which direct and intense dry heat is transferred
from a heat source located below the food. It accelerates the chemical reac-
tions on the surface giving it a nutty flavor, brownish color, crispy and
crusty texture on the surface while keeping the food moist on the inside.
Hydrocarbon: Substance made of hydrogen and carbon, and is hydrophobic.
Hydrogen bonding: The attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom bearing a par-
tial positive charge, which is covalently bonded to an electronegative
atom, with another electronegative atom, such as fluorine, nitrogen, or
oxygen that comes from another molecule. It is weaker than an ionic bond
or a covalent bond.
Hydrogenation: A chemical process that adds hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated
oil to saturate it. Liquid oils become solid fats. Examples of hydrogenated
fats include margarine and vegetable shortening.
Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction that breaks down the bonds in molecules using
water.
Hydrophilic: Substances that have an affinity for water, and are water-soluble.
Hydrophobic: Substances that do not dissolve easily in water.
Insoluble: A substance that is not capable of being dissolved; for example, fats are
insoluble in water.
Ionic bonding: The attractive interaction between two oppositely charged
(+ and −) ions, e.g., common table salt (sodium chloride). Ionic bonding
involves the complete transfer of electron(s) between atoms that generates
two oppositely charged ions. Oppositely charged ions are attracted to each
other by electrostatic forces, thus an ionic bond is formed.
Kneading: A process of mixing dough by pressing in a sort of forward rolling
motion, pushing, stretching, and folding, then rotating it and repeating
until it stays together and is elastic. Kneading the dough made with wheat
flour physically pushes protein molecules together and stretches the bonds
formed. It is this squeezing and stretching that develops a gluten network
that allows it to trap gas efficiently.
Lactose: A disaccharide, which is made from galactose and glucose units. It is
known as a milk sugar.
Lard: A rendered fat obtained from swine.
Leavening: A process of incorporation of gases in baked food products such
as bread, muffins, pancakes, cookies, and meringue to increase volume.
Leavening agents are used to produce gas. There are three major types
of leavening agents: biological, chemical, and mechanical. Beneficial
microorganisms, primarily yeasts, are used as biological leavening agents.
During baking, yeast consumes sugar and/or sugar in a recipe and pro-
duces carbon dioxide gas (through fermentation), which is trapped by
the dough (gluten) structure. Baking powder, and baking soda are the
two chemical leavening agents. Baking soda is an alkaline substance that
produces carbon dioxide gas when mixed with acidic ingredients such
as cream of tartar, lemon juice, and yogurt. Baking powder already con-
tains the acidic ingredients. Once combined with liquid, gas produc-
tion begins. Carbon dioxide gas, which is produced by either chemical
leavening agent, is trapped by the dough (gluten) structure during bak-
ing. Air and steam are two types of mechanical leavening agents. Physical
forces such as mixing, and whisking can trap air in small protein matrix.
During baking, gas (produced by biological, chemical, and/or mechani-
cal means) entrapped in the food structure expands with increased heat.
Therefore, the volume of the food increases. At the end of the baking
process, the gas bubbles are transformed into semi-rigid structure, and
small holes are formed. All leavening actions are mainly responsible for
a good volume, a light and fluffy texture and a uniform hole structure of
the final food products.
Lecithin: An emulsifier found in eggs and soybean oil.
Lipids: Organic substances that are insoluble in water and soluble in nonpolar
solvents. Fats and oils are known as lipids.
Maillard browning reaction: A nonenzymatic browning reaction caused by the
reaction of reducing sugars with proteins and amino acids in foods. The
Maillard reaction is responsible for the brown color and nutty flavor of
cooked foods, e.g., roasted meat, toast, and coffee.
Melting point: The temperature at which solids become liquids.
Mincing: A food preparation technique in which food ingredients are divided into
tiny uniform pieces, smaller than diced or chopped foods. Minced foods
are usually prepared with a chef’s knife, food processor, or in the case of
meat, by a meat grinder.
Mixture: Made of two or more different substances that are physically mixed with
each other. Mixtures can be separated into their components by physical
means.
Molecule: Two or more atoms join together chemically to form molecules.
Monomer: A molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a
polymer.
Monosaccharide: A simple sugar that constitutes the building blocks of disac-
charides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Examples are glucose,
fructose, and galactose.
Monounsaturated fatty acid: Fatty acids that contain one C=C double bond in
the hydrocarbon chain.
Oil: Substances that are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. They are liquid at
room temperature. Plants are the primary sources of oils.
Osmosis: The movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a
region of high solvent concentration to a region of low solvent concentration.
Pectin: A large polysaccharide that is present in plant cells. It occurs naturally in
most fruits, and is concentrated in the skins and pips of different types
of fruits.
Peptide bonds: Bonds that connect the amino group of one amino acid and the
carboxylic acid group of another amino acid.
Peptides: Short chains of amino acids.
Physical change: A reversible change that involves a change from one state (solid
or liquid or gas) to another without a change in chemical composition,
e.g., ice melting. No new substances are formed.
Poaching: A process of cooking foods in small amount of gently simmering water
or flavorful liquid such as salted water, broth, stock, etc. Poaching is usu-
ally used for very delicate food items such as lean poultry, eggs, fruits, or
fish. The basic steps include heating the liquid to simmer, gently submerg-
ing the food into the hot liquid, and removing food from the liquid when
the cooking process is completed. The temperature of the poaching liquid
is one of the most critical factors for the success of the process. It must be
maintained around 71°C–82°C (160°F–180°F) throughout the process
since higher heat may cause the food to fall apart or toughen.
Polymers: Macromolecules that contain 10 or more monomer units. Protein is a
polymer of the monomer amino acids.
Polypeptides: Long chains of amino acids.
Polysaccharide: A carbohydrate that is made up of a number of simple sugar units
(monosaccharide) bonded together.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Fatty acids that have multiple C=C double bonds.
Primary structure of proteins: The sequential order of amino acids in a
protein.
Proteins: Complex polymers composed of amino acid monomers.
Quaternary structure of proteins: Two or more polypeptide chains joined
together to form the quaternary structure of proteins.
Radiation: A mode of heat transfer. Physical contact between the energy source
and food is not required in radiation. Heat is transmitted through empty
space to the foods by electromagnetic waves. When the waves strike
the food, they are absorbed. Kinetic energy of the molecules in the food
increases so they start to move faster; increasing the temperature of the
food. Microwave (light waves) and infrared energy (heat waves; such as
from the walls of the hot oven, and broilers) are the two important types
of radiation in the kitchen.
Rancidity: The chemical deterioration of lipids. Undesirable odors and flavor may
develop as a result of chain reactions. Rancidity can be either enzymatic
or oxidative.
Rennet: A combination of different proteolytic enzymes. It is usually only extracted
from the stomachs of young animals.
Rennin: A proteolytic enzyme found in rennet. It curdles milk.
Retrogradation: Starch molecules, particularly the amylose fractions, reassociate
in an ordered structure in gelatinized starch; eventually a crystalline order
appears and water is squeezed out, e.g., staling of bread.
Saturated fat: A fat that is normally solid at room temperature, e.g., butter. Fatty
acids in their structures are saturated; they contain only carbon–carbon
(C–C) single bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.
Saturated solution: A solution in which the dissolved solute is in equilibrium
with the undissolved solute.
Secondary structure of proteins: The three-dimensional organization of the
polypeptide chain formed by intramolecular and intermolecular hydro-
gen bonding.
Sifting: Passing dry ingredients such as flour, cocoa powder, baking powder, salt,
or sugar through a mesh bottom sieve to fluff them up, to separate them
based on their particle sizes, and to get rid of impurities and clumps,
which may be in the ingredients. Dry ingredients get lighter and fluffier
since this process combines air with the ingredient being sifted. Therefore,
the sifted and unsifted ingredients (from the same batch) that take up
the same volume do not weigh the same. For example, a spoon of sifted
flour weighs less than a spoon of unsifted flour, and can change the tex-
ture and/or consistency of final products. Sifting dry ingredients together
helps to combine them evenly within each other.
Simmering: A moist cooking method. Food is cooked slowly in liquid at a temper-
ature of about 82°C–96°C (180°F–205°F). A full boil is not reached; the
bubbles form barely and gently rise to the surface of the liquid. Simmering
is mainly used to cook soups, broths, and stocks.
Smoke point: The temperature at which heated fats and oils begin to smoke and
emit unpleasant odors.
Soluble: A substance that is capable of being dissolved, e.g., salt is soluble in water.
Solute: Substances in solutions.
Solution: A mixture of one or more solutes and a solvent.
Solvent: The substance in which a solute dissolves.
Starch: A polymer of glucose units. It has two fractions: amylose and amylopectin.
Sucrose: A disaccharide made from glucose and fructose units.
Tertiary structure of proteins: The three-dimensional organization of the
polypeptide chain, which is maintained by weak, noncovalent interactions,
such as hydrophobic interactions and salt bridges.
Unsaturated fat: A lipid that is normally liquid at room temperature, e.g., olive oil.
Fatty acids in their structures are unsaturated; they contain C=C double
bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. Those lipids are normally liquid at room
temperature, e.g., olive oil.
Viscosity: The resistance to flow in a liquid.
Water activity: Refers to free water in foods.
Water holding capacity: Ability of a food structure to entrap water.
Whey: One of the two major proteins in milk. It is the liquid left behind after milk
has been curdled and strained as in cheese making.
Whipping: A process of beating some foods rapidly with a utensil to incorporate
air to produce volume and to provide body. During whipping, fat and
protein molecules in the liquid surround the tiny air pockets and stabilize
them. Formed fat bubbles clump together producing the characteristic stiff
structures of whipped foods. Creams with at least 30% fat contents are
the most common ingredients used in whipping processes in the kitchen.
Whipping is usually carried out with a whisk, with rotary beaters, or with
electric beaters.
Index
A Boiling point elevation, 61

