WVT-TN-75048

a
VAR AND ESR: DO THEY MEASURE UP

August 1975

BENET WEAPONS LABORATORY

WATERVLIET ARSENAL
WATERVLIETr, N.Y. 12189-

TECHNICAL REPORT 7 D D C
AMGMS No. 3297.06.7550

Pron No. M1-.4-A1552-01-M47-M D

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE. DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

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I. RWOff NUMBER 2.OghCE:- ATAF

H T-TN*75048 t .e e. 6
VAR and ESR: Do They Measure Up

6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

7. AUTHOR(w.y'\-\ 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(a)

M.E./PRENGAMON

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS tO. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK
Benet Weapons Laboratory - - AREA & WORK UNIT NU ERS
Watervliet Arsenal, Watervliet, N.Y. 12189 . I&...
-M 7 -M7
SARWV-RT
11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS IR.
U.S. Army Armament Command 4 Aug . 75- /
Rock Island, Illinois 61201
36
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IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

19. KEY WORDS (Continue on revere side it necessary aid Identify by block number)
Electric Furnaces Casting
Arc Melting Slags
Steel Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR)
Remelting Electroslag Remelting (ESR)

2 BSTRACT (Continue on reveres aide itneceseery amd Identify by block number)

Large gun tube forgings are presently produced from staticafly-cast electric
arc furnace steel ingots. Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) and Electroslag
Remelting (ESR) are two secondary refining processes applied to conventionally
produced steel. A comparison of VAR and BSR is made with basic electric arc
steelmaking, via a review of current literature. These refining processes
greatly improve the structure and properties of low alloy steel. Gas and
inclusion contents are lowered, and mechanical properties an6 soundness are
improved. VAR is a simpler and more developed process than ESR, but the -

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20. latter is more flexible and versatile. In addition ESR produces a much
higher yield.

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 AD
WVT-TN-75048

VAR AND ESR: DO THEY MEASURE UP

M.E. PRENGAMON

August 1975

BENET WEAPONS LABORATORY

WATERVLIET ARSENAL
WATERVLIET, N.Y. 12189

TECHNICAL REPORT

AMCMS No. 3297.06.;550

Pron No. M1-4-A1552-O1-M7-M7

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE. DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Description of Processes and Equipment 1

A. Basic Electric Arc Furnace 2

B. Vacuum Arc Remelting 5
C. Electroslag Remelting 11

Comparison of Processes 14

Comparison of Ingots: Phys.cal and Mechanical Properties 16

A. Gas Content 16
B. Cleanliness 18
C. Mechanical Properties 20
D. Soundness and Composition 23

Economic Considerations 27

Summary and Conclusion 28

FIGURES

1. Schematic Cross-section of Heroult Electric-Arc Furnace with 3

Flat-bottomed Shell and Stadium-type Subhearth, Showing a Basic
Lining Only Two of the Electrodes Are bnown

2. Schematics of Typical Ladle to Mold Vacuum Stream Degassing 6

3. Schematic of Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) Furnace 7

4. Scnematic of VAR Electrode Tip and Top of Ingot, Showing 9

Mechanism of Inclusion Removal by Flotation

5. Schematic of Electroslag Remelting (ESR) Furnace 10

6. Schematic of ESR Electrode Tip and Top of Ingot, Showing 21

Slag Skin and Mechanism of Inclusion Removal

7. Position of Solidification Isotherms in Static-Cast and 25

Consumably Remelted Ingots

TABLES

I Cleanliness Comparison of Air-melt, VAR and ESR 4340 Steel 19

II Comparison of the Transverse Mechanical Properties of Air-melt, 22

VAR and ESR, 4340 Steel

III Annual Operating Costs VAR and ESR 24 Inch Twin Furnace 29
Installation
INTRODUCTION

The steel forgings now being used at the Watervliet Arsenal in

the manufacture of cannon tubes are produced by forging static-cast

electric-arc furnace melted, modified 4335 steel. However, the

mechanical and physical properties required in gun tubes are very

demanding. Therefore, we are constantly seeking improved and more

efficient methods of production. Vacuum Arc Remelting and Electro-

slag Remelting are two secondary refining processes applied to con-

ventionally produced steel, which claim improved structural and

mechanical properties. Accordingly, an evaluation of these processes

was undertaken via a literature search, to compare them with each

other and with the presently used process.

DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES AND EQUIPMET

The first successful commercial direct-arc steel making furnace

was placed in operation by Heroult in 1899, and the first electric-

arc furnace was introduced into the U.S. in 1906. Today, gun steel

is produced by the basic electric-arc process and vacuum treated either

by the D-H process or by stream degassing into an intermediate ladle

or into ingot molds.

Consumable electrode melting is a group of secondary refining

processes used to produce special quality alloy and stainless steels.

