A Control Strategy for Unified Power Quality

Conditioner
Luis F.C. Monteiro, Student member. IEEE, Mauricio Aredes, Member. IEEE, mid J o b A. Moor Net0
COPPE/UFRJ, Electrical Engineering Program
P.0.Box 68503. Rio de Janeiro. Brazil
E-mail: Ifcni@coe.ufrj.br

Abstrucf- This paper presents a control strategy for a Unified of them is the unified power quality conditioner (UPQC), as
Power Quality Conditioner. This control strategy is used in shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a shunt-active filter together
three-phase three-wire systems. The UPQC device combines a with a series-active filter. This combination allows a siinul-
shunt-active tilter together with a series-active filter in a hack-
to-back configuration, to simultaneously compensate the sup- taneous compensation of the load currents and the supply
ply voltage and the load current. Previous works presented a voltages, so that compensated current drawn from the net-
control strategy for shunt-active filter that guarantees sinusoi- work and the compensated supply voltage delivered to the
dal, balanced and minimized source currents even if under
unbalanced and / or distorted system voltages, also known as load are sinusoidal, balanced and minimized. The series-
“Sinusoidal Fryze Currents”. Then, this control strategy was and shunt-active filters are connected in a back-to-back
extended to develop a dual control strategy for series-active configuration, in which the shunt converter is responsible
filter. Now, this paper develops the integration principles of
shunt current compensation and series voltages compensation, for regulating the coinmon DC-link voltage.
both based on instantaneous active and non-active powers, In the 30’s of the last century. Fryze [ l ] proposed a set
directly calculated from a-b-c phase voltages and line cur- of active and non-active (reactive) power definitions in the
rents. Simulation results are presented to validate the pro-
posed UPQC control strategy. time domain. From these concepts, Tenti et a1 [2] devel-
oped a control strategy for shunt-active filters that guaran-
1~tde.x Term- Active Filters. Active Power Line Conditioners, tees compensated currents in the network that are sinusoidal
Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power. Sinusoidal Fryze Currents,
Sinusoidal Fryze Voltages. even if the system voltage at the point of coinmon coupling
(PCC) already contains harmonics. However, this control
strategy does not guarantee balanced compensated currents
1. INTRODUCTION
if the system voltage itself is unbalanced (i.e. it contains a
fundamental negative-sequence component). In [3]. this
0 NE of the serious problems in electrical systems is the
increasing number of electronic components of de-
vices that are used by industry as well as residences. These
drawback was overcome, by the addition of a positive-
sequence voltage detector in the shunt-active filter control-
dcvices, which need high-quality energy to work properly, ler. This control circuit determines the phase angle, fre-
at the same time, are the most responsible ones for injec- quency and magilitude of the fundamental positive-
tions of harmonics in the distribution system. Therefore. sequence voltage component. This new control strategy has
devices that soften this drawback have been developed. One been denominated as the “Siniisoidul F q z e Ciirrenrs ’‘ con-

“S

Fig. I . General configuration of the Unified Power Quality Conditioner - UPQC.

0-7803-7912-8/03/$17.00 C 2003 IEEE

39 1
trol strategy. A . The Positive-Sequence Voltage Detector- (V-J
This work exploits the use of that positive-sequence
voltage detector to develop a new control strategy for se- A positive-sequence voltage detector [V-, voltage-
ries-active filter. It is based on a dual minimization method detector block in Fig. 2(a)] in terms of "minimized
for voltage compensation, together with a synchronizing voltages" is developed. A dual principle for voltage
circuit (PLL circuit). The synchronizing circuit is responsi- minimization is employed, together with a phase-locked-
ble to detect the fundamental frequency, as well as the loop circuit (PLL circuit), as shown in Fig. 3. The used
phase angle of the positive-sequence voltage component. PLL circuit is detailed in the next section.
The dual minimization method is responsible to accurately In fact, this dual principle of voltage minimization is
determine the magnitude of this voltage component. This used here for extracting "instantaneously" the fundamental
control strategy is denominated here as the "Sinirsoidal positive-sequence component ( in phasor notation, or
FrFze Voltages control strategy.
"
vel, lib,> vCl as instantaneous values, as the outputs of Fig. 3)

Further, this paper presents the integration the "Sinztsoi- from a generic three-phase voItage.
dal F q z e Ciir.rents ' * and the "Siniuoidal F q z e Jroltages '' The distorted and unbalanced voltages vu,>,v&. v, of the
control strategies into an UPQC controller. Additionally, power supply are measured and given as inputs to the PLL
the proposed UPQC controller includes an algorithm that circuit. As shown in the next section. it determines the
provides damping in harmonic voltage propagation and signals i , / , i h / . i,.,, which are in phase with the fundamental
hinders load harmonic currents to flow into the network. positive-sequence component ( V+I ) contained in vu>.vhs. I:.,.
A complete model of the UPQC approach is imple- Thus, only the magnitude of V+I is missing. The
mented in a digital simulator and results is presented to fundamental characteristic of the used PLL allows the use
validate the proposed control strategy. of a dual expression for deteimining active voltages in the
form
11. T H E UPQC CONTROLLER