Bound water, 49
Actin, 149
Agar, 333
Aging gel, 129 C
Albumen, 155
Caramelization, 99–109
Alginate, 320, 333
Carbohydrates
Amino acid, 146
chemical structure, 90–92
Amylopectin, 115–117, 129
functional properties, 89
Amylose, 115–117, 129
Carboxymethyl cellulose, 334
Antimicrobial preservatives, 309
Carrageenan
Antioxidant, 247, 309
iota carrageenan, 334
Atom, 23–24
kappa carrageenan, 334
lamda carrageenan, 334
Cellulose, 137, see also Polysaccharide
B
Chemical bonds, 24
Bacteria, 361 Chemical change, 23
aerobes, 364 Chemical hazards, 348
anaerobes, 364 Chemoreceptors, 275
beneficial/fermentative, 353 Coagulation, 201
facultative anaerobes, 364 Collagen, 149, 165
mesophiles, 362 Compound, 24
pathogenic, 353 Consumer acceptance/preference tests, see
psychrophiles, 362 Sensory evaluation tests
spoilage, 353 Continuous phase, 241
thermophiles, 362 Conversion between units of measures, 5–8
Bacterial growth Cost, 13–16
generation time, 362 Covalent bond, 24
hurdle concept, 364 Cross contamination, 370
lag phase, 362 Cynarin, 289
log phase, 362
requirements, 361–366
Baking powder, 33, 382
D
Baking soda, 33, 382 Denaturation, see Protein denaturation
Binary fission, 361 Descriptive ranking tests, see Decriptive tests
Biological hazards, 348 Descriptive rating test, see Descriptive tests
Boiling point, 61 Descriptive tests, see Sensory evaluation tests
387
388 Index
Dextrinization, 133 retrogradation, 125

