Mining of Mineral Deposits National Mining

University

ISSN 2415-3443 (Online) | ISSN 2415-3435 (Print)

Journal homepage http://mining.in.ua Founded in

1900

Volume 11 (2017), Issue 4, pp. 29-37

UDC 620.98 https://doi.org/10.15407/mining11.04.029

EVALUATION OF SOME RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

R. Basu1,2*
1MechanicalEngineering Department, Adarsha Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
2VisvesvarayaTechnological University, Belagavi, India
*Corresponding author: e-mail raulbasu@gmail.com, tel. +918026541874, fax: +918026542790

ОЦІНКА ДЕЯКИХ ТЕХНОЛОГІЙ ВИРОБНИЦТВА

ВІДНОВЛЮВАЛЬНОЇ ЕНЕРГЕТИКИ

Р. Басу1,2*
1Кафедра машинобудування, Адаршський технологічний інститут, Бангалор, Індія
2Вісвесварайський технологічний університет, Белгаум, Індія
*Відповідальний автор: e-mail raulbasu@gmail.com, тел. +918026541874, факс: +918026542790

ABSTRACT
Purpose. The study aims to outline and compare various renewable energy alternatives in view of the global warming
crisis and depletion of fossil fuels which cause emissions of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a major source of
pollution and is an absorbent for radiation.
Methods. Literature surveys and analysis of benefits and drawbacks of the competing technologies should include
the capital costs, running costs and carbon footprint. Liquid fuels have high energy to weight ratio compare to say
solar panels or thermal absorbers, but what is neglected is the large refinery and other processing machinery behind
the liquid fuel which is adding to the carbon footprint.
Findings. Producer gas and bacterial engines are suggested as possible pollution reducing and cost effective methods
for power generation. Coal, biomass, geothermal and hydroelectric have the lowest running cost, but carbon footprint
cost is neglected. Solar chimneys, with low mechanical efficiency have low running costs, and no pollution. Modifi-
cation of internal combustion engines to use producer gas and alcohol may reduce overall carbon footprint.
Originality. Many researches focus on energy and mechanical efficiency. Bacterial engines have yet to be fully de-
veloped, and these are wonderful chemical factories but not understood in terms of classical thermodynamics. For all
technologies, return on investment is more appropriate since capital costs are also included, which are neglected in
mechanical efficiency calculations.
Practical implications. Depletion of forest cover which acts as a greenhouse gas sink contributes to global warming.
Worldwide, million of cars with internal combustion engines consuming petroleum, if converted to alternative fuels,
can help in reducing the carbon gas emissions and ultimately to a slowdown in the global warming rate.
Keywords: producer gas, biogas, global warming, carbon footprint, efficiency

1. INTRODUCTION tions and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) have

also got into the picture. It is now common to talk about
Natural sources of power such as the use of wind, solar
carbon credits and monetary equivalents that can be traded
heating and drying, and hydropower have been common-
and used to offset production of pollutants by nations.
place in many countries for centuries. It is only in the past
According to a recent study (Carey, 2012), CO2 in-
decade or two that the global concern has mounted with
crease due to deforestation accounts for more CO2 than
concerns for the global environment and the future of the
all vehicles worldwide. Four wheelers produce 14% of
planet, with unfortunate visible effects on the atmosphere
the global carbon emissions, while upward of 15% is
and effects on climate worldwide. An example is the
from deforestation. According to the Environmental
shrinking of glaciers worldwide, the shrinking of the polar
Defense Fund (EDF), 32 million tons of tropical rain
icecaps and rising sea levels, resulting in worldwide calam-
forests were cut down each year from 2000 – 2009. For-
ities like tsunamis, earthquakes and cyclones. These con-
est clearing will put another 200 billion tons of carbon
siderations and aspects have recently been incorporated into
monoxide in the air in coming decades.
the national plans of many countries; many global organiza-