Fig. 2 shows the complete functional block diagram of

the UPQC controller. The part shown in Fig. 2(a) is
responsible to determine the compensating current
references for PWM control of the UPQC shunt converter, as an artifice to extract the J'+l component fi-om vas, q,,, vc,.
whereas the other part shown in Fig.2(b) generates the The reason is that the signals io/, i h / , icl are three symmetric
compensating voltage references for PWM series converter. sinus functions with unity amplitude, which correspond to
Next, each functional block of Fig. 2 will be detailed. an auxiliary fundamental positive-sequence current i + i that
is in phase with I'+l. Hence, the average value of the
0. 'a/
.
'b/
.
*d
"three-phase instantaneous power", 3 V ~ l Z + I c o sis~ ,maxi-
mum (would be zero if V+l and Z+I are orthogonal), and
the average signal &,,- in Fig. 3 comprises the total ampli-
tude of J'+I . Therefore, it is possible to guarantee that the
signals vu], ij,/?vc1 are sinusoidal and have the same magni-
tude and phase angle of the fundamental positive-sequence
component of the measured system voltage.

0 ""I
i n
'hI

"cl

Fig. 2. The functional block diagram of the UPQC controller for ( a )

shunt UPQC converter and (b) series UPQC converter. Fig. 3. The V., voltage detector diagram block

392
I ) The PLL Circuit C. Cui-rentMinimization

The used PLL circuit (Fig. 4) can operate satisfactorily Fig. 6 shows in details that functional block named
under high distorted and unbalanced system voltages. The "Current Minimization" in Fig. 2(a). It detemlines the in-
inputs are vu/,= v',~ - vb,v and vc/, = vcr- Vhr. The outputs of stantaneous compensating current references, which should
the PLL circuit are io/, iblr icI. The algorithm is based on be synthesized by the shunt PWM converter of the UPQC.
the instantaneous active three-phase power expression It has the same kernel as the Generalized F r y e Currents
y30 = vu& + i;.l,ir. methods widely used, like in [4], [ 5 ] and [6]. The inputs of
The current feedback signals i,,(wt) = sin(wr) and the controller are the load currents iuI,ihl.i , / . the control
ic(wt) = siri(wf - 2d3) are built up by the PLL circuit, just voltages vol. vh/, v,., determined by the V-, detector. and the
using the time integral of output w of the PI-Controller. DC voltage regulator signal GI,,,,.
Note that they have unity amplitude and iJwr) leads 120" The conductance G is determined i n Fig. 6 corresponds
i,(wt). Thus, they represent a feedback from a positive- to the active current of the load. In other words. it coin-
sequence component at frequency@. The PLL circuit can prises all current components that can producc active power
reach a stable point of operation only if the inputpj, of the with the voltages vczI.vh/, vCI. A low-pass lift11 order Bur-
PI-Controller has a zero average value ( P j g = 0 ) and has te/woor-th filter is used to extract the avcrasc \slue of G,
minimized low-frequency oscillating portions in P 3 m which is denominated as Gh<,,..Now, since i',,).I,;,,. I', com- ,
( ,936 = + p"30 ). Once the circuit is stabilized, the aver- prises only the J>+l component, Ghormust cori-eqmnd to the
age value 0fp.3~is zero and. with this, the phase angle of active portion of the fundamental positive-xyuciicc com-
the positive-sequence system voltage at fundamental fre- ponent ( i + i ) of the load current. The control signiil G,,,,,,,-r,I
quency is reached. At this condition, the auxiliary currents is the sum of Gh,,. and GI,,,, which, together \\.it11 ~ l i ccontrol
i,(U) and i<.((d)= sin(m- 2d3), becomes orthogonal to voltages vu/,vhl, v,), are used to determine the currents i,,,,,
. .
the fundamental positive-sequence component of the meas- io,,, I,-,,,. These control signals are pure sinuxiihl \\'a\'cs i n
ured voltages vu.,. vcA respectively. Therefore, phase with veil, vhI, v,,/ and include the magiiirutle o f the
i,I(m) = sin(U - d 2 ) is in phase with the fundamental positive-sequence load current (proportion;il to (ii,,,,) and
positive-sequence component contained in v".,. the active current (proportional to Cl,,,,)tliat i.G nc'cebNary to
compensate for losses in the UPQC.
B. The DC voltage regiilafoi- Since the shunt active filter of the UPQC' coinpensates
the difference between the calculated acii\ c' ctiri.c'nt and the
The dc voltage regulator is used to generate a control measured load current, it is possible to ~ I ~ I I - ~ Itlxit I ~ I the
~ C
signal GI,,,, as shown in Fig. 2(a). This signal forces the
shunt active filter to draw additional active current from the
network, to compensate for losses in the power circuit of
the UPQC. Additionally, it corrects dc voltage variations
caused by abnormal operation and transient compensation
errors. This point is clarified later, where simulation results
are discussed. Fig. 5 shows the dc voltage regulator circuit.
It consists only of a PI-Controller [G(s) = K, + Kl/s], where,
for normalized inputs, K, = 0.50 and K, = 80.

