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1
Measurement of irrigation water, volumetric, ‘V’notch, parshal flume,
water meters.
Measurement of irrigation water is the prelude for the precise application to the
crops and is useful to manage the over or deficit irrigation. In every irrigation project,
water is supplied from the reservoir to the field through main canals, distributaries,
branch canals, sub-canals and water courses. Different devices are used to measure water
flow in channels.
Water Measurement
Methods used to measure water in the farms can be grouped into (a) Volumetric
method, (b) Volume metering method (c) Velocity area method, (d) Using measuring
structures and (e) Tracer method.
a)Volumetric method
This method is used to measure small discharges of water applied to the field.
This method can also be used to determine discharge from a pump or Persian wheel and
calibrating orifices and weirs and deriving formula to calculate discharge through them.
This method may also be used to measure the flow of water of a stream in to a tank or
reservoir.
Water meter
A water meter contains a multi -blade propeller that rotates in a vertical plane.
The propeller is linked to a numerical counter which adds the flow and display in
volumetric unit. The meter is fitted in water pipelines. The water flowing through should
be free from debris. Water meters are costly and at farms this may not be preferred.
Q= C x L x Hm
Where,
Q= discharge
C= coefficient, depending up on the nature of crest and approach conditions
L=length of weir crest
H=head on the crest
M=exponent depending upon weir opening.
The flume has three section, the upstream (converging section). The throat section
and the downstream section (diverging section). The upstream section is the entrance
section. The floor of the upstream section is level and the walls converge throat section.
The walls of the throat section are parallel and the floor is inclined download. The walls of
the downstream section diverge towards the outlet and floor is inclined slightly upward.
The down section is the discharge section.
The size of the flume goes after the width of the throat of the flume. Sizes ranging
from 225 cm to several cm in throat width have been calibrated and tables of discharge
developed. Parshall flume can be made to any capacity required.
Q= 4 W.ha 1.522
Parshall flume of brick cement structure can be permanently made at the
measurement site. Portable ones can be made of wood, thick tin or galvanized iron sheets.
While constructing, sufficient care should be taken to maintain dimension of different
sections, slope, width, etc. The calculated discharge needs to be calibrated with actual
discharge and the equation adjusted in all weirs and flumes.
Cut throat Flume
This flume has no throat section. It is an improvement over Parshall flume. The
flume has a flat bottom, vertical walls and zero length throat section. It is easy to
construct and operate. Flow in this flume can also be free or submerged. Under free flow
conditions vertical depth occurs in the vicinity of minimum width (W) which is called the
flume neck. Upstream depth Ha determines the discharge.
To measure flow in pipes venture tube, Collins flow gage or Cox flow meter is
used. By these instruments flow is measured at one point in the pipe. Flow varies
depending on if the pipe is flowing full or partially full.
Exercise
1. A farmer has no devices to measure a small stream to irrigate his vegetable plot.
He used a drum of 0.9 m2 having a depth of 1 m. It took 15 minutes to fill the tank. Find
out the flow rate of the stream.
2. An area of one hectare is irrigated in 40 hrs with a discharge rate of 250 litres per
minute, what is the average depth of irrigation?
3. Irrigation requirement of a 100 days duration crop is 40 cm. How much area can
be irrigated with a flow rate of 20 litres per second for 10 hrs in a day?
Ex. No. 2
Use of commonly used formulae in irrigation practices and working out
problems
The application of water for irrigation involves use of formulae and related units for
solving the problems from its storage level to field through various conveyance means. Different
units and their conversions help in understanding of the irrigation practical applications.
Water is measured only in its liquid form under two conditions under field
conditions:
1. At rest: This is called volume measurement such as litre, cubic metre, hectare
centimetre (ha-cm), hectare meter (ha-m), acre inch, acre foot, etc.
Water standing to a height of 1 cm over an area of one hectare (10,000 m2) is
called one hectare centimeter (100,000 litres = 100 cubic metre). Water standing to a
height of 1m is called one hectare meter (10,000 cubic metre=10 million litres).
Water standing to a height of one inch over an area of one acre is called
one acre inch, (3630 cubic ft = 102739 litres). If this water is spread over an area of one
hectare it will stand to height of 1.027 cm (1 acre inch = 1.027 ha- cm).
2. Water in Flow: It is measured as flow volume per time, i.e., litres/second, m3/sec
(cu mec), or cubic ft/second (cusec), ha cm/h, or acre inch/h. A flow of one cubic foot/
second for an hour is approximately equal to one acre inch. A flow of 27.80 litres per sec
for an hour is equal to one ha cm.
Mass volume relationship in soils
Soil has volume and weight. Unlike solid substances considerable volume in the
soil is occupied by air in pores. Hence, its mass volume relationship needs consideration
Mass (g)
Density (D) = = g cm-3
3
Volume (cm)
Sometimes density is expressed in terms of specific gravity which is the ratio of the
weight of any volume of substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at 40C, i.e.
i) Bulk Density
As mentioned above any volume of soil represents the volume of real soil
particles and volume of pore space. Hence, the volume of only soil particles is less than
the total volume occupied by the bulk of soil. Hence, density of soil expressed as
It is not the real density. Hence, it is called the bulk density i.e density of bulk
soil. If mass of 1 cubic cm soil is 1.56 g its bulk density is 1.56 g/cm3.
ii) Real Density (Particle Density)
If the particles in any volume of the soil are compressed they will occupy less
volume; since their weight remains unchanged and the volume decreases, the density will
increase. This density with reference to volume of particles only is called real or particle
density.
Bulk density varies with the moisture content in the soil. To avoid this, generally
mass of the dry soil is taken. Due to variation in sand, silt and clay per cent and organic
matter the bulk density of soils varies.
Total porosity can be defined as percentage of bulk volume not occupied by
solids. Hence total porosity per cent (%).
iv) Volumetric water content (Vm) in percentage can be calculated if the soil
bulkdensity (Db) is known.
Vm= Ww – Dw x 100 x Db
Dw
Vm =Sm x Db
The amount of water in soil can be expressed in depth per unit soil depth.
Base period: it refers to the entire duration of the crop in days from first irrigation for
preparatory cultivation to the last irrigation.
Delta: It is the total depth of water (cm) required by a crop during its duration in the field
denoted by by the symbol Delta. It is calculated by dividing the volume of irrigation
water by the area irrigated. It is expressed in hectare – metre (ha-m) or in million cubic
metres (M m3)
Duty: It is defined as the area irrigated per cumec of discharge running for base period B.
It is usually represented by the letter D.
Determination of the surface area of canal cross sections
The cross section of the canal has a trapezium shape. Thus the formula to
calculate its surface is similar to the formula used to calculate the surface area of
trapezium.
Surface area of the canal cross section = 0.5 (base +top line) x canal depth = 0.5 (b+a) x h
Where
Base (b) = bottom width of the canal
Top line (a) = top width of the canal
Canal depth (h) = height of the canal or water depth
Determination of the surface area of farm
When the shape of the fields is regular and has, for example, a rectangular shape,
it is not difficult to calculate the surface area once the length and width of the field is
measured. In the case of fields having irregular shape, it should be divided into several
regular shapes of square, rectangle, triangle, etc. and the formula is applied and the area
of these shapes is summed to find the total area of the farm.
Units of volume
1 dm3 = 1 litre and 1 m3 = 1000 litres
Exercise
1. Find the porosity of a soil having a bulk density of 1.3 g/cc and real density of 2.6 g/cc.
2. What would be the quantum of water when 3 cm of rainfall occurs in one hectare area?
4. One hectare – centimeter (ha-cm) is the volume of water necessary to cover an area of
one hectare to a depth of one centimeter. Find out the volume of water in litres.
Ex.No.3
Observations and practicing land shaping
Land refers to the soil surface and the below and above spaces of the surface. The
above space is the atmosphere. The surface includes the topography, vegetation etc., a
land need to be evaluated for the suitability for the irrigation projects involving various
methods of applying water. Some of the factors influencing on the suitability for
irrigation are, Soil depth, texture, water holding capacity, permeability, water table,
topography , slope, soluble salt content, Exchangeable sodium percentage and a neutral
PH.