29
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

Natural organic fuels are a major power source for Biogas has certain desirable qualities with regard to
developing nations. Biomass continues as a source of the environment:
cheap and polluting energy in rural areas, especially for – it is low cost and low tech and requires low invest-
below poverty line populations. The scarcity of urban ment and capital;
dwelling spaces also forces many people to occupy – uses waste products and does not require chemical
fringe forest areas or collect biomass illegally from for- additives;
ests and destroy green cover in urban spaces. On the – produces a sludge which can be used further as a
other hand, many people migrate to the large urban cen- fertilizer;
ters hoping to find work, occupying slums. The strain on – it can contribute to treatment of domestic and mu-
the civic amenities due to the extra settlements on pave- nicipal wastes.
ments and established slums causes problems like power Most of the subsidies given by State and Non-
outages, water shortage and epidemics. The problem of Governmental Organizations (NGO) so far have been on
urban waste management is a difficult one. In addition, biogas, whereas producer gas has been neglected in the
as it is now noticed, air pollution in the form of carbon resurgence of renewable energy sources.
emissions and methane cause global warming by the Apart from the payoffs in secondary energy genera-
greenhouse effect. tion (i.e., after methane has been recovered from biomass
Profits from timber, charcoal, pasture and cropland by bacterial action), the remaining bio matter/biomass
induce people to cut down forests because of easy avail- residue which consists of C and N with H2O is capable of
ability and low cost. The United Nations Programme on further reduction into “producer gas”. A further ad-
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Deg- vantage is in reducing the biologically active component
radation (UN-REDD Programme) provides incentives to which may consist of any harmful bacteria, mosquito
people who care for forests and manage sustainably larvae and viruses and other vectors into inert form. The
while still being able to benefit economically through a resultant solid matter is highly concentrated with nitrog-
system of pollution credits. Brazil adopted REDD and enous matter and thus suitable as fertilizer for agricultur-
slowed deforestation 40% since 2008 and is on the way al usage. Although the initial biomatter which may be
to 80% reduction by 2020. India is not a member, though dung, composted material and waste food matter can be
Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Myanmar have used and is frequently applied directly on the fields, the
joined. Brazil is a major player in the sustainable devel- result of producer gas reduction is more inert and as
opment field, having already introduced biofuels and useful if not more suitable as a fertilizer. Besides, the
ethyl alcohol as motor fuel. decomposition of animal dung in the open after being
Pollution figures for India indicate 3000 lb/capita in applied as a surface additive for crops yields large
2007, China at 10500 lb/capita, and US at 42500 lb/capita. amounts of methane and adds to the pollutants in the
India has the worst air pollution record in the world due atmosphere, besides contributing to vector propagation
to the large number of two wheelers and retrofitted com- like flies and mosquitoes.
pressed natural gas (CNG) kits causing 30% more me- In Ghana, West Africa, one of the main reasons of
thane emissions together with emission from coal burn- development of biogas is to treat sewage which is largely
ing power plants. untreated and run off into the bush outside the villages, in
It is well known that poverty and the degradation of the order to improve sanitation and reduce attendant risks of
environment are closely linked, hence improvement of epidemics and diseases endemic to Africa (Bensah &
living standards and natural resource management at the Brew-Hammond, 2008).
grass roots level is essential in any strategy to reclaim the
environment. The poor rely heavily on natural resources. 2. INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS IN THE AREA
In addition, diversion of common lands used histori- OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
cally for other public projects and schemes deprives the
poor of their common resources, forcing them to en- Serious efforts have been made in the island nations
croach on forest land. The dominant sources of pollution of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, like the Philippines and
in India are domestic burning and two stroke emissions Sri Lanka, subsidized by the International agencies like
(De Laat, de Gouw, Lelieveld, & Hansel, 2001). UN. In Africa, countries like Ghana have taken up biogas
2012 was to be the International Year of Sustainable projects at a national level in their National Strategic
Energy for all, according to the UN. The climate food Planning. According to a recent survey (Bensah & Brew-
agricultural linkage is emphasized in relation to fossil Hammond, 2008), the focus in Ghana has shifted from
fuel inputs. For a country like India which has a sizea- energy to sanitation, with construction of bio-toilets. The
ble rural population subsisting on agriculture and de- aim is to treat human wastes to a level where they can be
pending on livestock, biogas has provided a viable safely discharged into drains. The remaining sludge is
source of energy and has been subsidized by various used as fertilizer.
Governmental incentives and schemes. The problem In the Philippines, GEMCOR had set up gasifiers us-
underlying such efforts is the extreme poverty in which ing coconut shell charcoal, resulting in cheap gas at lower
the majority of the rural populace lives. In fact, tradi- rates than from wood or biomass. Boats have been fitted
tional village lifestyles dictate the use of cow dung for with engines running on producer gas (Mahin, 1983).
cooking with fire, smearing cow dung solution on the A number of raw materials have been researched
ground, placing cow dung cakes on the walls and so on. for producer gas, including coconut, sugar cane ba-
Till recently it was difficult to get people to use cow gasse, rice husks, corn cobs, coffee bean husks, peanut
dung as a crop fertilizer, and the major fertilizer com- shells, cotton gin trash and stalks. The list could use
panies have made hay of this fact. organic trash, which has been reported in the recent