Steel which is originally produced by any conventional steelmaking

process and cast or forged into an electrode, is remelted under special

controlled conditions. Two major secondary processes are Vacuum Arc

Remelting and Electroslag Remelting. Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) is the

process of melting an electrode under vacuum by passing an electric arc

between the electrode and the base of the mold (') and re-solidifying into

an ingot in a cooled mold.

Electroslag Remelting (ESR) is similar to VAR, but the steel is

remelted in air by a molten refining slag, resolidifying beneath the

slag layer. Both VAR and ESR produce steel ingots of very high quality.

Today, VAR is an established and widely used method of producing high

quality, large steel ingots throughout the world. ESR has been a

production process in the U.S.S.R. for a few years, but is only in the

developmental and early production stage here in the U.S.A.

A. Basic Electric Arc Furnace

The Basic Electric Arc Furnace produces steel by passing a

3-phase, a.c. current through the steel scrap charge. The scrap is

heated by radiation from the arc, and by resistance heating of the

steel itself. A basic refractory lining is used almost exclusively

for low alloy steels. The bottom, or subhearth, of the furnace is

usually a burned magnesite brick covered by granular magnesite. The

sidewalls are a metal-encased magnesite brick, and the roof is

&nerally a high alumina brick. The exterior furnace shell is usually

a we iJeO or riveted cylinder of mild or austenitic steel( 1 ). Figure 1

shows the coiistruction and refractories of the Heroult Furnace.

1. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E. McGannon,

U.S. Steei, 8th edition, 1964, p. 519

2
 U'-

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0 t 1-

444.J4 4)
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 The electrodes are long cylinders of either graphite or carbon,

passing through openings in the roof, usually spaced at the corners

of an equilateral triangle. Water-cooled rings are placed over the

openings and around each electrode to act as a seal. The electrodes

are supported by water-cooled clamps extending over the furnace, to

which the electrical connection is made. Power is supplied by large

transformers, cooled by water or oil( 2).

The furnace, which is mounted on toothed rockers resting on

toothed rails, can be tilted by motors in two directions, one for

pouring, one for slagging. Some furnaces have mechanical or in-

duction stirrers underneath. Most furnaces are top-charged, and are

equipped with mechanisms to raise the electrodes and swing the roof

away.

The bottom is charged with a thin layer of light scrap; heavy

scrap is piled within the delta of the electrodes; and light scrap

is piled around the sides to protect the refractories from the arc.

After the roof is repositioned, and the electrodes lowered to within

an inch of the scrap, the main circuit is closed and an arc is struck

at an intermediate voltage. After approximately 15 minutes, maximum

voltage and current are applied for fast melting. Throughout the

melt, P, Si, Mn, and C are oxidized readily. The production of CO

gas gives rise to a boil which agitates the bath( 2) .

2. The Making Shaping, and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

McGannon, U.S. Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p. 537

4
 After the first (oxidizing) slag is removed by backtilting and

raking, the second slag in the double-slag process is produced. The

second slag is a reducing slag containing mostly calcium carbide.

Carbon and alloying elements can be added to the slag to adjust the

composition. When the steel is sufficiently refined, the electrodes

are raised and the power is shut off. The furnace is tilted and the

steel is poured into a ladle, with the slag serving as an insulating

blanket. The steel is then D-H degassed or stream degassed into an

intermediate ladle or into the mold in a vacuum chamber at a pressure

of less than 200 microns. Figure 2 (a,b) shows two variations of the

degassing apparatus.

B. Vacuum Arc Remelting

The Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) furnace is simply a water-

cooled ingot mold in a vacuum chamber (Figure 3). The mold usually

has a copper baseplate which is cooled by a recirculating water

system. Cooling systems are designed so that, even in cases of

pump failure, water will continue to flow due to gravity, and reduce

danger of overheating. The chamber is evacuated through a series of

vacuum pumps and filters to a pressure in the range of 5 to 50

microns (3).

To effectively produce nigh quality VAR ingots, the electrode

material must be of high quality itself. Electrodes are either vacuum

3. Dyrkacz, W.W., "Vacuum Melting in the Steel Industry Today",

Journal of Metals, Dec. 1957.

f5
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INgOT 4 wrciz IN

Figure 3. Schematic of Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR

Fu: .,ace*
*Adapted from Reference (24)

7
induction melted and cast to the electrode shape, or conventional ingots

forged to shape. Current passes from the electrode to the ingot mold

through a low pressure arc. Metal transfers from electrode to ingot

as a uniform flow of fine, super heated spray. As the electrode is

consumed, it is lowered automatically by a drive mechanism to maintain

the arc length and keep it from sparking to the mold wall (4 . Direct

current is usually used, with the electrode~d.c. negative (cathode).

The chamber is pumped down to the desired pressure, and the leak

rate is determined in order to calibrate the pumps for the melt cycle.