Keeping the land in its natural condition and preparing the same for irrigation
may be very difficult as it will not result in efficient application of water. Natural
conditions of land surface have to be changed essentially for the scientific method of
water application. Hence the land has to be reshaped by grading and leveling it. The
object in making and preparing a suitable field surface is to regulate and control the flow
of water to check the possible soil erosion and to provide for surface drainage.
Development of land for irrigation includes land survey, land clearing, land shaping and
finally the field layout.
Land survey
The first step in survey is to divide the land into grids. Grids are net work of
equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines especially for locating points when placed
over a map. The size of the grids vary with unevenness and accuracy needed for lvelling.
The second step in survey is taking levels at each grid point with a dumpy level adopting
the usual method. The levels at each grid point are marked on a map. For easy study,
contour lines are marked on the map at suitable intervals. The interval of contour lines
depends on the slope of the land.
Land clearing
The land needs to be cleared before its grading survey is taken up and subsequent
land shaping operations. It covers removal of heavy vegetation cover , unwanted trees,
bushes, trashes , boulders etc., land clearing may be done by manual labour or by
employing bulldozers, root cutters, choppers and by suitable machineries.
Land leveling
Land leveling is modifying the surface relief of a field for efficient application of
irrigation water. Usually the land is not given a true level surface but a grade is provided
to meet the drainage requirement.
The operation of land shaping is a three stage programme. These are 1. Rough
grading 2. Land leveling and 3. Land smoothing.
1. Rough grading is the removal of surface undulations such as mounds, dunes,
depressions, gullies, pits etc., Land grading is done by tractor-drawn carrier – type
scrapers, small scrapers drawn by tractor and by animal -drawn buck scrapers.
2. Land leveling reshapes the land surface to a planned grade which entails moving
large quantities of earth over considerable distance.
3. Land smoothing. It is a very fine leveling of the field and flow of water and
distribution will be uniform. Very small undulations which are not easily observable are
further leveled.
Land characteristics considered for land leveling
The following characteristics are considered for land levelling.
1. Soil profile 2. Land slope 3. Rain fall 4.cropping pattern 5. Irrigation methods and
6. Other aspects
The land leveling can be taken up based on contour survey and by computation of
cut and fill soil. Suitable implements both tractor or bullock drawn may be used and the
cost may be planned to to kept at minimum.
Further land development programme is planned, prior to land leveling design, so
that field arrangements, boundaries, irrigation channel and drainage systems and roads
are known. Use of earth for field structures are adjusted from the near surface area
which will be facilitated by a topographical map of the land to be developed for a
garden. Field channels and underground pipelines to supply water to the fields are
located along the upper reach of the irrigation runs. The supply channel or pipeline is
laid perpendicular to the direction of surface irrigation methods. The canals should be
little elevated for easy flow of water and the channels should have < 0.1 % slope.
Field arrangements or Lay out of the field
Laying out fields of workable size and shape is important to successful irrigation
farming. The fields are laid out nearly rectangular or square without sharp bends. The
field length is based on the maximum length to which irrigation water could run. The
field lengths are limited by ownership boundaries, cropping pattern, operation schedule
and type of farm equipment.
Irrigation water should flow correctly to all parts of fields. Field channels are
normally run at right angle to the directions of irrigation. Water surface in the field
channel should be 20-30 cm higher than the ground level to be irrigated and may be
nearly level or less than 0.1% slope. Field roads are located above irrigation channels.
The surface and sub- surface drains are provided wherever needed.
Field road system
Access to all areas of the farm for movement of farm machineries and equipments
and transporting produces and convenience for operation of irrigation systems.
Drainage
Drainage of either open or closed type becomes essential to drain-off excess
rainfall promptly to prevent salinity formations in the soil. This also helps to avoid
damages to land due to seepage from the upper elevations. Planning of irrigation and
drainage need to be finalized before land grading and leveling is taken up.
Laying of irrigation method is done for every season in the case of annual crops. Border
strips, check basins, ridges and furrows are prepared every time before seeding or
transplanting. In these type of field preparation the implements like bund former is being
used.
Exercise
Visit a garden and observe the lay out and assess the land work that would have
been carried out.
Ex.No.4
Study of land leveling implements
Land leveling can be done by using human labour, bullock power and mechanical
power. The implements are also used according to the power sources available. Human
labour is expensive and slow. Bullock power is economical provided the soil is not hard
and haul is up to 45 m. Simple implements used are the wooden buck scraper ,wooden
float, V-ditcher and A-frame ridger. Mechanical power is useful where the haul exceeds
45 m. The equipments used are dozers, scrapers, scoop and land planes. The bulldozer is
useful for cuts of more than 15 cm, where the earth movement does not exceed 30 m.
1. Land grading
Land grading is done by tractor drawn carrier – type scrapers, small scrapers drawn
by tractor and by animal drawn buck scrapers. Land smoothing is done by tractor –
drawn land planes or bullock drawn wooden floats.
Bulldozers, consisting of crawler tractors equipped with dozer blades, are
frequently employed in cutting and pushing earth to short distance. They are suitable for
rough grading when the haul distance does not exceed about 25 metres.
Tractor - drawn scrapers
There are a variety of scrapers in land grading. They range in size from the terrace
blade to heavy carrier type scrapers. The carrier type scraper is widely used for large
scale land grading operations
Bottomless scrapers are used for medium and small scale leveling jobs. The bowl or
bucket has little or no bottom and earth movement is accomplished with them by scraping
a load, dragging it to a short distance and dumping it. To operate these scrapers, it is
necessary to loosen the ground with a plough or harrow.
Tractor scoop is useful for digging, loading, hauling, dumping and spreading earth
and is suitable for hauls over long distances.
Animal - drawn buck scrapers
Animal drawn buck scraper is the most efficient implement for land grading when
animal power is to be used in the job and fields are of small to medium size. It may be
used to move the soil loosened by ploughing or other tillage practices. it can be operated
when the haul distance does not exceed about 60 metres.
2. Land leveling
Land plane
Land leveling jobs are finished by land planes, levelers and floats. The land
plane is essentially a bottomless scraper provided with a long frame and mounted on four
wheels. The blade is adjustable and is located at about the centre of the frame. The frame
is at least 15 metres long and this great length makes it possible to finish a field to 15
metres long and uniform smooth surface. When in use, the blade is permanently set at a
level which will maintain about one-third of the load in the bowl. With this adjustment
properly made the machine will, as it is drawn across the field, automatically remove
high spots and fill depressions. The machine is operated in diagonal directions and
downfield. The machine, however, is suitable only to grade large fields.
Land smoothing is a finer work which further levels the surface to plane surface
which is also termed as land floating and land plaination.
Levelers
The two-wheeled automatic type leveller is usually used for the fine grading of
small and medium size fields. It can be operated by a medium size wheel tractor. The
machine has an adjustable blade which is so constructed that it will drag a considerable
volume of earth.
3. Land smoothing
Land smoothing is the final operation that removes small elevations and depressions
formed while leveling.
Wooden float:
The float is a long sled-like drag which is used for land smoothening with bullock
power. Large size floats are sometimes used with tractors also. The machine operates on
the principles of a carpenter’s plane. It has three blades-the cutting blade in the front, the
spreading blade in the centre and the covering blade at the back. As the float is pulled
forward, the cutting blade removes the high spots and pushes this soil into the low areas
ahead. The other two blades assist in obtaining a uniform field surface. For best
smoothing on flat field, it is desirable to float the surface three or more times by going
across the field lengthwise, crosswise and diagonally.
Use of laser leveler
The field is to be ploughed and the rotovator may be used to make fine tilth. The
laser transmitter is set. 25 point readings are taken per acre to identify the slope and
average is worked out. The laser controller bucket is positioned to mean height fixed
through automatic battery set in the tractor. For a slope difference of less than 20 cm one
time leveling for more than 20 cm two times is done. Levelling is confirmed through
point readings by resurveying.
4. Implements for surface irrigation structures
The bund former
The bund former is suitable for making small ridges suitable for check basins. The
implement has two collecting mould boards which form the ridge when the implement is
pulled forward.
The wooden A-frame ridger
The wooden A-frame ridger is a suitable implement for making ridges for border
strips and check basins. The ridger is similar in principle to the bund former. However, it
gather soil from a larger area and can make larger bunds.