30
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

issue of Scientific American (Wald, 2010). Third world 3.2. Use in engines
cities with their large slums and attendant sanitation Strong interests in the petroleum and automotive in-
problems could take a leaf from these efforts initiated dustry have resisted and thwarted attempts to develop
by India’s neighbors. alternative designs and implementation of these in indus-
During times of petrol scarcity as in the last world try. However, modification of engines to use producer
war, engines were developed to run on coal gas and gas gas is not difficult, provided one understands the nature
from wood, which would be towed behind the vehicles. of the combustion and power cycle in the internal com-
A survey was done by the Food and Agriculture Organi- bustion engine. Basically, one cannot run the engine at a
zation of the United Nations (FAO of the UN) in the speed beyond the rate at which the fuel gas ignites and
1970’s and the results were published as a paper (Wood burns (flame velocity). In addition, the compression and
Gas as Engine Fuel, 1986). air/fuel ratio are important. If too high a compression
Photovoltaic energy has also been looked at in detail results, there is possibility of the gas igniting spontane-
in the context of agricultural and rural development. The ously, (knocking), which would damage the engine.
life cycle and quality factors for such sources have been Producer gas is capable of higher octane numbers than
estimated (Campen, Guidi, & Best, 2000). petrol, (octane number being a measure of the compres-
sion ratio at which detonation occurs). As a result, higher
3. PRIMARY REACTIONS AND PRODUCTS engine thermal efficiencies can be achieved with produc-
FROM BIOMASS GASIFICATION er gas. Further refinements are possible but may need
more research. One such possibility is to use regeneration
3.1. Basic data
and reheat as in the Rankine cycle.
The gaseous products from carbon biomass are CO, Some studies have appeared on the use of producer gas
CO2, H2, CH4, N2, H2O. Trace amounts of higher hydro- in IC engines of 1000 KW capacity (Sridhar et al., 2005).
carbons are present also. Schematic of gasification pro-
cess is presented in Figure 1. 3.3. Producer gas for power generation
1 kg air-dry wood (15 – 20% mc) gives about 2.3 m3
of gas; 1 litre petrol = 2.5 to 3 kg wood; 1 litre diesel = 3
to 3.5 kg wood; 1 kWh requires 1 to 1.3 kg charcoal, 2 to
4 kg woodchips or 2.4 to 3.2 kg rice husk.
Feasibility and viability of a gasifier project depends
on many factors, including cost of fuel, labour costs,
money and finance, design life, value of the energy pro-
Figure 1. Schematic of gasification process duced, cost of disposal of the residue, and value of the
sludge for fertilizer. Further benefits are there when the
The basic reactions involve the steam reaction on electricity if generated can be sold to the grid.
carbon with limited oxygen: The existence of a national energy programme and
incorporation of such schemes into the development
4C + 2H2+2O2 → 4CO +4H + O2; (1) plans at state and national level would enhance such
2CO + O2 → 2CO2. (2) energy schemes.
At present the focus has been blurred by the large cor-
Also there are sub reactions of C with H, H2 and H2, porations battling it out for offshore oil rights, trying to
similarly with CO and H: sell cheap gas guzzling cars to the public, the conflicts (oil
– pyrolysis/gasification: generated) in the middle east, and other political agendas.
The attendant benefits of health and sanitation have been
CxHyOz + aH2O/bO2 → cCO + dH2 + eCO2 +
almost ignored in the energy plans at the higher levels.
+ fCH4 + gC2-4 + hTars + iC(s); (3) In Tanzania, a programme for design of gasifiers for
maize mills in rural areas was taken up by the Small
– carbon gasification: Industries Development Organisation and the Nederlands
C + αH2O/βCO2 → γCO + δH2; (4) Twente University (Mahin, 1983). A similar system was
developed at Chulalongkorn University in Thailand. In
– methanation: El Salvador, with GEKA of Karlsruhe, coffee bean husks
CO + 3H2 ↔ CH4 + H2O; (5) are burnt and the gas mixture fed to further dry coffee
beans. In Valdosta, Georgia and Auburn, Alabama pea-
– water-gas shift: nut shells have been used to give heat for drying. In
CO + H2O ↔ CO2 +H2; (6) Asia, rice husks are very commonly available as a by-
product, but according to the FAO in 1975, no mill ex-
– steam reforming: isted which used steam produced by husk fired boilers.
CxHy + xH2O → xCO + (y/2 + x) H2. (7) India and Thailand directly used rice husks as a form of
boiler heat fuel, with some other countries also follow-
These reactions need the addition of heat which is ing suit. Parboiled rice in India is made mostly (50%
supplied by burning additional raw material, and a supply usage) by husk fired boilers, with some mills in Sri
of steam. Lanka, Guyana, and Italy doing the same. The Govt of
Malaysia had given funds for development of two pilot