An arc is struck between the electrode and a small starting block of

steel at the base of the mold. Between the electrode and the liquid

p3ol, the metal is subjected to about 50000K and becomes finely

divided through vaporization and degassification. When the droplets

reach the liquid pool, they are quenched to 200 to 300 0 K. The

liquid metal pool can be stirred by electromagnetic induction.

The melting rate and the ingot surface quality are affected by

the current density (5 ) . Inclusions, such as nitrides, oxides, and

silicates float upward as the melt progresses and some can be found

as a scum layer on top of the ingot (Figure 4). The greater is the

clearance between the electrode and mold wall, the better will be

4. Belk, J.A., Vacuum Techniques in Metallurgy, Pergamon Press,

1963, p. 128.

5. DeFries, R.S., Flynn, E.G., and Dyrkacz, W.W., "Consumable Electrode

Remelting of High Temperature Alloys", Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp.,
Watervliet, N.Y., Report #11-0160-1, 1955, p. 6.

8
 i

I NCLUS10 NS.l

I '

FOO COPPER
I N&OTi
MOL.TWN o .i

Figure 4. Schematic of VAR electrode tip and top of

ingot, showing mechanism of inclusion
removal by floatation*
*Adapted from Reference (5)

9mm un n
 FECTAODe HOLDEA-
i>Ikv sysrem

eLEC.TRODE

Cool. I NCO
7 ,~ - WArE R OUT

so (ARC5 op9IL

LtQ U ID POOL

- SOLIP INGOT

WA WATE INO0E

BAsc PLATe
Figure 5. Schematic of Electro-Slag Remelting (ESR)
Furnace*

*Adapted from Reference (9)

10
r the removal of impurities. The high temperature in the arc region helps

to break down impurities, and the low pressure helps to degas the steel(6).

C. Electroslag Remelting

The Electroslag Remelting (ESR) furnace is constructed similar

to the VAR furnace, with a water-cooled copper mold and baseplate. There

are no special atmospheric requirements in ESR; the top of the furnace

is open to the air. The electrode drive system is similar, and the

electrodes are prepared in the same way as in VAR. Figure 5 shows the

design of the ESR furnace.

The major difference between ESR and VAR is the use of slag

as the heating element and'refining bath instead of an arc. Power

is transmitted from electrode to baseplate, through the slag bath

and the ingot. The resistance of the slag heats the tip of the

electrode and melts it. The resultant drops of molten steel are re-

fined as they fall through the slag. The tip of the electrode is

immersed in the slag layer which floats on the molten metal pool and

excludes the outer atmosphere (7) . The major component of the highly

basic slag is calcium fluoride, but it can also contain lime, magnesia,

alumina, and silica. The slag must have a low neting point, high

stability, low volatility and refining reactivity. The depth and

composition of the slag pool must be maintained throughout each melt

6. Belk, J. A., Vacuum Techniques in Metallurgy, Pergamon Press,

1963, p. 128

7. Carvajal, L. Fernando and Geiger, G.E., Metallurgical Transactions,

vol. 2 (197]), p. 2087

1i
to insure uniform properties. Changes in composition will alter the

melt rate, slag temperature, droplet size, and other factors affecting

the refining rate(8 ).

The ESR furnace can be operated on either a.c., d.c., straight

polarity, or reverse polarity. A.C. is the simplest and lowest in

cost, but it cannot be used to melt large ingots. D.C. can melt

large ingots, b,:t only with low reliability and i'igh power cost (9 ) .

In the a.c. mode, the furnace can be single phase with 1 electrode and

1 mold, single phase with 2 electrodes and 2 molds, 3 phase with 3

electrodes in 1 mold, or 3 phase with 3 electrodes in 3 molds( 8) .

The furnace may be started by striking an arc between the electrode

and the solid slag (cold start), or by using premelted slag (hot

start) in the bottom of the ingot mold (9) . Once the circuit is closed

with the tip of the electrode in the slag bath, the electrode melts

through the slag into the growing pool of molten steel below. A

stirring pattern in the slag bath and metal pool can be superimposed

by electromagnetic induction(lO).

8. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p. 11.

9. Schlatter, Rene', "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

10. Rawson, J.D.W. and Dawson, D.I., "Ingot Casting by Electroslag

Remelting", Solidification Technology, ed. by Burke, Flemings,
and Gorum, 1972.

12

III.= II | 1[m (n~I i j ~ iI ill

I. II I t iN i
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 iiv
During the melt, the slag temperature is in the range of 17000 -

2000*C which is much higher than the steel's melting point(1 1 ). Solidi-

fication of the ingot normally forms grains at an angle of approximately

300 to the vertical, but a high degree of control is possible. A fast

melting rate gives a deep liquid pool, and subsequently radially oriented

grain growth, high surface quality, and little compositional change.