The V-ditcher
The V-ditcher is a useful implement for the construction or cleaning of field
channels for irrigation and drainage. The operation for the V-ditcher in constructing a
channel is much like that of an over-size mould board plough. The channel line is first
laid out. Then a mould board plough is used to make a furrow where the line has been
staked. The plough is run again on the same furrow, but in the opposite direction,
throwing the soil out on the other side. The V-ditcher is then used in the furrow to enlarge
it into a channel.
The choice of equipment
The choice of equipment for land grading and field layout depends on the quantity
of earthwork involved, type of power available, economic feasibility of the machine and
the size of the farm. While animal-drawn equipments are suitable for small jobs, heavy
earth moving equipment is needed for major works involving large areas to be leveled.
Exercise
Observe the garden, when time permits, on land leveling and lay out of different
structures
Ex.No. 5
1. Wild flooding
In this method water flows from the ditch directly to the field without much
control on either side of the flow. It covers the entire field and moves almost unguided.
Close growing crops are generally irrigated by this method.
2. Border Irrigation
Suitable slopes: Border slopes should be uniform, with minimum slope of 0.05%
to provide adequate drainage and a maximum slope of 2% to limit problems of soil
erosion.
Suitable soils: Deep homogenous loam or clay soil with medium infiltration rates
is preferred. Heavy, clay soils can be difficult to irrigate with border irrigation because of
the time needed to infiltrate sufficient water into the soil. Basin irrigation is preferable in
such circumstances. Close growing crops are preferred for this method of irrigation.
Border layout
The dimensions and shape of borders are influenced in the same way as basins
and furrows by the soil type, stream size, slope, irrigation depth and other factors such as
farming practices and field or farm size.
For moderate slopes and stream sizes the following border strips are generally
recommended.
Soil type Border length (m) Slope (%)
3. Furrow irrigation
Furrow irrigation is suitable for a wide range of soil types, crops and land slopes.
Uniform flat or gentle slopes are preferred for furrow irrigation. The slope should not
exceed 0.5%. Usually a gentle furrow slope is provided up to 0.05% to assist drainage
following irrigation or excessive rainfall with high intensity. On undulating land, furrows
should follow the land contours. However, this can be a difficult operation requiring very
careful setting out of the contours before cutting the furrows.
Suitable soils
Furrows can be used on most soil types. However, as with all surface irrigation
methods, very coarse sands are not recommended as percolation losses can be high. Soils
that crust easily are especially suited to furrow irrigation because the water does not flow
over the ridge, and so the soil in which the plants grow remains friable. Few examples of
crops for their suitability for this method under the following topography , stream size
and their influences on the size of the beds are as follows.
Method Crops to be Topography Stream size Approximate Remarks
irrigated size of bed (m)
Furrow Potato, Flat and Small to large 0.5-1.5m wide Economic water
(Alternate ridges Vegetables, gentle slopes supply 10-50m long use, facilitates,
and furrows) Brinjal, cole intercultural
crops operations.
Fruit crops in orchards are irrigated by constructing basins or rings around trees.
Basins are usually used for small trees, while rings are used in bigger trees which are
widely spaced.
A basin is usually made for one tree sapling but it may include more than one tree
sapling when they are not spaced very wide. Basins may be square, circular or
rectangular. Basins are made longer and wider as saplings grow in size. The land inside
basins is flat with the base area of trees kept little raised so that the sapling stems do not
come in direct contact with water. A lateral or field channel passes between two rows of
trees alternately supplying water to individual basins on both sides. A basin usually
covers the complete area under the tree canopy. Desired quantity of water is allowed into
a basin for complete infiltration.
Check method consists of dividing the field into several relatively level plots called
checks surrounded by low bunds. They are irrigated with comparatively large flow of
water. Small checks are level while bigger ones are slightly sloping along the length. A
check is also termed as check basin. There are two methods of check irrigation,
rectangular check method and contour method.
In a relatively uniform land with a gentle slope, checks may be rectangular and
sometimes square. They may be a few square meters in size for vegetable crops. In
lighter soils the size of a check may necessarily be small to achieve uniform wetting and
in heavier soils the size may be large. Water is conveyed to checks by a system of supply
channel, laterals and field channels. Laterals or field channels are laid out in such a way
that a channel passes through a set of two rows of checks. A supply channel is
constructed on the upper reach of the field and laterals usually follow the slope, if there is
any. Check method is adopted for irrigating row crops and vegetables in a wide range of
soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.
In slopping and rolling lands contour checks are constructed by rising bunds or
ridges along contours having vertical intervals of 15 to 30 cm. Checks at the end of the
adjoining contours may sometimes be joined at suitable places to make them continuous.
They are almost uniformly level or gently sloping and are often small. A contour checks
is also termed contour check basin. The design criteria and the method of water
application is essentially the same as with the rectangular check method. Contour checks
are suitable for growing vegetables.
6. Pitcher Irrigation
The method includes irrigating widely spaced vegetable crops with earthen
pitchers of about 2 litres capacity each. The pitcher is porous with a small hole at the
bottom. Water trickles out through the hole and irrigates the crop root zone. Pitchers are
filled with water at 6 to 8 days interval before they are emptied. The method of irrigation
and advantages are similar to the porous cup method and the method holds a promise in
areas where water is scarce. It is however labour intensive and involves a higher labour
cost of filling the pitchers at intervals.
Exercise
1. Make an observation on the field lay out involving surface methods when you
visit a garden.
2. Calculate the time required to irrigate a check basin of 20 m long and 15 m wide
to a depth of 6 cm with a stream of 10 l/sec.
The required capacity of a sprinkler system or the capacity of the pump used depends on
the area to be irrigated, the depth of water to be applied at each irrigation, the time allowed
to apply water to this depth and the application efficiency. The capacity of the system may
be calculated by the formula
2780 x A x D
Q = ------------------
FxHxE
Where,
Q = discharge capacity of the pump, l/s
A = Area to be irrigated, ha
D = depth of water application, cm
F = time allowed to complete one irrigation, days
H = actual operating hours of the pump/day
E = Water application efficiency, per cent
2780 the conversion factor to express Q in litres per second
2. Water application rate
The rate of water application by sprinkler is limited by the infiltration capacity of
the soil. Soil type, crop cover and slope need to be taken into consideration in deciding the
application rate. Application rate in excess of the infiltration capacity of the soil may
result in runoff, poor distribution of water, loss of water and soil erosion.
The rate of water application or precipitation intensity for a single sprinkler may
be decided by the formula
Q
Where Ra = ---------------
360 x A
Ra = rate of water application, cm/hr
Q = rate of discharge of sprinkler, l/s
A = wetted area of sprinkler, m2
3. Selection of sprinklers for required discharge
The actual selection of the sprinkler is based largely upon design information
furnished by the manufacturers of the equipment. The choice depends mainly on the
diameter of the coverage required, pressure available and sprinkler discharge.
The required discharge of an individual sprinkler is a function of the water
application rate and the two way spacing of the sprinklers. It may be determined by the
formula
S1x Sm x I
Q = -------------------
360
Where
Q = required discharge of individual sprinkler, l/s
S1 = spacing of sprinklers along the lateral, m
Sm = spacing of laterals along the main, m
I = optimum application rate, cm/hr
4. Hydraulic design of sprinkler system
The hydraulic design of sprinklers is aimed at obtaining uniform irrigation
coverage, the desired rate of application, the breakup of sprinkler drops necessary to
minimize the structural deterioration of the soil surface and to maximize the area of
coverage. The main hydraulic principles involved in a sprinkler system design are
a) Discharge of sprinkler nozzle
The discharge of a sprinkler nozzle may be computed as
Q = CA√2gh
Where
Q = discharge cm3/sec
C = sprinkler discharge coefficient which vary from 0.80 to 0.95
A = Cross sectional area of nozzle or orifice, cm2
g = acceleration due to gravity cm/s2
h = Pressure head at nozzle, m
b) Water spread area of sprinkler
The area covered by a rotating head sprinkler can be estimated from the formula
R = 1.35√dh
Where
R = radius of the wetted area covered by sprinkler, m
d = diameter of nozzle, m
h = pressure head at nozzle, m
The maximum coverage is attained when the jet emerges from the sprinkler at an
angle of 30° to 32°. Most rotating sprinklers are standardized at 30°.