31
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

plants at rice mills using one ton of rice husks per hour.
Electric power output of about 350 KW/hour has been
obtained in 1983 (Mahin, 1983).
3.4. Drawbacks of producer and syngas
Many engines and gas turbines being used for power
generation are now using syngas and producer gas. It
appears that while natural gas has 3% water content,
syngas has about 18% water content which creates deg-
radation and corrosion problems in the metal parts of
these engines.
3.5. Overall efficiency and economic
analysis of the scheme
Since producer gas production requires heat and Figure 3. Working principle of an internally reforming anode
steam production as input, there is an expenditure of supported SOFC (Nagel, 2008)
energy involved which debits from the overall total of
energy. The heating can be obtained by diverting part 4. IMPROVEMENTS BY USING
of the biogas obtained in the primary digestion stage to STIRLING AND BRAYTON CYCLES
be used for heating and producing steam and high tem-
peratures in gasifying the sludge residue for Producer It can be demonstrated that theoretical efficiency of
gas. Alternatively, dried biomass used for the initial the Stirling and Brayton cycles is the same as the Carnot
biogas production could be ignited and used for the efficiency and hence any power generator based on these
secondary producer gas stage. So far, no study has cycles must have the highest efficiencies. Stirling was
been done on the efficiency and economics of the one of the first engines used during the industrial revolu-
scheme. Producer gas was used to run a modified in- tion, predating the internal combustion engine, and could
ternal combustion engine (Sridhar et al., 2005), with use any type of fuel as it was externally heated. It is now
reasonable results. making a comeback, especially amongst submarine ap-
plications for its silent operation, and in space application
3.6. Improvement of efficiency by for low temperature differential engines (NASA). The
cogeneration and regeneration same considerations of improvement of efficiency by
Basically, the work done is the area under the P – V regeneration apply here, and an important part of any
curve, so any increase in the area implies an increase in Stirling engine is the regenerator and heat exchanger. By
the work obtainable within the input and output tempera- contrast, the Solar chimney has one of the lowest over all
tures. Figure 2 shows the effect of regeneration, (apply- efficiencies, in terms of the conversion of incident solar
ing some exhaust heat to heat the incoming fluid before energy. It has however been attempted in a number of
the main cycle), similar to the Rankine cycle principle countries, and a few references are given for illustration.
used commonly in the steam turbine technology. Spain was one of the first countries to apply the technol-
ogy (Santos Bernardes, 2010), after which Algeria,
Egypt, Jordan have also attempted the technology with
pilot plants. The drawback for the Solar chimney is high
capital cost. A recent attempt using a flexible floating
chimney has been reported from Greece, which claims to
avoid wind loads (Christos, 2010) (Fig. 4). Data from
studies show that the overall efficiency of the chimney is
around 1% (i.e. of the incoming solar energy, 1% is con-
verted to usable energy).

Figure 2. Increase of working area under P – V curve for

Rankine cycle

3.7. Improvements by hybridisation

A combination of gasification and solid fuel cell was
examined by F.P. Nagel (2008) where solid oxide fuel
cell (SOFC) was operated with producer gas.
A comparison of various SOFC schemes is given in
the Table 1.
It was claimed that compared to methane, dilution of
producer gas reduced the output of the SOFC (Fig. 3). Figure 4. Floating solar chimney (Christos, 2010)

32
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

Table 1. Schematic of gasification process (comparison of various schemes) (Nagel, 2008)

Low temperature FC Mid temperature FC High temperature FC
FC Type
PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC
Liquid solution of
Solid organic polymer Aqueous solution of lithium, sodium
Liquid phosphoric acid Solid yttrium stabi-
Electrolyte polyperfluorosulfonic potassium hydroxide and/or potassium
soaked in a matrix lized zirconium oxide
acid soaked in a matrix carbonates soaked in a
matrix
Oxidant –
Oxygen or air Pure oxygen Air Air Air
cathode gas
* * * * *
Cathode 2H + 2e + 0.5O2 → O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 2H* + 2e + 0.5O2 → H2 0.5O2 + CO2 + 2e →
0.5O2 + 2e* → O2-
reaction H2O 4OH* O CO32-
Fuel – Hydrogen, carbon Hydrogen, carbon
Hydrogen Pure hydrogen Hydrogen
anode gas monoxide, methane monoxide, methane
H2 + CO32- → H2O +
H2 + O2- → H2O + 2e*
+CO2 + 2e*
Anode 2H2 + 4OH* → CO + O2- → CO2 + 2e*
H2 → 2H* + 2e* H2 → 2H* + 2e* CO + CO32-- → 2CO2 + 2e*
reaction 4H2O + 4e* 2- CH4 + 4O2- →
CH4 + 4CO3 →
* CO2 + 2H2O + 8e*
5CO2 + 2H2O + 8e
H2 + 0.5O2 → H2O H2 + 0.5O2 → H2O
Overall CO + 0.5O2 → CO2 CO + 0.5O2 → CO2
H2 + 0.5O2 → H2O 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O H2 + 0.5O2 → H2O
reaction CH4 + 2O2 → CH4 + 2O2 →
CO2 + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2O
Fuel CO < 1 vol. %
CO < 10 – 100 ppmV Pure hydrogen needed — —
requirements N2 < 4 vol. %
Operating
50 – 90°C 50 – 90°C 160 – 220°C 600 – 660°C 700 – 1000°C
temperature
Electrical
35 – 60% 50 – 79% 35 – 50% 40 – 55% 45 – 60%
efficiency
Mobile, stationary CHP-generation,
Applications Military, space CHP-generation CHP-generation
power generation additional power units
– high efficiency; – plate and tube-like
– quick start-up due to
– high performance due to – most mature cell type; – CHP-generation configurations;
low temperature;
fast cathode reaction; – CHP-generation possible; – high efficiency and
– favorable power-to-
Advantages – variety of non- possible; – fuel flexibility due to fuel flexibility;
-weight ratio;
precious catalysts; – less fuel impurity int. reforming; – non-precious
– low sensitivity
– high efficiencies sensitive – non-precious metal catalysts;
to orientation
metal catalysts – most sulfur-resistant FC
– expensive catalysts
– slow start-up;
required;
– pure fuel and – low efficiency to – corrosive electrolyte; – necessity of thermal
– prone to carbon
Disad- oxidant required; other FCS; – accelerated breakdown shielding;
monoxide poisoning;
vantages – prone to carbon – requires Pt-catalyst; of cell components due to – accelerated breakdown
– hydrogen storage
dioxide poisoning – large size and weight high temperature of cell components due
or onboard fuel
to high temperature
processor necessary