A slow melting rate with a shallow pool, promotes compositional changes

and axially oriented grains (1 2). The slag forms an envelope around

the ingot as it is displaced upward. This separates the ingot from

the mold wall, and ideally produces ingots with very smooth surfaces,

free of defects(ll).
Inclusions are removed from the ESR ingot both by solution and

by chemical reaction with the slag. Nonmetallics are exposed directly

to the slag at the tip of the electrode during melting and dissolve

into the slag. Only the smaller inclusions escape. The final in-

clusion content will be lower as the film of molten metal on the

electrode tip is made thinner. Volatile or reactive alloying elements

are not lost, but easily oxidizable elements decrease in content

during melting( 12 ).

11. Wahlster, Manfred and Choudhury, Alok, "ESR: An Efficient Way

to Make Clean Steel", Metal Progress, April 1969.

12. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p. 14.

13
COMPARISON OF PROCESSES

Both VAR and ESR are complex ani require optimum consumable auxil-

iary process technology. Because of the available combinations of slag

chemistry, more flexible power requirements, and freedom of choice of

electrode characteristics, ESR has more process flexibility and versa-

tility, but the many degrees of freedom in ESR bring on control problems.

The VAR technique has been under development for a long time, and

many control problems have been overcome. ESR is a relatively new

process and not so well understood. There is a problem with keeping

the influencing factors under constant control and making them re-

producible on a production scale. The complexity of the ESR process

brings with it the possibility of numerous furnace designs and special

applications, but it makes the complete automation of ESR more difficult

to achieve than VAR(1 3 )

In VAR, there are two major process characteristics which can be

varied; the power, and the metal (electrode). In ESR, there are three

major process characteristics; the power, the metal (electrode), and

the slag (13) The control of the slag feed, molten slag depth, and

slag temperature and composition present many different control problems.

The entire area of slag technology and control has yet to be completely
(14 )
understood . ESR electrodes should be thermally treated to avoid

13. Mueller-Aue, Hans J., "Analysis of Operational Data of Vacuum Arc

and Electroslag Remelting Plant", Journal of Vacuum Science and
Technology, vol. 8, No. 6, 1971

14. Elliott, C.F,, et. al., "Electroslag Remelting of Superalloys -

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineerig Quarterly,
May 1970, p.46.

14

"/iiliiu
r] I ]INi[I1[IINluIll~n I i iII~nn
I III I / lil: I Ni
cracking and clinking, calling for extra material handling and additional

furnace capacity. Subsequently, scaled surfaces must be cleaned by

wire brushing or other cleaning methods (15 ).

The nature of ESR introduces flexibility and versatility not found

in VAR. The electrode-ingot relationship in ESR is not as critical

as in VAR. Many shapes can be produced by ESR; e.g., conventional

round ingots, slabs, extrusion billet shapes, and simple shape cast-

ings. Because the heat is produced in the slag (as opposed to the arc

in VAR), multiple electrode configurations can be used without power

or electrical problems. Composite electrodes can be used, and within

limits, out-of-specification electrodes can be corrected and used by

proper flux chemistry (16 ) . ESR offers significantly higher melting

rates than VAR for the same quality steel. In ESR, the molten slag

blanket on the top of the ingot acts as a heat source and insulator

after power turnoff, simplifying the power turn-down cycle required

in VAR to achieve acceptable top solidification and good yield(1 7 ),

A few of the recently investigated ESP techniques, are: 1.)

Continuous casting and withdrawal of ingot (impossible in VAR because

of vacuum -equirements), 2.) Casting of hollow tubular ingots by

use of a chilled copper mandrel forcing itself through the mushy

15. Schlatter, Rene', "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

16. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p. 8.

17. Elliott, C.F., et. al., "Electroslag Remelting of Superalloys-

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p. 48.

15
zone beneath the liquid met.' pool; 3.) Casting of composite ingots

allowed by changing of electrodes; 4.) Modular furnace systems with

interchangeable molds and baseplates, to allow easy replacement and

process variety; S.) Molten bottom-slag startingC1 8 ).

COMPARISON OF INGOTS: PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Both VAR and ESR are secondary refining processes applied to a

conventionally melted and cast steel. The high cost of these secondary

processes are in some cases outweighed by the improvement in physical

and mechanical properties. Qualitatively, some of these improved

properties are( 19 ):

1. Decreased gas content

2. Improved cleanliness
3. Improved hot and cold work workability
4. Higher Mechanical Properties:
a. Fatigue strength
b. Impact strength
c. Tcnsile ductility
d. Hardness uniformity
e. Creep-rupture
f. Transverse properties
S. Improved magnetic properties
6. Improved soundness and uniform composition
7. Consistent product - heat to heat and day to day.

A. Gas Content

Gases absorbed by liquid steel from the atmosphere and from

process materials can cause undesirable or even harmful properties in

18. Bhat, G.K., "A Critical Evaluation of the Electroslag Process

and its Growth in the USA; Commercial Opportunities and Applications",
Industrial Heating, Jan. 1970, vol. 37, No. 1, p. 88.