Spacing of sprinkler
To achieve uniform sprinkling of water, it is necessary to overlap the area of
influence of the sprinklers. The overlap increases with the increase in wind velocity.
Sprinklers are arranged along a lateral not more than 50 per cent of the coverage
by an individual sprinkler. The distance between successive positions of laterals should
not exceed 65 per cent of the diameter of the coverage by an individual sprinkler. If there
is a wind of considerable speed, the spacing between sprinklers is further reduced.
The uniformity of water distribution obtained with a sprinkler can be
experimentally determined.
Exercise
1. Collect information on soil type and application rate of the sprinkler and wind and
water distribution from the sprinklers.
2. Work out the discharge capacity of a sprinkler system to apply water at the rate of
1.5 cm/h. Two sprinkler lines 200 m long each with 18sprinklers are spaced at 11
m interval on each line. The sprinkler lines are spaced at 16 m interval.
3. Two sprinkler lines, each 186 m long, are required with a spacing of 18m between
the lines for irrigation. A total of 16 sprinklers are spaced at 12 m interval on each
line. Find out the required capacity of the sprinkler system to apply water at the
rates of 1.25 cm/hr.
Ex. No. 7
For designing drip system knowledge on Quantity and quality of water and its
elevation, climatological data for computation of ET, Soil type, daily consumptive use of
crop, its spacing, slope and topography of land, water intake rate etc., are essential.
Evaporation from the USDA class-A pan during the hottest day in the crop period of
the plant or year in the case of the tree crop is taken and multiplied by pan and crop
coefficient and crop coverage area (Plant spacing and row width).
Daily water use of each plant/ tree (q) = Evaporation (mm) x pan coefficient x crop
coefficient and plant spacing (cm) and row width (cm).
Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the
lateral to the plants. They are usually spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more
emitters used for a single plant such as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced emitters
may be used to wet a strip of soil. Many different emitter designs have been produced in
recent years.
A drip system is usually permanent. When remaining in place during more than
one season, a system is considered permanent. Thus it can easily be automated. This is
very useful when labour is scarce or expensive to hire. However, automation requires
specialist skills and so this approach is unsuitable if such skills are not available.
Water can be applied frequently (every day if required) with drip irrigation and
this provides very favourable conditions for crop growth. However, if crops are used to
be watered each day they may only develop shallow roots and if the system breaks down,
the crop may begin to suffer very quickly.
The emitters are provided at regular intervals on laterals. The water is emitted
usually in drops. The emitters are of three types.
Wetting patterns
Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation only wets part of the soil
root zone. This may be as low as 30% of the volume of soil wetted by the other methods.
The wetting patterns which develop from dripping water onto the soil depend on
discharge and soil type.
Although only part of the root zone is wetted it is still important to meet the full
water needs of the crop. It is sometimes thought that drip irrigation saves water by
reducing the amount used by the crop. This is not true. Crop water use is not changed by
the method of applying water. Crops just require the right amount for good growth.
The water savings that can be made using drip irrigation are the reductions in
deep percolation, in surface runoff and in evaporation from the soil. These savings, it
must be remembered, depend as much on the user of the equipment as on the equipment
itself.
Drip irrigation is not a substitute for other proven methods of irrigation. It is just
another way of applying water. It is best suited to areas where quality is marginal, land is
steeply sloping or undulating and of poor quality, where water or labour are expensive, or
where high value crops require frequent water applications.
A farmer has an open well of 4 m diameter and 25 m depth fitted with 5 H.P. electric
pump set. The soil is a clay loam with a slope of 0.5%. The farmer proposes to install
drip irrigation system for a citrus plantation on a 1 ha plot.
1. Area to be irrigated, land slope, type of plant, age, spacing and number per
hectare
2. Peak water requirement of a plant per day or irrigation water requirement.
3. Design of main lines and lateral lines
4. Emitters : number and spacing
5. Water required to be pumped from the well
6. Horse power of pump set
7. Unit cost
Analysis of data
ETcrop = ETo x Kc
ET crop = evapotranspiration of the crop
ETo = reference evapotranspiration = pan evaporation (Ep) x pan coefficient (Kp)
Kc = crop coefficient which is 1.0 for fully grown citrus plant.
Water requirement of each tree = Spacing of plant x wetted area fraction x ET crop
Water requirement of entire farm = Spacing x wetted area fraction x ET crop x number
of plants
Wetted area fraction for widely spaced crop is 0.3, for closely spaced crops 0.7.
3. Selection of emitters
Depending upon the type of emitter and discharge required their number can be
estimated. The water discharge rate per dripper is normally between 1 to 4 l/h though the
discharge of emitters is upto 15 to 20 l/h. The rate of application of water through dripper
is less than the infiltration rate of the soil.
The main line is designed to carry the maximum discharge required for total
number of plants in the farm.
5. A lateral is so selected that the pressure difference from the proximate end to the last
emitter does not exceed 10% of the normal operating head.
6. Capacity of pumpset
The horse power of the pump set required is based upon design discharge and
total operating head.
7. Unit cost
The unit cost is to be estimated before installing the drip system for mobilizing
the finance and the economics with other method of irrigation systems.
Taking average daily pan evaporation as 5 mm the water requirement for trees or
the annual crops are tabulated under Coimbatore conditions.
Exercise
Direct methods
• Gravimetric method
• Infrared balance
These methods are usually adopted due to ease of handling, low cost and minimum
technical skill required. However, these methods require relatively longer time for soil
moisture estimation. Some errors creep in due to sampling, transporting and repeated
weighing.
Soil samples are obtained with soil probe or augur from representative depths in
root zone and observed for colour, plasticity and cohesiveness. These parameters are a
function of soil texture, structure and moisture content. With experience, accuracy is + / –
5 to 10 percent available soil moisture.
Gravimetric method
Soil samples are collected using soil probe or auger from the desired depth in tight
moisture cans and kept in shade to avoid evaporation losses. Moist sample is oven dried
at 1050C to constant weight. The ratio of the weight loss in drying to dry weight of the
soil multiplied by 100 gives the soil moisture percentage.
• Ease of handling
• Low cost
• It is the standard method of soil moisture determination with which other methods
are compared.
• Soil sampling is destructive and may disturb experimental plots to distort the
results.
Soil moisture from the sample is evaporated by adding alcohol and igniting,
provided the sample is not too large, the result can be obtained in 10 minutes. About 1.0
ml of alcohol per gram of soil sample at FC and 0.5ml at PWP is adequate for
evaporating the soil moisture. This method is not recommended for soils with high
organic matter.
Hot Air Drying
Hot air around 1100 C is passed on a screen with weighed samples of moist soil.
Hot air vaporizes the moisture and sends it out. Soil samples must be pulverized for using
this method. It needs relatively expensive equipment.
Gypsum plugs placed in soil comes into equilibrium with surrounding soil moisture.
They are removed and weighed to determine soil moisture content. It is necessary to
calibrate the weight of porous cup with soil moisture content for different soils.
Infrared Balance
It gives fairly reliable moisture estimates in about 5 minutes. It consists of a 250 watt
infrared lamp, sensitive torsion balance and auto transformer, all housed in an aluminum
cabinet. The radiation emitted by infrared lamp quickly vaporizes the soil moisture. The
instrument is directly calibrated in percent moisture.
Neutron scattering is most commonly used indirect method for measuring soil water
content. it is based on the moderation of the speed of high-energy neutrons by hydrogen
atoms of water molecules. The resulting slow neutrons are detected by an electronic
scaler which register voltage pulses received over a given time interval. The number of
pulses accumulated on the scaler per unit time results from ionization by the back-
scattered radiation. Since significant source of hydrogen in most soils is in the water, the
technique offers a convenient means of estimating soil water content and expressed as a
volume fraction cc/cc. In soil with high root density or high level of organic residues, the
amount of organic hydrogen may affect the estimates. However this amount is small in
comparison to hydrogen in soil water. Therefore, except in organic soil, it is a good
method for soil moisture determination.
Exercise
The principal method in common use is where the water is removed by oven dry method.