Functional
outline

The chimney efficiency is: Coupled with other losses, the efficiency is less than
h 1% in practice. One may also look at the “economic
η= , (8) efficiency”, i.e. the internal rate of return for payback.
C p (T2 − T1 ) According to Al-Dabbas (Al-Dabbas, 2011), an area
of 46000 m2 can yield 50 KW. At incident solar energy
and since the Carnot efficiency is (T2 − T1 ) / T2 , the
of 1 KW/sqm, this gives an efficiency of 1%, and at peak
resultant efficiency becomes h / C pT1 ,( ) incidence of 5 KW/sqm, efficiency of 0.02%. Also, costs
where: of maintenance and salaries would go up geometrically,
Cp – specific heat; increasing the estimates given. The extreme desert cold
h – height of air column; at night however will require thermal mass to offset it
T2 – working temperature; and allow for fast startup during the day, which is not
T1 – ambient temperature (sink); mentioned. Estimates depending on the interest rate show
η – efficiency.

33
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

amortization for 25 – 40 years with high per unit costs 4.1. Self-gasification from biomass
compared to existing technologies (Al-Dabbas, 2011). Biomass self-gasification has been reported by Van
For 40 years’ time, the cost per KWh is 0.25 to 0.40 Euro Rossum (Rossum, Nanou, Swaaij, & Kersten, 2013),
for amortizations of 6 to 10% (Fig. 5). where the heat released by methanation is applied for
the heat required for gasification. Exxon is reported to
have used it in the 80’s, in high pressure coal gasifica-
tion. Full syngas cycle of biomass self-gasification is
presented in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Full syngas cycle

J.D. Mackaluso (2007) has described bio catalysts for

Figure 5. Influence of amortization on unit cost (Al-Dabbas, 2011)
producing syngas which then can be processed into alco-
hol for fuel. The advantage is in using waste which
A comparison of various technologies from (Christos,
would otherwise be dumped into the ocean or landfills.
2010) is given below in Table 2.
Table 2. A cost comparison of electricity generating tech- 5. FUTURE STUDIES AND AVENUES
nologies OF RESEARCH
Invest-
MWh
ment in Mode of It may be possible to invoke the genetic modification
direct Fuel or method of microbes to directly excrete hydrocarbons. Turning
EURO operation
production of electricity
per pro- and capacity water, photonic energy and carbon dioxide into hydro-
cost generation
duced factor carbons is a very old process developed by nature, which
in EURO
MWh/year uses chlorophyll. Perhaps more useful than solid carbo-
Coal fired (not Combined hydrates, would be a liquid hydrocarbon that could di-
55 – 60 including carbon 200 cycle base
emission penalties) load 85%
rectly be put to use as fuel. Algae are known to efficient-
Coal fired with CCS Combined
ly convert carbon dioxide into fatty acids, and similarly
80 – 100 (carbon capture 300 – 400 cycle base potato plants into carbohydrates. Converting this potato
and storage) load 85% starch into alcohol is a long and expensive process. There
Natural gas fired has been a search for microorganisms that could do this
Combined
60 – 65 (not including carbon 150
cycle 85%
(Ethanol Fermentation, 2017). Alternatively, sugars can
emission penalties) be turned into alcohol, but again there are attendant costs.
65 – 75 Nuclear fission 400 – 450 Base load 95% Much more attractive and useful would be a way to con-
60 Wind parks onshore 500 Intermittent 30% vert raw materials directly into hydrocarbon fuels. Apart
75 Wind parks offshore 650 Intermittent 30% from microorganisms, mobile robots are being proposed
Continuous that would “eat” garbage and unwanted plants and con-
Concentrating
180 2000 with thermal vert these into hydrocarbon fuel forms (Pavlus, 2010).
Solar CSP
storage 30% The direct conversion of cellulose to alcohol (cellulol-
Intermittent ysis) using lignocellulose (wood cellulose containing lig-
280 Photo voltaic PV 3000
15 – 17% nin a component of wood), has been researched at Ar-
Solar chimney Continuous
155
concrete
~2000
~50%
gonne Labs (The Bioenergy Technologies Office…,
Floating solar Continuous 2017). The process depends on cellulase enzymes pro-
~60 ~500 duced by bacteria. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Zymomonas
chimney ~50%
55 – 75 Biomass 500 – 700
Continuous mobilis, E. Coli, are some bacteria targeted for bio engi-
85% neering to produce ethanol via the cellulosis route. One
Continuous way to obtain hydrogen from syngas is through the use of
90%
50 – 70 Geothermal 500 – 800
(limited
the bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum. Rhodospirillum
resource) rubrum is a photosynthetic proteo-bacterium that converts
Continuous syngas to hydrogen through a process known as the water
(load gas shift reaction (Najafpour, Younesi, & Mohamed, 2004;
50 – 60 Hydroelectric 500 – 800 following, Younesi, Najafpour, Ku Ismail, Mohamed, & Kamaruddin,
limited 2008) have performed multiple experiments to test the
resource)
ability of Rhodospirillum rubrum to convert syngas.