19. Dyrkacz, W.W., "Properties and Applications of Consumable Electrode

Vacuum Melted Steels and Superalloys in the United States", 1960,
Allegheny Ludlum Corp., Watervliet, N.Y.

16
the solid ingot. Flaking, embrittlement, voids and inclusions are

some of the effects observed. Even when precautions are taken in

the refining and pouring of air-melted air-poured steel, the ingots

have to be subjected to long and complicated heating and cooling

cycles to promote the diffusion of absorbed hydrogen. Oxygen and

nitrogen in the steel combine ,ith impurities and alloying elements

to form '-xides, cyanonitrides, or nitrides that remain as inclusions( 2 0 ) .

Vacuum-stream degassing of air-melted steel removes a large

proportion of gases in the ingots, but VAR is the most effective for

the removal of gases. Trapped gases and vaporized nonmetallic in-

clusions are drawn off by the vacuum. The resulting remelted ingot

shows a considerable decrease in content of H2, 02 and N2 .

ESR is also very effective in removing gases, but oxygen and

hydrogen removal is not so effective as in VAR. Hydrogen can be

picked up from hydrated oxides in the slag, cooling water and elec-

trode material. Provided the ingot is not too large, H2 diffuses

on cooling; but in large ingots, H2 retention is significant. A

controlled atmosphere may be required in ESR to reduce H2 content.

A satisfactory reduction in total 02 content usually takes place,

but the low VAR values are seldom reached (21' 22 ).

20. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

McGannon, U.S Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p. 537.

21. Schlatttr, Re,'e', "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel",

Metals Engineoring Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

22. Peover, M.E., "Electroslag Remelting: A Review of Electrical and

Electrochemical Aspects", Journal of Inst. of Metals, 1972, vol,
100, p. 97.

17
 B. Cleanliness

All steel ingots contain nonmetallic inclusions, derived

chiefly from the refining (oxidizing and deoxidizing) processes and

from erosion of the refractories (2 3 ). The only ready method of lower-

ing inclusion content in air melt steel is careful control of the

refining process. Typically low alloy steel ingots contain primarily

sulphide and oxide (e.g. MnS, Si0 2 , A12 03 , etc.) nonmetallic in-

clusions. Table I compares the leanliness of 4340 steel produced

by air melting, VAR and ESR.

VAR greatly improves the cleanliness of large steel ingots.

Nonmetallic inclusions are removed by levitation of stable compounds

that collect on the liquid pool surface, and dissociation of un-

24
stable oxid. o' compuunds under high temperature and pressure( )

(Figure 4). A comiparison of several VAR and air melt heats of 4340

steel was made where inclusions down to 1/64 inch were counted. In

every case, the VAR steel was 5 to 10 times cleaner. Inclusions in

VAR steel are usually confined to a few, very small, well dispersed

sulphides and/or round oxides, with only rare occurrences of stringer

oxides and silicates( 25 ) .

23. Johnston, James H., "Consumable Electrode Arc Melting of Non-

Refractory Metals", Vacuum Metallurgy, ed. by Rointan F. Bunshah,
Reinhold, 1958, p. 159.

24. Dyrakacz, W.W., DeFries, R.S., and Pitler, R.K., "Vacuum Remelting
of Superalloys and Steels by the Consumable Electrode Process",
Arcs in Inert Atmospheres and Vacuum, ed. by W.E. Kuhn, 1956, p. 107.

25. Republic Alloy Steels, Republic Steel Corp., 1963, p. 373-374.

18
 TABLE I

CLEANLINESS COMPARISON OF AIR-MELT,

VAR AND ESR 4340 STEEL.
(Relative Gradings) *

Sulfides Silicates Oxides Nitrides

Air-melt 3 2 5 3.5

VAR 1.5 0 1 0

ESR 1 0 0 0

*Adapted from References (24), (25)

19
 Iw

ESR also greatly improves the cleanliness of steel. As inclusions

in the ESR electrode are exposed to the slag in melting, they dissolve

into the slag (Figure 6). Macrocleanliness and freedom from ingot

defects are excellent in ESR, but microcleanliness, although generally

good, does not meet VAR standards( 26 ). The workability of both ESR

and VAR is improved by lowering the inclusion count. Very rarely do

cracks form from the forging of stringer inclusions.

C. Mechanical Properties

The improvements in mechanical properties of ESR and VAR over

air melt steel are due primarily to: 1) the increased chemical homo-

geneity of the material, 2) reductions in gas content and 3) reduction

in inclusion content( 2 7 ). Property improvements are greatest in the

transverse (perpendicular to the solidification) direction, due to the

slow, continuous, vertical freezing of the ingots. Slight improve-

ments in the chemical homogeneity of ESR over VAR ingots are caused

.by the slower melt rate possible in ESR.