Materials
Sampling augers (screw/ post hole), aluminum moisture boxes, physical balance
weighing up to 0.01 g and drying oven for 105oC.
Procedure
Take a composite sample of soil not less than 100 g in moisture box and cover it
immediately with its lid. Cover the boxes with a cloth to avoid heating in the field due to
insolation, if the number samples is large. Transport the sample to laboratory. Tipping of some
soil near the lid, weigh the sample on a physical balance, correct to two decimal places in g
(WS1). Dry the sample in an oven to a constant weight at 105oC. This takes about 48 hours. As
the boiling point of water is 100oC, 105 oC is the optimum temperature for drying. Weigh the
dried sample (WS2). Calculate the moisture percentage (Pw) by the formula, on oven dry weight
basis.
Dry wt
pv = Pw x pb
The amount of water in soil can be expressed in depth per unit soil depth.
= pv x Ds
1. Find out the water content of a soil on weight and volume basis just before irrigation
from the following data obtained from the thermo gravimetric method.
• Weight of the aluminum box – 30 g
• Weight of aluminum box with fresh soil sample– 90 g
• Weight of aluminum box with oven dry soil = 80 g
• Bulk density of the soil = 1.5 g/cc
2. Find out the soil moisture content per cent by weight, volumetric water content in per
cent and depth of water in sampled depth with the following information.
3. Find out the apparent specific gravity of 0.01 m3 of oven dried soil weighing 2 kg.
4. A soil brought from the field weighing 48 g lost 8 g on oven drying. Find out the
moisture per cent on volume basis if the bulk density is 1.5 g / cc.
Ex. No. 9
Estimation of soil moisture constants and water holding capacity
for different soils
Water content in soil under certain standard conditions is termed as soil moisture
constants.
Soil moisture constants refer to the status of the soil mass or changes occurring in
the soil mass after irrigation or rainfall. In the real sense, soil moisture cannot be said to
be constant since it is very dynamic and always tends to change due to potential gradient
or pressure gradient. This phenomenon helps to find out the soil moisture status,
availability of soil moisture, time and quantity of irrigation water to be applied etc.
The soil moisture constants are
1. Saturation capacity or maximum water holding capacity (MWHC)
2. Field capacity (FC)
3. Permanent wilting point (PWP)
4. Moisture equivalent
1. Saturation capacity or Maximum water holding capacity
Immediately after irrigation or rainfall, soil below the surface is completely filled
with water. At this stage all the micro and macropores are filled with water. The soil at
this condition is said to be under saturation capacity or maximum water holding capacity.
At saturation capacity, the water is held without any force or tension and the tension is
almost zero. This is equal to free water surface. At this point, the gravitational force tends
to pull some water which move downwards and this water is known as gravitational
water or free water.
2. Field capacity
This can be defined as the moisture content present in the soil after the drainage
of water due to gravitational force is stopped or ceased or became very slow. Hence it is
also be stated as the moisture content retained against the gravitational force.
At this point, moisture content in the soil is relatively stable and each soil particle
is completely surrounded with thick film of water and form capillary. Hence it is known
as capillary capacity.
At field capacity, the large soil pores are filled with air, the micro- pores are filled
with water and any further drainage is slow.
The field capacity is the upper limit of available soil moisture to plants. Hence it
is also known as full point.
Immediately after irrigation or rainfall, soil will reach its field capacity after two
or three days depending upon the soil texture.
The soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from 1/10 to 1/3 atmosphere for
coarse and fine textured soil.
Exercise
Materials
Straw mulch or a black polythene sheet, spade, water, soil auger, moisture boxes,
physical balance and drying oven.
Procedure
Select a representative spot in the field. Ensure that water table is not within two
metres from the layer of which field capacity is to be determined. Bunds an area of about
2.5 sq. metres on all four sides and removes all weeds to avoid transpiration.
Pour water till the desired layers gets sufficiently wet. Spread straw mulch of
atleast 40cm thickness on the surface to prevent evaporation. A polythene sheet can be
conveniently used in the place of a mulch.
Take soil samples from different layers upto the root- zone depth with auger and
determine the soil moisture content at every 12 to 24 hours interval till the values of two
successive samples are nearly equal. Plot the moisture content versus time curve on a
graph paper. The lowest influx can be taken to represent the field capacity of soil.
The value for field capacity is less than that for maximum water holding capacity,
since later measures the moisture present in a fully saturated soil resting on a water table,
so that the soil pores are completely filled with water.
The moisture percentage of a loam soil at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours interval after
saturation were observed to be 37.5, 28.7, 24.8 and 24.7% respectively. As in above
observation the moisture content after 72 hours is almost same as recorded at 96 hours.
Therefore, the field capacity of the above soil is 24.8 per cent. It means that in this type
of soil the field capacity reaches after 72 hours of saturation.
Materials
Five 600 g capacity cans with lids, sunflower seeds, glass tubing (5cm x 0.5 cm),
sealing wax, moisture cans, physical balance, drying oven, bell jars or cabinet 25cm x 50
cm with a polythene cover, water trays and soil sampler.
Fill uniformly five cans having a drain hole at the bottom with about 500 g of air
dry soil in each. It is necessary to have many replications in this trial as the permanent
wilting point is a range of moisture. Sow about four seeds of sunflower in each and allow
them to germinate.
After emergence, thin the plants to two, allow them to pass through the two holes in
the lid and place the lid. Avoid heating of the cans due to insulation, by placing them in
moist saw dust. Grow them for about six weeks, watering them as and when necessary.
By this stage plants would have developed at least about three pairs of leaves.
Insert a glass tubing in the soil for aeration and plug it with cotton wool. Seal the
soil surface with wax. Also close the drainage hole and seal it.
At this stage, water the plants for the last time and plug all the space between the
soil surface and the holes in the lid of the can be plugged with cotton wool to control
evaporation. Allow the plants to wilt.
As soon as both the plants show signs of loss of turgor, transfer them to a dark
humid chamber. The cans with plants can be kept in a small water tray and covered with
a bell jar or a wire cabinet to create a high humidity chamber. The bell or the cabinet
should be covered with a black polythene piece. The aim is to close stomata and reduce
transpiration.
Leave the plants overnight to gain favourable water balance by allowing them to
extract moisture from the soil. If they gain turgidity, expose them to the atmosphere for a
couple of hours and transfer them back to the humid chamber. Repeat the process till the
plants do not recover in dark humid chamber.
At this stage, remove the lid and cut the plants. Take a duplicate soil sample.
Remove the roots. Determine the moisture content of the soil samples which will
represent the value of the wilting point of the soil.
Pressure plate apparatus for measuring soil moisture
Laboratory measurements of soil moisture potential are usually made with pressure
membrane and pressure plate equipment and are discussed in later chapters.
Exercise
1. The weight of the moisture of soil sample taken at field capacity level was 30g and at
PWP was 12g of a soil sample which weighed 150 g on drying. The root zone depth was
60cm. the bulk density of the soil is 1.4 g/cc. Find the available water holding capacity of
the soil.
2. Calculate the available soil water holding capacity of a soil in millimeters in the 60 cm
soil profile from the following data.
Soil depth (cm) Fieldcapacity (%) PWP (%) Bulk density (g/cc)
3. Find out the volume of water required to saturate the soil of a border of 150 m long and
10 m wide with the following data available.
The irrigation is applied at 50 per cent soil water availability. The depth of root
zone is 75 cm and bulk density of the soil is 1.52 g/cm2. Available water holding capacity
of the soil is 18 per cent.
Ex. No. 10
Estimation of water and irrigation requirement for horticultural
crops
Consumptive use of water or water requirement of crop may be estimated from the
pan evaporation data. The observations made indicated the existence of a close
relationship between consumptive use by the crops and the rate of evaporation from a
well located pan. Evaporimeters incorporate the effect of all climatic factors and hence
are more accurate in estimating short term fluctuations in ET.
Estimation of water requirement
The standard USWB Class A pan evaporimeter is widely used. It is made of 20
gauge galvanized iron sheet, 120 cm in diameter by 25 cm in depth and is painted white
and exposed on a wooden frame in order that air may circulate beneath the pan. It is filled
with water to a depth of about 20 cm. The water surface is daily by means of a hook
gauge in a stilling well, and evaporation is computed as the difference between observed
levels adjusted for any precipitation measured in a standard rain gauge. Water is added
each day to bring the level to a fixed point in the stilling well.