34
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

Producer gas has been applied as a raw material for 6. FUTURE EFFORTS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY
bacterial conversion to ethanol also, using the bacteria
A primary necessary step in the production of second
Clostridium Ljungdahlii, which ingests CO, CO2 and H2
generation biofuels is through syngas, from biomass.
producing ethanol and water. This process involves gasi-
There are two major approaches.
fication, fermentation and distillation to yield alcohol.
The first is by fluidized bed gasification of biomass to
The alternative is to use a catalytic reactor. Catalysis
fuel gas at approximately 900°C. This option requires al-
involves intermediate compounds that get involved in the
most no biomass pre-treatment, the product gas however
reaction but are unchanged in composition at the end.
needs downstream catalytic upgrading. Reforming the
The physical and chemical parameters affecting fer-
hydrocarbons to syngas is done catalytically. Such gasifica-
mentation of cellulose has been studied by various groups
tion technology has already been demonstrated with bio-
(Armstrong & Martin, 1983; Senthilkumar & Gunasekar-
mass for generating heat and/or electricity (Nizetic, Ninic,
an, 2005). Another bacteria acetivibro celluloyticus pro-
& Klarin, 2008; Kempegowda, Tran, & Skreiberg, 2011).
duces acetate, ethanol, water and carbon dioxide.
Second is by entrained flow gasification at high tem-
Recently, groups have tried to bioengineer bacteria to
perature to produce syngas without methane or other
give oil for fuel directly. The group LS9 with UC Berke-
hydrocarbons (1000 – 1300°C), with sufficient catalyti-
ley has engineered a bacterium to make enzymes to con-
cally active components like K or Na.
vert biomass into diesel oil (Bourzac, 2010). A recent
Flash pyrolysis: biomass is liquefied to oil/char slur-
US Patent No. 7794969 uses cyanobacteria to produce
ry, which can be atomized in an entrained flow gasifier:
n-alkanes (Reppas & Ridley, 2010).
the high-energy density slurry can also be transported
The end is not in sight, and clearly microorganisms
and processed at a central facility.
exist or can be modified to excrete oils which can be
Torrefaction: biomass is thermally treated at 250 –
used as fuels, possible without further processing. How-
300°C to produce brittle and pulverizable fuel. This can
ever, the overall effect on the effect on life on the planet
be done on the site, but also before transporting the solid
and the ecology and environment must be carefully eval-
fuel. The latter is attractive since torrefied biomass pul-
uated before attempting such bioengineering on a large
verizes easily; subsequent pelletisation consumes rela-
scale in order to satiate the need of some industrial
tively little energy. The torrefied biomass pellet has a
groups which have stuck to old designs for motive en-
high energy density and thus offers economic gains in
gines. The alternative would be to invest in alternative
transportation. Biomass is converted at 600 – 900°C into
designs for motive power converters.
gas, with significant amounts of small char particles
The internal combustion engine was a byproduct of
entrained with it. The mixture is directed to the high
the Industrial revolution and the industrialization of the
temperature entrained flow gasifier to convert it to syn-
Midwest USA, with resultant mass migrations, prior to
gas. This combination has a very high efficiency and
which electric cars, steam cars and other variants were in
allows the feeding of conventional chips.
vogue in the early 20th century. In fact, the steam engine
Other schemes could be developed integrating these
served Indian railroads for well over a century before the
concepts to produce bio-syngas. From bio-syngas one
diesel engines took over. Hence one must not get carried
can synthesize different types of biofuels like Fischer-
away by the demons of science and finance and attempt
Tropsch fuels, methanol, DME, mixed alcohols, includ-
to change the natural order of nature and life by introduc-
ing pure hydrogen. Extensive gas cleaning and condition-
ing artificial genetic alterations.
ing is required in all these applications.
In order to maintain sustainable development in con-
In one process (Henstra, Sipma, Rinzema, & Stams,
sonance with International efforts and agreed norms, it is
2007), waste products and various feedstocks convert
essential that efforts to reengineer life forms, regardless
into syngas. Then, the bacterium Clostridium Ljungdahlii
of good motives be examined carefully as there can be
is exposed to syngas and performs fermentation produc-
repercussions in the long run.
ing ethanol in the process. The ethanol is then extracted
In conclusion an ongoing debate is raging amongst
by distillation of the mixture. In addition to producing
various international pundits. It is about the pros and
ethanol, BRI plants also generate electricity. Prior to
cons of the link between pollution and economic
applying Clostridium Ljungdahlii, cooling of the syngas
growth. It was suggested in a nutshell, that economic
is required; and. heat released during cooling is used to
growth alone would take care of the environment after a
generate electricity. It is claimed that up to 85 gallons of
certain level of prosperity was reached. The idea is a
ethanol for every ton of biomass and up to 150 gallons
fall out of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC). It
for every ton of hydrocarbon-rich material are converted
is also recognized that depletion of resources from
(Henstra, Sipma, Rinzema, & Stams, 2007). Another less
LDC’s is an important effect because It is rare for natu-
known area of current interest in the field of renewable
ral resources and capital obtained in this way by pirat-
energy, is wave energy harvested from ocean currents
ing resources of LDC’s by more developed countries to
and waves (Uihlein & Magagna, 2016).
be reinvested in a sustainable way (Grossman & Krue-
ger, 1991; Barbier, 1997). It is perhaps one reason why
the developed countries refuse to sign the Kyoto and 7. CONCLUSIONS
other protocols, believing that nature will eventually Apart from nuclear energy, the alternative energy
take care of itself. The Kusznet’s Curves for EEC, US technologies all derive from solar energy, and in a sense
show the downturn, but the downturn has not occurred even fossil fuels are derived from archaic biomass pro-
so far for India and China. duced bysolar energy. It is seen that inefficient conver-