Table II gives a comparison of some transverse mechanical proper-

ties between ESR, VAR, and air melted steel. Data was collected from

heats and ingots of similar sizes and heat treatment. At a given

tempering temperature, there is a slight increase in tensile strength

of VAP over air melt, and only slight increase in ESR over VAR. How-

ever, rcmelting improves the ductility of steel over air melting, at

26. Schlatter, Rene', "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

27. "A Summary of Comparative Properties of Air-melted and Vacuum-

melted Steels and Superalloys", DMIC Report 129, March 28, 1960, p.1.,

20
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IWCI.LU$,ION'

iN SELAG 5 LAG BATrH

MPOOLN
OLrEL oN
SOLIO INGOT

COPPOR
SLAG SKIN MOLD/SA'5 t.Ar

Figure 6. Schematic of ESR electrode tip and

top of ingot, showing slag skin, and
mechanism of inclusion removal*

*Adapted -1'm References (8),(9)

21
 TABLE II

COMPARISON OF THE TRANSVERSE

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR-MELT,

(c)
VAR and ESR, 4340 STEEL. (a), (b),

Air-melt VAR ESR

Ultimate
Tensile Strength 180,000 180,000 189,500
psi

0.2% Offset
Yield Strength 160,000 160,000 173,000
psi

Percen't
Elongation 10 10.5 15.7

Percent
Reduction 22 24 47.4
in Area

Impact
Strength 11.5 17 19.2
ft-lbs (at -40*F)

(a) Tempered at 1000*F

(b) These data represent averages of several heats

(c) Adapted from References (25), (27)

22
a constant yield strength level(28), with the %RA of ESR being double that

of VAR, for the materials tested. Thus, it is possible that remelting

will allow the use of higher strength levels more safely.

The most notable feature of Table II is that each of the ESR

properties is improved, but not at the expense of another. In particu-

lar, both ductility and impact strength are improved, while yield
strength increased. The improved impact strength of both VAR and

ESR over air melted steel, is due in part to increased chemical

homogeneity and smaller grain size of remelted steels. Improvements

in fatigue resistance of remelted over air melted steel have been

related to macrocleanliness. The transverse fatigue life of VAR

4340 has been found to be 38% higher than that of air melt 4340

(no data are available for ESR steel)(29) .

D. Soundness and Composition

An ideal ingot would be one that was homogeneous both physically

and chemically. It would have a fine, aquiaxed crystal structure,

and no segregation, inclusions or cavities. Unfortunately, the natural

laws of solidification produce ingots far from ideal. The cooling rate

of an ingot (rate of solidification) is affected by many factors; thick-

ness, shape and temperature of the mold, amount of superheat of the

28. Morelli, R.T. "Vacuum-Arc-Remelted Steels", Machine Design,

Oct. 28, 1971, p. 27.

29. Republic Alloy Steels, Republic Steel Corp., 1968, p. 373-374.

23
liquid steel, cross-section of the ingot, type of steel, and chemical

composition (30)

Figure 7 shows the solidification patterns of a typical static-

cast ingot. As the liquid steel cools, the solubility of dissolved

gases decreases and the excess gases are expelled from the metal at the

surface, or trapped at metal-liquid interfaces, producing blow holes.

If blow holes become oxidized, they will not weld in forging, and seams

in the rolled or forged product will be the result. The shrinkage

cavity at the top of the ingot is called a pipe. It is usually

cropped off prior to forging.

The metal that solidifies first at the mold wall is usually the

same composition as that entering the mold. The progressive solidifi-

cation causes the solute (alloys) to be redistributed. Segregation

results, and dendrites grow perpendicular to and radially inward from

the surface, producing a columnar structure. In the center region of

(31)
the ingot, an equiaxed zone results

The progressive solidification of a consumable electrode re-

melted ingot results in a sounder structure than does conventional

(32)
static casting Remelted ingots freeze progressively from the

30. The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

McGannon, U.S. Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p. 548, 549.

31. Chalmers, Bruce, Principles of Solidification, John Wiley and

Sons, 1964.

32. Schlatter, Rene', "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel, Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

24
 SLA G CAP
SCUM LAYOLR
HOT T~OP

444

STATtC-CAS A R_.Li

TFigure 7. Position of solidification isotherms

in static.-cast and consumably re-
melted ingots*

*Adapted from Reference (9)

25
bottom up, at a much faster rate than conventional, producing a dendrite

structure aligned at an angle to the longitudinal axis. A finer den-

dritic structure results, and secondary dendrite arms may not even be

formed. The same principal solidification pattern experienced in VAR

is also seen in ESR. Because of the hot slag cap at the top of an ESR

ingot, pipe and center porosity are less pronounced than in the VAR

ingot (Figure 7)(33) .

In both VAR and ESR, the alignment of the grains can be varied

from axial to columnar by changing the power pattern and pool depth.