Pan co-efficient
The pans have higher rate of evaporation than large free water surface, and a factor
of about 0.7 is usually recommended for converting the observed evaporation rate to
those of large water surface areas. This factor is called pan co-efficient.
Crop co-efficient
Evaporation is equal to pan evaporation multiplied by the crop factor. The value
of crop factor for any crop depends on its foliage characteristics, stage of growth, climate
and geographical location. Consumptive use values, in general, are low during the early
stages of crop growth and increases as plant approach grand growth and again decline
with maturity. The value for a particular crop at a location is determined experimentally.
The values of crop factor determined and available may be made useful for this purpose.
Crop coefficients (Kc) for major crops (FAO)
Crop Crop development stage
Initial Development Mid Late Harvest Total
season season period
Cabbage 0.4-0.5 0.7-0.8 0.95-1.1 0.9-1.0 0.8-0.95 0.7-0.8
Onion 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.75 0.95- 0.95-1.05 0.95-1.05 0.65-0.8
1.05
Tomato 0.3-0.4 0.7-0.8 1.05- 0.8-0.95 0.6-0.65 0.75-0.95
1.25
Potato 0.4-0.5 0.7-0.80 1.05-1.2 0.85-0.95 0.7-0.75 0.75-0.9
Banana 0.4-0.5 0.7-0.85 1.00-1.0 0.9-1.00 0.75-0.85 0.7-0.8
Grape 0.35-0.55 0.6-0.8 0.7-0.9 0.6-0.8 0.55-0.7 0.55-0.75
Example
Calculation of ETcrop
Month June July August September
Kc(monthly mean) 0.4 0.5 0.9 0.7
ETo (mm/day) 5.0 8.0 10.0 10.0
ETcrop(mm/day) 2.0 4.0 9.0 7.0
ETcrop(per month) 60.0 124.0 279.0 210.0
Etcrop(total) 673
Variation in crop water requirement
There is considerable variation in crop water requirements from region to region
depending up on climate and management practices. The differences are largely due to
the length of growing season and incoming solar radiation during crop growing season.
Irrigation requirement rarely depend on soil type and rainfall during the crop period.
Crop water requirements (mm)
Crop Water requirement Crop Water requirement
Tomato 600-800 Cabbage 380-500
Potato 500-700 Banana 1200-2200
Pea 350-500 Citrus 900-1200
Onion 350-550 Grape 500-1200
Bean 300-500 pineapple 700-1000
Irrigation requirement
The field irrigation requirement of crop refers to water requirement of crops,
exclusive of effective rainfall and contribution from soil profile, and it may be given as
follows
IR=WR - (ER+S)
Irrigation requirement depends upon the irrigation need of individual crop, area of
crop and losses in the farm water distribution system.
Mfc-Mbi
NIR = ------------------ x Db x D
100
The gross irrigation requirement can be determined for a field, for a farm, for an
outlet command area and for an irrigation project depending on the need, by considering
the approximate losses at various stages of crops.
Net irrigation requirement
Gross irrigation requirement = --------------------------------------
Field efficiency of system
For example, if the net amount of irrigation is 8 cm and the field efficiency is 75 per cent,
the gross amount of water to be applied to the field is
8 / 0.75 or 8x100 / 75 = 10.66 cm
Irrigation frequency
Irrigation frequency or irrigation interval is the number of days between irrigations
during crop periods without rainfall.
It depends upon the consumptive use rate of the crop and amount of available
moisture from the effective root zone.
In designing irrigation system, the irrigation frequency to be used is, the time
(days) between two irrigations in the period of peak consumptive use of crops.
Field capacity - moisture content of the root zone prior to
starting irrigation
Design frequency (days) =
Peak period consumptive use rate of crop
Irrigation period
Irrigation period is the number of days that can be allowed for applying one irrigation
to a given design area during peak consumptive use period of the crop
The irrigation system must be so designed that the irrigation period is not greater
than the irrigation frequency.
Effective rainfall
Effective rainfall means useful or utilizable rainfall
The useful portions of rainfall, which is stored and supplied to the crop for its
consumptive use is called effective rainfall.
Measurement of rainfall is made by a standard rain gauge. Data are usually available
from a local weather station. Different components of effective and ineffective rainfall
may be measured by weighing type lysimeters described earlier. Soil water content in the
root zone before and after the rainfall is estimated for knowing the effective rainfall. The
increment of soil water that occurs due to rain together with the crop ET during the
period between the two soils samplings done before and after rainfall constitutes the
effective rainfall.
All the rainfall received is not used by crops due to erratic nature in occurrence,
intensity and quantity. Part of the rain which moves out of the field by surface runoff and
deep percolation beyond the root zone are ineffective rainfall.
The factors influencing effective rainfall are the rainfall characteristics, land slope,
soil properties, groundwater characteristics, management practices, crop characteristics
and carry over soil moisture.
Exercise
3. With the following information available find out the net depth of irrigation water
application and irrigation period.
Soil moisture content at FC = 30%
Soil moisture content at PWP = 15%
Soil bulk density = 1.5 g / cc
Effective root zone depth = 75%
DASM level for irrigation = 75%
Irrigation efficiency = 80%
Ex.No. 11
Scheduling of irrigation – preparation of schedule by different
approaches for annuals, perennials under different methods of
irrigation and climate -soil type
Horticultural crops include annuals and perennials. Most of the vegetable crops come
under the annual crops. Annual crops have varying duration extending for one season or
more than a season but complete life span within a year.
Frequency of irrigation and amount of water to be applied depend on a number of
factors like depth of root system, water use efficiency, Stages of growth, soil type ,
prevailing weather condition and actual consumptive use of crop. Rooting depth vary
greatly among vegetable crops from 30 to 180 cm.
Where
Dm _ Soil moisture deficit at different layers
Ww – Wet weight of soil
Dw – Dry weight of soil
Db – Bulk density
Ds – Depth of soil layer
The soil moisture for different depths may be calculated and added for total
quantity or the mean values of soil moisture content and apparent density may be taken
and worked out for the deficit moisture level for replenishment.
Use of Tensiometers for soil moisture estimation
Irrigation can be scheduled based on soil moisture tension with the use of
tensiometers. Tensiometers are installed at required depth in the root zone. When the
soil moisture tension reaches a specified value (0.50, 0.75 or 1.0 bar etc) irrigation is
scheduled. Tensiometers are generally used for irrigating orchards especially in coarse
textured soils.
Simple techniques in irrigation scheduling
Other simple techniques are in practice for scheduling irrigation to crops are
described below
a) Indicator plant technique
Some crops like sunflower and tomato are highly sensitive to water stress which
will show stress symptoms earlier than other stress tolerating crops. Hence to know the
stress symptoms earlier, such sensitive crops are planted in random in the field and based
on the stress symptoms noticed in such plants, scheduling of irrigation can be made. This
approach is called as indicator plant technique in scheduling irrigation.
Some crops such as sugarcane show strong correlation between the water content of
leaf or leaf sheath and the available soil water. The relative leaf water content (RLWC)
and leaf water potential change with variations in soil water availability or owing to lag
between water absorption by plants and evaporative demand of the atmosphere. The
relative leaf water content and plant water potential have been suggested for scheduling
irrigation. However sophisticated equipment, intricate measuring devices, high cost and
lack of proper standardization of instruments deter the use of this technique on large
scale.
Plant temperature
Solar radiation reaching on the earth not only causes evapotranspiration but also
heats up leaf tissues. With water deficit in plant the temperature of leaf tissues rises.
Many investigations have shown that leaf temperature is a sensitive index of plant water
status. The difference between stressed and unstressed leaf or canopy temperatures was a
better index of water deficit than the difference between plant canopy and air
temperatures.
Orchard crop irrigation management
The depth of root penetration varies from 1 to 9 m depending up on the fruit
species. However as much as 80 – 85% of the available soil moisture is drawn from 0-90
cm layer by most of the tree fruit species and thus for all practical purposes the amount of
water applied should replenish the water deficit of this layer (0 – 90 cm). During warm
period or summer the 90 – 120 cm layer need to be replenished. Irrigation is most
effective if applied before soil moisture becomes limiting to fruit trees.