Disaccharides, 91, 97 safe practices, 367
Discrimination/difference tests, see Sensory saturated and unsaturated solutions, 93
evaluation tests shortening power of lipids, 231
Dispersed phase, 241 smoke point, 217
Duo-trio test, see Discrimination/difference starch types, 111
tests starch types and starch gels, 111
statistics, 17
synergistic effects of multiple factors and
E protein denaturation, 197
Element, 24 taste and flavor, 273
Emulsifier, 241 temperature and flavor perception, 277
Emulsion, 241–242 temperature and sugar syrup, 99
Enzymatic rancidity, 245, see also Lipid temperature fluctuation and ice crystal
oxidation size, 75
Experiments tempering, 249
acidity and protein denaturation, 181, 187 types of bacteria, 349
basic chemistry, 27, 29 types of water, 45
boiling point and boiling point elevation, water content and water activity, 51
57
dextrinization, 131
emulsion, 237
F
enzyme and protein denaturation, 191 Fat bloom, 253
flavor pairing, 283, 287 Fats and Oils, see Lipids
food additives, 313 Fermentation, 185
food poisoning, 371 Fibrous proteins, 149
freezing point and freezing point Flakiness, 235
depression, 63 Flavor
freezing rate and ice crystal size, 69 chemical structure, 275
frying, 225 temperature effect, 281
gel aging, 125 Flavor compounds, 290–302
gelatin, 191 Flavor enhancers, 310
gluten, 203 Flavoring, 310
heat and egg protein denaturation, 151, Foaming, 179
157 Food additives
heat and meat protein denaturation, 163, classification, 307
167, 171 intentional/direct, 307–310
hydrocolloids, 319, 325, 339 unintentional/indirect, 308
ingredients and starch gel properties, 119 Foodborne hazards, 348
lipid oxidation, 243 Food pairing, 289
lipid types, 223 Fractions, 9
mechanical force and protein denaturation, Free radicals, 245–247
175 Free water, 49
microbial growth, 355 Freezing, 63–80
mixing and ice crystal size, 75 effect of agitation, 79
mixing and sugar syrup, 99 effect of storage time, 79
natural sugar contents, 107 effect of temperature fluctuation, 79
osmosis, 81 rate of, 73
pectin, 135, 139 Freezing point, 67
Index 389
Freezing point depression, 67 Lipoxygenase, 245