35
R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

sion technologies like the solar chimney can produce Ethanol Fermentation. (2017). Retrieved from https://en.wiki-
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large amounts of capital assets and infrastructure in- a North American Free Trade Agreement. Cambridge:
Cambridge Press.
volves producing large amounts of energy, in terms of
https://doi.org/10.3386/w3914
the carbon footprint, which will take longer to recover, Mackaluso, J.D. (2007). The Use of Syngas Derived from
apart from recovery of capital. The other technologies Biomass and Waste Products to Produce Ethanol and
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lower capital asset development and perhaps lower Mahin, D.B. (1983). Bioenergy from Crop Residues. Washing-
technology and energy expenditure in manufacture of ton: BST, Office of Energy.
engines and generating stations. The total energy budg- Nagel, F.P. (2008). Electricity from Wood through the Combi-
et and outlay needs to be looked at and the payback nation of Gasification and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Systems
assessed over the life of the generator, along with capi- Analysis and Proof-of-Concept. Doctoral Thesis. Swiss
tal payback to get a fair and full estimate of the relative Federal Institute of Technology.
Najafpour, G., Younesi, H., & Mohamed, A.R. (2004). Effect
merits amongst the various alternatives. Solar chimneys
of Organic Substrate on Hydrogen Production from Synthe-
are the lowest efficiency alternatives; however, the sis Gas using Rhodospirillum Rubrum, in Batch Culture.
input energy is free and inexhaustible. On the other Biochemical Engineering Journal, 21(2), 123-130.
hand, the Stirling and Brayton engines have the highest https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2004.06.001
thermodynamic (Carnot) efficiencies, yet have not been Pavlus, J. (2010). A Wandering, Plant-Eating Robot. Scientific
developed to the extent of the Diesel and two stroke American, pp. 21. Retrieved from https://www.scientific-
Internal combustion engines which are among the major american.com/article/a-wandering-plant-eating-robot/
polluting sources today. An alternative efficiency Reppas, N.B., & Ridley, C.P. (2010). Methods and Composi-
(internal rate of return), or economic efficiency, may tions for the Recombinant Biosynthesis of n-Alkanes. Patent
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Energy IV: Innovations in Biomass Conversion for Heat,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Power, Fuels and Chemicals. Enschede: University of
This work was presented at the International Confer- Twente.
ence on Environmental Design and Innovation, Amman Santos Bernardes, M.A. (2010). Solar Chimney Power Plants –
Developments and Advancements. Solar Energy. Croatia:
Jordan in May 2016. The author thanks the organizers
INTECH.
and Al-Zaytoona University for local hospitality. https://doi.org/10.5772/8068
Senthilkumar, V., & Gunasekaran, P. (2005). Bioethanol Pro-
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https://doi.org/10.1029/2000jd900821

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R. Basu. (2017). Mining of Mineral Deposits, 11(4), 29-37

ABSTRACT (IN UKRAINIAN)