Induction stirring, in both processes, improves grain alignment by

adding a toroidal component to the structure. Conditions for axial

growth are much more favorable in ESR than in VAR. Due to the thermal

insulating qualities of the solid slag envelope around the ingot, the

proportion of heat lost to the mold wall is very low in relation to

that passing through the ingot base. This slag skin envelope also

provides an insulating layer which reduces the surface cold-shuts

sometimes found in VAR melting. ESR consistently yields smoother and

cleaner surfaces than VAR. The molten ESR slag cap acts as a heat

source and insulator after power turn-off, simplifying the complicated

power turn down cycle required in VAR to achieve acceptable hot-topping.

Due to its simplicity, consistently good top yield can be obtained more

easily in ESR than in VAR(3 4 ).

33. Rawson, J.D.W. and Dawson, D.I., "Ingot Casting by Electroslag

Remelting", Solidification Technology, ed. by Burke, Flemings,
and Gorum, 1972.

34. Elliott, C.F., et al., "Eiectroslag Remelting of Superalloys -

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p.4 6 .
26
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS I

For all practical purposes, the cost of ESR/VAR electrode feed

stock is the same as for a forging ingot from a conventional air melt.

The present cost for forged ingots for gun tubes is in excess of

$1.0(/lb. The cost for equivalent unforged VAR and ESR material is,

respectively 57.4 cents/lb. and 50.0 cents/lb.(3 5). ESR, therefore,

offers the distinct possibility that costs will be reduced and quality

improved at the same time.

Due to the variety of furnace designs, and power and melting pro-

cedures in use today, valid cost comparisons are difficult to make.

Modern ESR equipment has a slightly lower capital cost than VAR, but

this is practically outweighed by higher operating cost due to poor

power efficiency and significant slag costs. For most steels, ESR

permits significantly higher melt rates than VAR to produce the same

quality product. Experience has shown that there is very little re-

melting cost difference between the processes(36)

ESR is competitive with VAR only if it allows higher productivity

or shows a marked upgrading of the quality of a specific steel.

Higher yield is attained in ESR by improved surface quality, less

hot-top and pipe losses, and improved hot-workability( 3 7 ). Highe,-

35. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p. 162.

36. Schlatter, Rene', "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel",

Metals Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

37. Elliott, C.F., et. al. "Electrgslag Remelting of Superalloys -

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p. 47.

27
melting rates and shorter furnace down time are responsible for in-

creased annual capacity of some ESR furnaces, as high as 30%, over

VAR (3 8 ) . In air melted, static cast steel, there is a metal loss of

approximately 30% from ingot to forged state, made up of 15% top

discard, 5% bottom discard, and 10% tolerance over machined component.

Good quality ESR ingots can reduce this tolerance to 2-1/2% and can

almost eliminate bottom and top discard (39 .

Table III shows the annual operating costs of twin VAR and ESR

furinaces of the same size. The total operating cost of the ESR

furnace was about 25% higher than the VAR, but because of higher

yield,ESR steel cost less per unit weight.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Despite the added processing and cost of consumable electrode

remelting (VAR and ESR), the resulting refined steel is obviously

better than static cast air melted steel. The mechanical properties

of VAR steel are slightly better than air melted, but ESR steel has

shown higher properties than either. Both VAR and ESR show improved

physical properties and chemistry over air melted steel.

Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) has been in production for over a

decade, but Electroslag Remelting (ESR) is still in the advanted

developmental stage. ESR is a much more complex process than VAR,

38. "The Big Stir in Electroslag Remelting", Iron Age, June 27, 1968,
p. 63.

39. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G. Electroslag Refining, 1969, B.I.S.I.,

;,.169.

28
 TABLE III

ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS VAR AND ESR -

TWIN 24" FURNACE INSTALLATION*

VAR ESR
-$ $

1. Direct labor cost: two men, 15 shifts 48,000 48,000

2. Manufacturing overhead:
U.S. average two furnaces 67,000 67,000

3. Melting Power Cost

(a) VAR 0.3 - 0.4 KWH/lb 23,500

(b) ESR 0.4 - 0.6 KWU/lb 42,500

4. Cooling water cost with

recirculating water system 3,500 4,100

5. Depreciation 10-year straight

line based on installed capital cost of
2 VAR 24" furnace.... $480,000 48,000
2 ESR 24" furnace.... $384,000 38,400

6. Depreciation 20-year straight line

on building and services,
assuming 1000 sq. ft/furnace
at $25/sq. ft.
Capital cost $50,000 2,500 2,500

7. Slag Cost at 0.4 c/lb of metal

melted, assuming molten slag start 28,000

Total Annual Operating Cost $192,500 $230,500

Total Annual Production 5,600,000 lb 7,000,000 lb

Total Cost 3.4 c/lb 3.3 c/lb

* Adapted from reference (39)

29
but is also more flexible and versatile. An example of the versatility

is the potential of ESR to cast in almost any shape or size (particu-

larly hollow tubular ingots for gun tubes). ESR ingots are more

homogeneous and have more isotropic properties than VAR, and can

yield a higher tonnage. This increased yield offsets the higher total

cost of ESR. The resulting costs/unit weight of VAR and ESR are

almost equivwlent. VAR results in better gas removal than ESR,

especially of hydrogen. Large ESR ingots tend to clink and crack due

to hydrogen pickup, unless thermally treated in some way.