0 l o
Fig. I: The Synchronizing Circuit - PLL Circuit.

"nc

Fig. 5 : The DC voltage regulator. Fig. 6. Thc Currcnt Minimization control algcirirhm

393
compensated currents i,,, ihs,i,, drawn from the network are where,
always sinusoidal, balanced and in phase with the positive-
sequence system voltages. This characteristic represents a
great improvement done at the "Generalized F y z e Cur-
rents " control strategy.

D. The Dnriipiiig Control Algoritlirii

In a UPQC configuration, instability problems due to

I VUY = (l'b,

Vl,,

V,'
- V,] 1/ 6
= (%>?,- V a l ) /
= ( V U l -\>/,I
47
6
Note that the voltages v,,, vbyr vCy are achieved from the
fundamental positive-sequence voltages vQl, v h / ,
;

There-
(3)

fore. it is possible to guarantee that the voltages vny,v h y , vCy

resonance phenomena may occur. 111 order to enhance the are still sinusoidal and lag 90" the voltages vnl, q,),vel, re-
overall system stability, an auxiliary circuit can be added to spectively. A conductance G and a susceptance B are de-
the controller of the series active filter. The basic idea con- termined from the calculated active and non-active instan-
sists in increasing harmonic damping, as a series resistance, taneous powers, as shown in Fig. 7. Then, high-pass, fifth
but effective only in harmonic frequencies. others than the order Butterworth filters are used to extract the oscillating
fundamental one. This damping principle was first pro- parts of that conductance and susceptance.
posed by Peng [ 7 ] , in terms of Components defined in the The auxiliary currents i,. i/,J,,,i and i,,,, ihc/,&, are de-
p q Tlieorli and used by Aredes [SI and Fujita [9]. The termined as follows:

I
damping control algorithm, now developed in terms of ahc
i, = GlJK."a1
variables (in the phase mode), can be seen in Fig. 7.
The inputs to the damping circuit are the source currents ihp = o'.w . "bl : (4)
. .
z,,~, i/,,\, i,, (compensated currents), which are flowing ,i = Go,, ' VCl

through the series transformers of the UPQC, and the volt-

ages determined by the V,, voltage detector v,/, v h / , vcI.
The active and non-active instantaneous powers are deter-
mined by using the equations ( 2 ) and (3);
'
Q=
= V a1 ' a s + ' 1 1 1'In + v c I ic.s
+ vhq'bs + v c q i c s
; (2)
1 i"'/ = Bo,,.
ih, = Bo.,,. . 1'hq

41,
. "U,

= B O . > , . "a/
Damping signals (harmonic components still present in
the source currents) are determined as described in (6).
. (5)

I
vaqius
. .
Ia/i = l u y + i u p
. .
lh/i = Ihy + ihp . (6)
. .
lch = L,+ i,
Finally, the multiplication between the damping signals iollr
ihh, ic.I2and a gain K determines the damping voltages v~,,,,
v/,/,,vClr.that will be added to the compensating voltage ref-
erences of the series active filter of the UPQC, as will be
explained in the next section. Thus, the gain K acts as a
harmonic resistance to damp resonance phenomena.

E. Coriipensating Voltoges Calcirlution

The block diagram that determines the compensating

voltages vac,vbr., vL.<[Fig. 2(b)], which is synthesized by the
series PWM converter, is shown in Fig. 8. The inputs are
the control voltages determined by the V+l voltage detector:
vel, I>,,/, x i c r , the source voltages: vu,, vhsr vCs, and the danip-
ing voltages: vu/], Vbh, vCh.The compensating voltage are:

1 vu,

"hc
= Val - (% + V d ?1
= I'hl - ('b.7 +
v,, = vc,- (VCS + V C h )
vh/l

Ideally, the compensated voltages delivered to the critical

load will comprise only the fundamental positive-sequence
' (7)

y; '
f t "'<,
t @
'bq
component ( i s u l , v h / . v,./) of the supply voltage 1's. The
damping voltages wil I improve stability and provide har-
Fig 7 Damping control algorithm in temis of obc banables monic isolation.