Мета. Надати і порівняти різні види відновлюваної енергії з урахуванням енергетичної кризи, пов'язаної з
глобальним потеплінням і виснаженням викопних джерел палива, що призводить до викидів вуглекислого газу,
який є головним джерелом забруднення атмосфери й поглинання радіації.
Методика. При огляді літературних джерел та аналізі переваг і недоліків конкуруючих технологій необхід-
но враховувати капітальні й експлуатаційні витрати, а також вуглецевий слід. Рідкі види палива відрізняються
більш високою питомою енергією по масі в порівнянні з сонячними панелями або термокомпенсаторами. Не
можна недооцінювати той факт, що виробництво рідкого палива передбачає наявність громіздкого очисного й
переробного обладнання, робота якого збільшує вуглецевий слід.
Результати. Генераторний газ і бактеріальні двигуни пропонуються в якості способу зменшення забруднення
та економічного отримання електричної енергії. Отримання електроенергії на геотермальних і гідроелектростан-
ціях, а також на станціях, що працюють на вугіллі чи біомасі, передбачає низькі витрати на експлуатацію. Однак,
при цьому не враховуються витрати на боротьбу з вуглецевими викидами. Сонячні електростанції аеродинаміч-
ного типу при малому механічному ККД відрізняються низькими експлуатаційними витратами і практично не
забруднюють навколишнє середовище. Модифіковані двигуни внутрішнього згоряння, що дозволяють отриму-
вати генераторний газ і спирт, можуть сприяти зменшенню вуглецевих викидів.
Наукова новизна. Багато вчених розглядають проблеми отримання енергії й підвищення механічного ККД.
Необхідно вдосконалювати бактеріальні двигуни, свого роду хімічні фабрики, робота яких ще не до кінця зро-
зуміла з точки зору класичної термодинаміки. Оцінюючи різні технології, слід виходити з окупності інвестицій,
оскільки вона включає капітальні витрати, які зазвичай не враховуються при розрахунках механічного ККД.
Практична значимість. Скорочення лісового покриву планети, який є поглиначем парникових газів, приз-
водить до глобального потепління. Якщо двигуни мільйонів машин по всьому світу перевести з бензину на
альтернативні види палива, скоротяться парникові викиди й сповільняться темпи глобального потепління.
Ключові слова: генераторний газ, біогаз, глобальне потепління, вуглецевий слід, ККД

ABSTRACT (IN RUSSIAN)

Цель. Представить и сравнить различные виды возобновляемой энергии с учетом энергетического кризиса,
связанного с глобальным потеплением и истощением ископаемых источников топлива, что приводит к выбро-
сам углекислого газа, который является главным источником загрязнения атмосферы и поглощения радиации.
Методика. При обзоре литературных источников и анализе преимуществ и недостатков конкурирующих
технологий необходимо учитывать капитальные и эксплуатационные затраты, а также углеродный след. Жидкие
виды топлива отличаются более высокой удельной энергией по массе по сравнению с солнечными панелями или
термокомпенсаторами. Нельзя недооценивать тот факт, что производство жидкого топлива предполагает нали-
чие громоздкого очистного и перерабатывающего оборудования, работа которого увеличивает углеродный след.
Результаты. Генераторный газ и бактериальные двигатели предлагаются в качестве способа уменьшения за-
грязнения и экономичного получения электрической энергии. Получение электроэнергии на геотермальных и гид-
роэлектростанциях, а также на станциях, работающих на угле или биомассе, предполагает низкие расходы на экс-
плуатацию. Однако, при этом не учитываются расходы на борьбу с углеродистыми выбросами. Солнечные элек-
тростанции аэродинамического типа при малом механическом КПД отличаются низкими эксплуатационными рас-
ходами и практически не загрязняют окружающую среду. Модифицированные двигатели внутреннего сгорания,
позволяющие получать генераторный газ и спирт, могут способствовать уменьшению углеродистых выбросов.
Научная новизна. Многие ученые рассматривают проблемы получения энергии и повышения механиче-
ского КПД. Необходимо совершенствовать бактериальные двигатели, своего рода химические фабрики, работа
которых еще не до конца понятна с точки зрения классической термодинамики. Оценивая различные техноло-
гии, следует исходить из окупаемости инвестиций, поскольку она включает капитальные затраты, которые
обычно не учитываются при расчетах механического КПД.
Практическая значимость. Сокращение лесного покрова планеты, который является поглотителем парниковых
газов, приводит к глобальному потеплению. Если двигатели миллионов машин по всему миру перевести с бензина
на альтернативные виды топлива, сократятся парниковые выбросы и замедлятся темпы глобального потепления.
Ключевые слова: генераторный газ, биогаз, глобальное потепление, углеродный след, КПД

ARTICLE INFO
Received: 13 October 2017
Accepted: 23 November 2017
Available online: 27 November 2017

ABOUT AUTHORS
Rahul Basu, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of the Mechanical Engineering Department, Adarsha Institute of Technology
(Visvesvaraya Technological University), Sy. No. 73, Lingadheera Gollahalli, Kundana Hobli, Devanahalli Taluk,
562110, Bangalore, India. E-mail: raulbasu@gmail.com

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