30
 REFERENCES

1. The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

McGannon, U.S. Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p 519.
I

2. The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

McGannon, U.S. Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p 537.

3. Dyrkacz, W.W., "Vacuum Melting in the Steel Industry Today",

Journal of Metals, Dec. 1957.

4. Belk, J.A., Vacuum Techniques in Metallurgy, Pergamon Press,

1963, p 128.

5. DeFries, R.S., Flynn, E.G., and Dyrkacz, W.W., "Consumable

Electrode Remelting of High Temperature Alloys", Allegheny
Ludlum Steel Corp., Watervliet, N.Y., Report #11-0160-1, 1955,
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7. Carvajal, L., Fernando and Geiger, G.E., Metallurgical Transactions,

vol. 2 (1971), p 2087.

8. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p 11.

9. Schlatter, Rene, "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

10. Rawson, J.D.W. and Dawson, D.I., "Ingot Casting by Electroslag

Remelting", Solidification Technology, ed. by Burke, Flemings,
and Gorum, 1972.

11. Wahlster, Manfred and Choudhury, Alok, "ESR: An Efficient Way

to Make Clean Steel," Metal Progress, April 1969.

12. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, j969,

B.I.S.I., p 14.

13. Mueller-Aue, Hais J., "Analysis of Operational Data of Vacuum

Arc and Electroslag Remelting Plant", Journal of Vacuum Science
and Technology, vol. 8, No. 6, 1971

31
14. Elliott, C.F., et. al., "Electroslag Remelting of Superalloys -
Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p 46.

15. Schlatter, Ren4, "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

16. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p 8.

17. Elliott, C.F., et.al., "Electroslag Remelting of Superalloys -

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p 48.

18. Bhat, G.K., "A Critical Evaluation of the Electroslag Process

and its Growth in the USA; Commercial Opportunities and Appli-
cations", Industrial Heating, Jan 1970, vol. 37, No. 1, p 88.

19. Dyrkacz, W.W., "Properties and Applications of Consumable Electrode

Vacuum Melted Steels and Superallays in the United States", 1960,
Allegheny Ludlum Corp., Watervliet, N.Y.

20. The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

McGannon, U.S. Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p 537.

21. Schlatter, Rene, "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

22. Peover, M.E., "Electroslag Remelting: A Review of Electrical

and Electrochemical Aspects", Journal of Inst. of Metals,
1972, vol. 100.

23. Johnston, James H., "Consumable Electrode Arc Melting of Non-

Refractory Metals", Vacuum Metallurgy, ed. by Rointan F. Bunshah,
Reinhold, 1958, p 159.

24. Dyrakacz, W.W., DeFries, R.S., and Pitler, R.K., "Vacuum Remelting
of Superalloys and Steels by the Consumable Electrode Process",
Arcs in Inert Atmospheres and Vacuum, ed. by W. E. Kuhn, 1956,
p 107.

25. Republic Alloy Steels, Republic Steel Corp., 1968, p 373-374.

26. Schlatter, Ren, "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb 1972.

27. "A Summary of Comparative Properties of Air-melted and Vacuum-

melted Steels and Superalloys", DMIC Report 128, March 28, 1960,
P 1.

32
 28. Morelli, R.T. "Vacuum-Arc-Remelted Steels", Machine Design,
Oct. 28, 1971, p 27.

29. Republic Alloy Steels Republic Steel Corp., 1968, p 373-374.

30. The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, ed. by Harold E.

4 McGannon, U.S. Steel, 8th edition, 1964, p 548, 549.

31. Chalmers, Bruce, Principles of Solidification, John Wiley and

Sons, 1964.

32. Schlatter, Ren, "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

33. Rawson, J.D.W. and Dawson, D.I., "Ingot Casting by Electroslag

Remelting", Solidification Technolcgy, ed. by Burke, Flemings,
and Gorum, 1972.

34. Elliott, C.F., et.al., "Electroslag Remelting of Superalloys -

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p 46.

35. Duckworth, W.E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p 162.

36. Schlatter, Rene, "Electroflux Remelting of Tool Steel", Metals

Engineering Quarterly, Feb. 1972.

37. Elliott, C.F., et. al., "Electroslag Remelting of Superalloys -

Production Melting Experience", Metals Engineering Quarterly,
May 1970, p 47.

38. "The Big Stir in Electroslag Remelting", Iron Age, June 27, 1968,
p 63.

39. Duckworth, W. E. and Hoyle, G., Electroslag Refining, 1969,

B.I.S.I., p 169.

33

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