As a thumb rule, water should be applied when 50 % of the available water in
the root zone has been depleted. If further depletion is allowed, the plants may be
subjected to a level of stress that might cause an appreciable reduction in yield. The
available water refers to total soil moisture held with a water potential between -0.33 bars
and -15 bars. Perennial fruit trees, by virtue of a deep root system, absorb water from
deeper soil layers even if water potential soil layers of the upper layers drops below -15
bars the trees may not show wilting symptoms. But such a condition adversely affects
subsequent growth and fruiting of the trees.
Papaya
Papaya is a crop of humid tropics. The crop is irrigated at 12 days interval in winter
and at 6- 8 days in summer. The crop can not tolerate water stagnation and well drained
condition is important for good papaya growth. In monsoon drains are necessary to be
provided for removal of excess water and the same is used as irrigation channel during
summer. Soil moisture potential of 0.5 to 0.8 bar seems ideal for papaya crop. The crop
needs 120 cm water in 9 months.
Pine apple
Pine apple is mostly grown as a rainfed crop, but supplementary irrigation helps
in production. Irrigation at 75% depletion of available soil moisture is sufficient.
Therefore 4-6 irrigations in hot months at 20-25 days ensure good crop.
Guava
Guava hardly requires any irrigation during rainy season. In the early stage, plants
require 8-10 irrigations a year, while fully grown bearing trees require watering from
April to June at 15 days interval to get higher fruit set. Irrigation at early fruit set was also
found to be effective in reducing fruit drop and improving fruit size of winter crop.
Scheduling tuber crops
Sugarbeet
The crop can be suitably irrigated by furrow and sprinkler method of irrigation.
Consumptive use of sugarbeet varies from 800-1000 mm. frequent irrigation at IW/CPE
ratio of 0.85 is more conducive for sugarbeet yield.
Potato
For land preparation about 4-5 cm water is required. After planting sprinkling
helps in quick germination. After 20 days when the stolons start forming the crop needs
irrigation. Irrigation at 0.3 to 0.4 bar (soil water potential) in 0-15 cm layer is good for
potato.
In sandy soils of Bhubaneswar, the crop needs irrigation of 2.5 cm at 4 days
interval till 25th day. After hoeing, topdressing and earthingup 3cm irrigation at 4 days
interval till harvest produced maximum yield
Vegetable crops
Tomato
Tomato an important fruit bearing vegetable crop. Under Delhi conditions
optimum moisture regime was found to be from 100- 60% availability of soil moisture in
0 -120 cm root zone.
Radish
This is a rapid growing crop and has limited root system and respond readily to
irrigation.Radish matures in 4- 6 weeks. Irrigation at frequent intervals
Cauliflower
Adequate moisture is necessary in the top 40 cm of soil all through the growth
period. Shortage of water in the early seedling stage or just after planting or when curds
are growing rapidly leads to physiological disorders. Depletion of more than 25%
available soil moisture is deleterious. However, irrigation at 50% depletion of available
soil moisture at 30 cm soil depth is optimum on sandy loam soil at Delhi. Two to four
irrigations are required depending on the rainfall.
Spices and condiments
Important crops in this group are turmeric, ginger, chillies, coriander,etc. Turmeric
and ginger respond to irrigation at 40% depletion of available soil moisture in the 50 cm
soil depth. The optimal moisture regime for chillies is 50-100% available soil moisture in
the top 60 cm of soil depth. Flowering and fruit development are critical periods.
Coriander and cumin are winter crops and irrigation is given at 10-12 days interval on
light soils and 15-20 days interval on heavy soils.
Example
1. Calculate the total water presently contained in the top 120cm soil layer of a
mango orchard spreading in an area of one hectare and the quantity of water required to
wet the soil to field capacity level. The soil measurements are as follows.
• Present water content(W/W) 18 percent
• Water content at FC (W/W) 21 percent
• Permanent Wilting Point(W/W) 9 per cent
• bulk density of the profile on an average 1.35 g/cm3
2. Given the following information, find out the irrigation interval.
• Field capacity of the soil = 30%
• Permanent wilting point = 11%
• Bulk density of the soil = 1.3 g/cc
• Effective root zone depth = 700 mm
• Level of DASM for irrigation = 25%
3. With the following information find out the allowable depletion depth between
irrigations, frequency of irrigation, Net depth of water application and volume of water
required.
• Available soil moisture = 140 mm/m depth
• Effective root zone depth of the crop = 30 cm
• Allowable soil moisture depletion = 35 %
• Daily water use rate = 5 mm /m depth
• Area to be irrigated = 6 ha
• Irrigation efficiency = 40%
Ex. No. 12
Working out Irrigation scheduling based on soil type and climatic
requirements
The irrigation depth (IW) for different crops are fixed based on soil, climate and
root zone depth and it ranges from 4 to 6 cm, the most common being 5 cm of irrigation
For fixing the ratio of IW/CPE for each crop, experiments are conducted by
irrigating the crop at different ratios and the ratio, which gives the maximum yield, is
taken as the optimum IW/CPE ratio. The ratio ranges from 0.4 to 1.0 for different crops.
For arriving the cumulative pan evaporation value, the daily pan evaporation data
are added till it is equal to the ratio of the amount of water applied as irrigation
Scheduling irrigation at IW / CPE ratio of 1.0 with 5 cm of irrigation water means, 5
cm of irrigation is to be applied when the cumulative pan evaporation reaches 5cm.
The irrigation depth (IW) divided by the ratio (R) will give the cumulative pan
evaporation value at which irrigation is to be made
For example, if the irrigation depth needed is 50 mm and the optimum ratio is 0.5,
the cumulative pan evaporation value needed to irrigate the field is
IW 50
CPE = ------- = ------- = 100 mm
R 0.5
In the same way, if the CPE and ratio (R) are known, the amount of irrigation
water to be scheduled at 10 days interval is
Problem
Calculate the cumulative pan evaporation value at which irrigation is to be
scheduled for tomato, if the IW/CPE ratio recommended is 0.6 and irrigation water to be
IW 50
CPE = ------- = ------- = 83.3 or 83 mm
R 0.6
applied is 50 mm.
This approach provides best correlation since climatic and soil parameters are
considered.
For use by farmers, the values are to be translated in terms of irrigation interval in
days between two consecutive irrigations.
Depth of irrigation
Depth of irrigation is a function of the water retentive capacity of the root zone
soil and the extent of soil water depletion at the time of irrigation. It refers to the depth to
which the applied water would cover an area. As for example, a 10 cm depth of irrigation
to a hectare denotes the volume of water which when allowed to stand without any loss or
infiltration into the soil would stand over one hectare area to a depth of 10 cm. The net
depth of irrigation is decided by the amount of water required to bring the soil water
content just before an irrigation to field capacity in the root zone soil.
Pan evaporation for scheduling irrigation
As the rate of evaporation from pan evaporimeter is higher than that over a large
free water surface, the pan evaporation value is multiplied by 0.7 to obtain the
evaporation rate over the large free water surface (Eo). The relationship between actual
evaporation and pan evaporation rates may be presented as,
Eo = Kp . Epan or, Kp=Eo/Epan
Where,
Kp = pan evaporimeter coefficient (a commonly used value of 0.7)
Epan = evaporation value from pan evaporimeter
ET crop = Kc.ETo
Kc=ET crop / ETo
Where Kc is the crop co-efficient.
Irrigation schedule for Spices
Pepper
In India irrigation during summer is beneficial. Irrigation at IW/ CPE ratio of 0.25 or
summer irrigation of pepper vines @ 10 litres /vine/week by basin method from
December to march increases the yield.
Garlic
1. First irrigation is given just after sowing and then the field is irrigated after every
10-15 days till the season warms.
2. Irrigation at 60 mm CPE for higher yield. Frequency of irrigation should be
decreased towards maturity.
Vegetable crops
Tomato
Tomato is a deep rooted plant with high water requirement. Adequate water
supply is necessary from the start of fruit set. Irrigations are necessary at flowering, fruit
development and fruit ripening stages. The plant is sensitive to excessive moisture in
seedling stage. The optimum moisture regime is at 70 to 100% soil moisture availability.