Fructose, 90 Locust bean gum, 336, 343
Frying, 229
ingredient effect, 229
M
processing time effect, 229
temperature effect, 229 Maltose, 91
type of lipid effect, 229 Mean, 17, see also Statistics
Melting point of lipids, 219
Miraculin, 289
G Mode, 17, see also Statistics
Galactose, 90 Monosaccharides, 90, 97
Gelatin, 195 Monosodium glutamate, 310
Gliadin, 209 Monounsaturated fatty acids, 214–216
Globular proteins, 149 Muscle fibers, 165
Glucose, 90 Myoglobin, 173
Gluten, 209 Myosin, 149, 165
Gluten content of flours, 209
Glutenin, 209
Guar gum, 335, 339–341
O
Gum Arabic, 331, 335 Octet Rule, 24
Odor, 275
Odor molecules, 275
H Oil-in-water emulsion, 241
Hedonic rating scale, see Consumer Osmosis, 85
acceptance/preference tests Oxidative rancidity, 245–247, see also Lipid
Hydrocolloids oxidation
chemical structure, 317–318 causes, 245
functional properties, 331–338, 343 precautions, 245
sources, 318
Hydrogen bond, 24
P
Paired comparison, see Discrimination/
I difference tests
Ice crystal, 79 Pectin, 137, see also Polysaccharide
Idea development, 259 high-methoxyl, 336
Immiscible liquids, 241 low-methoxyl, 336
Infection, 353 Pectin gel
Intoxication, 353 acid effect, 141
Ionic bond, 24 heat effect, 141
sugar effect, 141
Percentages, 9
L Physical hazards, 348
Lactose, 91 Polysaccharides, 92, 115, 137
Leavening agents, 310, 382 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, 214–216
Line extension, 258 Potentially hazardous foods, 361
Lipid oxidation, 245–247 Preference tests, see Consumer acceptance/
Lipids preference tests
chemical structure, 214–216 Primary structure, 146, see also Protin
functional properties, 213 Product development, 259
390 Index
Protein Smoke point, 220–221