Irrigation scheduling of IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 during vegetative period and 0.9 thereafter
give higher yield.
Exercise
1. A crop is irrigated to a depth of 5 cm using IW/CPE approach. The ratio is taken as
1.0. Then what should be the cumulative pan value for irrigating the crop?
Tensiometer
Matric potential can be measured in situ with tensiometers in the tension range upto
about 0.8 bars. Tensiometer consists of a ceramic porous cup and a mercury manometer
attached to the water filled cup through a water reservoir tube. The porous cup has high
conductance, low response time and air entry pressure of about 1.0 bar. When a porous
cup is placed in a soil and equilibrated, water tends to move out of the cup under the
suction exerted by soil. As a result, vacuum pressure develops in the cup and to make up
this, mercury rises in the manometer tube attached to water reservoir tube. Vacuum in
porous cup is actually is the matric potential of soil water. Tensiometer indicates the
tension with which water is held by the soil but not the actual water content. Relationship
between soil moisture tension and available soil moisture has to be prepared for reading
soil moisture percentage.
Useful limit of most tensiometers is about -0.8 bar of maximum potential. Hence,
they are more accurate in wet range of soil. Tensiometers are ideal for sandy soils as -0.8
bars may occur at about 80 per cent of available soil moisture. Matric potential can be
measured in situ with tensiometers in the tension range of up to 0.8 bars.
Installation
Materials
Procedure
Sink a bore with a post hole auger to the depth of installation of blocks. Place the
blocks inside and fill back the bore in small depths by tamping the soil with a wooden
rod. After placement ensure that there is an intimate contact of the block with the soil.
There should not any root pieces, pebbles, etc., near the blocks. Fill back the whole bore
with the soil in its natural order.
Do not place two blocks at a vertical interval less than 30 cm. Normally four to five
blocks can be placed in one bore. When more than one block is to be installed in a bore,
label them near their terminals carefully with their depths before installation.
Heap the soil to a height of about 3 cm near the surface at the bore spot to prevent
any water stagnation. Irrigate the field and note the readings. Check the resistance
reading at field capacity.
While installing in a crop, ensure that these are placed in the root zone. The
convenient spot for installation is in a row and in between two plants, which avoids any
disturbance during intercultivation, etc.
The method is used to determine the soil water potential curve or soil water release
curve up to two atmospheric pressure. It consists of a closed air tight chamber in which
soil sample is placed on a ceramic plate permeable to water. The chamber is connected at
the top to a compressor to create the desired pressure and at the bottom, to an outlet for
water. The portion of the chamber below the plate is kept at atmospheric pressure and the
plate remains in contact with water. Constant pressure at desired level is applied to the
upper side of the plate and water flows out from the saturated soil sample through the
outlet. When soil water comes in equilibrium at the pressure applied, the soil sample is
taken out and water content is estimated gravimetrically. Soil water contents at different
pressures are determined to construct the soil water potential curve which is referred to
estimate the water content of a soil at a particular pressure whenever wanted.
Exercise
Gather information of the following instruments and observe the working where ever
available.
a) Infrared thermometer
Irrigation water drawn from different sources viz, river, canal, tank, open well or
tube well always contain some soluble salts dissolved in it. Water being a universal
solvent, several salts are dissolved in irrigation water. The quality and quantity of salt
present in the water depend on the nature of water sources, and the soils and underground
strata over which the water flows. The main soluble salts in water are Ca, Mg, Na and K
as cations and chloride, sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate as anions. The amount and
kind of salts present determines the suitability of water for irrigation.
Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water. It is also called the salt
concentration and may be expressed in grams of salt per litre of water (grams/litre or g/l)
or milligrams per litre (which is same as the ppm). However, the salinity of both water
and soil is easily measured by means of an electrical device. It is then expressed in terms
of electrical conductivity i.e. millimhos/cm. A salt concentration of of about 1 g/l is
about 1.5 millimhos/cm. Thus a concentration of 3 g per litre will be about the same as
4.5 millimhos/cm.
Soil salinity
The salt concentration extracted from a saturated soil defines the salinity of the soil.
The type of salt present in the irrigation water will influence the risk of developing
sodicity. The higher the concentration of sodium present in the irrigation water the higher
the risk.
Optimum use of water from different sources is the main aim of conjunctive use. In
canal irrigation system, optimum utilization of rainfall and well water is essential to
protect the crop from scarcity of water.
Exercise
1. An irrigation water contains 2000 ppm of salt. Find the salt in terms of g / l or
millimhos/cm or dS/m.
Ex. No. 15
Working out area irrigable with available source of water
Horticultural crops are grown in an ecosystem which is in between the wet and
dry systems. In certain regions it is termed as irrigated dry condition. They are called as
garden lands. The cropping activities are taken up with the onset of rain and the crops are
supplemented with water through irrigations. The crop production is assured in that
situation.
The following information are required for efficient utilization of the water available.
It is a fixed one for the gardener. Based on the size it may be categorized into
marginal, small, medium and large one as in the case of farms raising field crops. The
soil type, climatic conditions, topography, water and organic matter availability play a
role in the irrigation planning.
The crop selection is influenced by many factors. They are grouped in to physical,
chemical, biological, social and economic factors. In a garden setting aside of the socio-
economic factors the physical factors climate, soil , water availability , biological factors
such as crops grown in other farms ,competing in the cropping programme, pest problems
play a role in the selection.
The crops that have the suitability to the physical and biological factors is listed and
the one fetching more profit to the farmer is selected. Taking in to consideration of the
soil fertility and productivity crop diversification is included in the crop planning.
Water requirement of the crops
Water availability to the farm may be from different sources i.e. Canal, tank and
well. The water availability period during the year in total and for the seasons is
information for raising seasonal crops.
Whether the water is made available by gravity flow or by pumping and the
discharge from these sources. How much water is available for a given time.
Problem
1. How much area of a brinjal crop may be irrigated with the water discharge available at
the rate of 5 litres per second from a pump set of an open well? The crop is irrigated to a
depth of 50 mm for each irrigation. The pump is operated for 8 hrs in a day. The
irrigation efficiency is 70 %.Assume that the water is available for 6 months.
Solution
=5x60x60x8/1000 m3=144 m3
Water required for one square metre for irrigating to a depth of 50 mm = 1x50/1000
m3=0.05m3
The area irrigable with the water discharged = total water dischargeable in a day/ water
required for irrigating 1 Sq.m x irrigation efficiency, which is 0.70
Number of days required for irrigating one hectare = 10000 m2/ area irrigated by the
source in a day
Problem
Solution
Problem
3. How much depth can 1 cumec of water for 10 minutes wet over an area of 2 ha?
Solution
Problem
4. A tube well having a capacity of 4000 lit per hour operates for 10 hrs each day during
the crop season. How much area it can command if the irrigation interval is 20 days and
depth of irrigation is 7 cm?
Solution
= 40 cumec / day.
Depth = 0.07 m
Assured irrigation water is the real potential for multiple cropping. Major irrigated
areas receive irrigation water only for a part of the year. A horticultural farm differs from
a farm engaged in field crop production. The crops have differing habits and duration and
their requirement on water with respect to quantum, quality and the way in which it is
applied. The soil and climate also considerably vary. A grower may not restrict only to
the horticultural crops. He may be growing a combination of field and vegetable crops or
fruit crops. He may also be raising more than one vegetable or fruit crops.
Example
A farmer owns a farm of 2 hectares. He plans to raise 0.4 ha each of mango, sapota,
guava and lime. The annual water requirements of these crops under drip irrigation are
70.3, 42.4, 9.9 and 12.4 lit/day respectively. The spacing recommended is 10x10m for
mango, 8x8 m for sapota, 5x5m for guava and 4.5x4.5m for lime. Besides he desires to
raise vegetable in 0.4 ha which will have an average consumptive use of 5 mm per day.
The farmer has a tube well with a discharge of 10 lit/sec. Find out how much area the
farmer can take up cultivation? How much water is in excess or deficient? Suppose the
farmer does not want to spent more money on drip irrigation and prefers to select surface
method a water requirement of 166% is required.
Ex. No. 16
Soil moisture conservation practices for increasing WUE