chemical structure, 146–149 Sodium alginate, 332
functional properties, 145 Solutions, 93–98
Protein denaturation, 149–201 recrystalilization, 97
charge effect, 149, 179 saturated, 93, 97
enzyme activity effect, 149, 195 saturation point, 97
fat effect, 179 supersaturated, 97
heat treatment effect, 149, 155, 161, 165, Spherification
173 direct, 331–332
mechanical treatment effect, 149, 179 reverse, 331–332
pH effect, 149, 185, 189 Spider graph, 266
sugar effect, 149, 179 Stages of sugar syrup cooking
Proteolytic enzymes, see Protein denaturation caramelization, 106
actinidin, 195 firm ball, 106
bromelain, 195 hard ball, 106
ficin, 195 hard crack, 106
papain, 195 soft ball, 106
soft crack, 106
Starch, 111–130
Q functional properties, 115
Qualitative observations, 1 gelatinization, 115
Quantitative measurements, 2 gelatinization temperature, 111, 115, 123
Quaternary structure, 147, see also Protein Starch gel
acidity effect, 123
agitation effect, 123
R enzyme effect, 123
Rancidity, 245–247, see also Lipid oxidation lipid effect, 123
Range, 18, see also Statistics protein effect, 123
Recipe yield conversion, 11 rate of cooling effect, 123
Rennet, 201, see also Protein denaturation sugar effect, 123
Retrogradation, 129 Statistics, 16–19
Sucrose, 91
Sugar bloom, 254
S Syneresis., 129
Safe practices, 369–370
Secondary structure, 146, see also Protein
Sensory attributes
T
appearance, 260 Taste, 275
hearing, 260 Temperature danger zone, 362
odor, 260 Tempering, 253–254
taste, 260 Tertiary structure, 146, see also Protein
touch, 260 Triangle test, see Discrimination/difference
Sensory evaluation tests, 260–268 tests
consumer acceptance/preference tests, 267
descriptive tests, 263–266
discrimination/difference test, 262–263
U
requirements, 261 Units of measurements
terminology, 261 SI system of units, 5
Shortening, 235 U.S. customary system, 5
Index 391
V liquid phase, 43
solid phase, 43
Vapor pressure, 61
X
W
Xanthan gum, 337, 339–341
Water activity, 55
Water-in-oil emulsion, 241
Water molecule, 24, 41 Y
Water phases Yield percent, 11
gas phase, 42
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Cooking as a

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-59712-9 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Ozilgen, Z. Sibel, author.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

1 Measurements and Units 1

2 Basic Food Chemistry 23

3 Water in Culinary Transformations 39

4 Carbohydrates in Culinary Transformations 89

Experiment 4.7 131

5 Proteins in Culinary Transformations 145

Experiment 5.11 203

6 Fats and Oils in Culinary Transformations 213

7 Keys to Developing the Perfect Bite: New Food Product

8 The Science of Flavor and Flavor Pairing 271

9 Food Additives in Culinary Transformations 307

10 Food Safety and Hygiene in Culinary Transformations 347

Experiment 10.4 371

symbol precedes a scientific explanation of the observations made dur-

To the Yeditepe University in Istanbul, Turkey, for providing facilities to conduct

Sibel Özilgen, Ph.D., is the Head of the

Measurements and Units

WHY DO WE NEED MATHEMATICS

Measuring the ingredients, calculating the proportions of the ingredients, recipe

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS IN THE KITCHEN

There are two types of measurements in culinary operations: qualitative obser-

Attribute of the The common words that may be used

Appearance Appetizing, attractive, bubbly, shiny,

Taste Bitter, sweet, sour, salty, bland, spicy,

Smell Floral, fresh, smoky, spicy, burnt,

Texture Gritty, smooth, hard, slimy, moist, dry,

Sound Crunchy, fizzy, sizzling, bubbling

In every quantitative measurement, there is a number followed by a unit.

Number from Unit

• standards and stability to the recipes;

Conversion between units of measures is possible.

U.S. Customary International System

Length inch (in) meter (m)

Weight pound (lb), ounce (oz) gram (g)

Temperature Fahrenheit, °F Celsius, °C

Measurement Conversion Factor

Length 1 in. = 2.54 cm

Measurement Conversion Equation

°C T (°F) = 1.8 × T (°C) + 32

= New number in new unit

Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C)

Freezing point 32°F 0°C

Figure 1.1 Temperature scales.

In addition to unit conversion, sometimes it is necessary to convert from volume

EVERYDAY CALCULATIONS IN THE KITCHEN

Fractions and Percentages