394
 0 04
02
/
/
'*I

@ 00

-
vah 'hh 'ch -002

-
-
1 1 1
-0 04

04

-1
'la' 'L = l',,-(11',$ +I'hn) VO5
"/I/ Itlx = I,,,,
- 4- V h b ) __f Vbr -004
c' ' ,
v,, = V < - (V(, + Vh' ) d \'c'
04
,LA

0.10012 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28

0 Fig. 9: Load current. current of the shunt active filter and source current.

Fig. 8. Compensating volbages calculation that the source currents take to reach the steady state is
pretty small. This demonstrates that the proportional and
As conclusion, the proposed UPQC control strategy pro- integral gains of the DC voltage regulator are well dimen-
vides compensated voltages and currents that are sinusoi- sioned.
dal. balanced and minimized (in phase). Therefore, the Fig. 10 shows the supply voltage (uncompensated,
1 2 ~ ~

power factor is ideal. the voltages delivered to the load are left side of the UPQC), the compensating voltage vac of the
sinusoidal and balanced, and it is possible to guarantee that UPQC, and compensated voltage v,,,., delivered to the criti-
the source currents will be sinusoidal, balanced and mini- cal load, before and after the start of the series active filter.
mized even if under unbalanced and / or distorted system The source voltage has 10% of negative-sequence compo-
voltages. nent at the fundamental frequency, plus 5% of a 5Ih har-
monic and 5% of a 7'" harmonic. The vu,, voltage, after the
111. SlMULATION RESULTS start of the series active filter, becomes almost sinusoidal.
Fig. I 1 shows the DC Link Voltage i'Dc'and the losses in
A test case was mounted to investigate the performance
the UPQC, represented by the GI,,, signal. The reference
of the UPQC filter through digital simulations, in the Saber
value at the terminals of the DC-link is equal to 4.5 volts. It
DesignerT". Per unit (pu) quantities cannot be used directly
niay be noticed, that the ripple at the DC-link voltage is
in this simulator. Thus, I V (phase to ground) and IA (line
very small, in the order of 0.4% of the reference value dur-
current) were used as the basis of the system. A balanced,
ing a short transient period, after the start of the UPQC, and
1 V, three-phase, voltage source is used. A three-phase six-
less than 0.1 %, in steady-state operation. The switching
pulse thyristor rectifier, with 0.2 A DC-current (20%), is
losses of the inverters may not represent the reality, since
used as a non-linear load.
ideal models of switches in the digital simulator are used.
The shunt-active filter and the series-active filter start its
This condition is needed in the proposed system, because a
operation in 0.2s. The total simulation time is 0.8s. The
basis of 1V and 1A was chosen.
thyristor rectifier is connected at t = 0.1 s. An inductor and
Fig. 12 shows the source currents i,,,, ib,,, i,.,, the compen-
a resistor, whose values correspond to 0.1 % of the system
sated voltages I,"),.. vh,,, v,,,, and the current i,, together with
base impedance, compose the source impedance. In this
voltage I!,,,,. repeated in a separated graphic. before and after
case: the short-circuit power at the load terminal is equal to
I O p.u. The small high-pass filters to mitigate switching 1<'I
20 /
fiequency harmonics at the series and shunt PWM convert- 10
ers are R=0.6 Q and C = 170 pF. Although it seams a high 00
-1 0
capacitor, it corresponds to 5% of the system base- -20
impedance. A capacitor of 2400pF is used at the DC link
10
of the UPQC. The reference voltage is equal to 4.5 V. To 05
give an idea of the capacitor's dimension, the unit capacitor 00
-05
constant (UCC) is calculated, by the following equation: -1.0 ............................

i.c.r? !.
l y c c = L =2
240op .(4.$
= X.1ni.s . (8)
--
s n . .......................................... 1
VJ"
....................
IO
P 3.1.1 00
Fig. 9 shows the load. shunt and source currents iul, i,., -1 0
-.
-2U
i,,,: before, and after the start of the shunt-active filter. Af- 010 012 014 016 018 020 022 024 026 028
ter the start of the shunt active filter, the source current be-
Fig I O Supply Loltage. compensating Toltagc and the compensated
comes almost sinusoidal. It may be noticed, that the time voltage delneied to the critical load

395
the UPQC energization. It may be seen that, when the 500

UPQC start its operation the source currents, as well the 4 75

compensated voltages become almost sinusoidal and bal- 450

anced. The source current i,? and the compensated voltage 4 25

vu,&are almost in phase after the start of the UPQC. It con- 4w

firms that the control strategy proposed is useful in a three- 02
phase three-wire system, where the system voltages are un- 01
balanced and distorted and the load currents with high con-
00
tents of harmonics.
-0 1

-0 2
IV. C o N C L U s l o N s 01 02 03 04 05 06

A control strategy for Unified Power Quality Condi- Fig. 1 1. DC link voltage signal ijlr and DC voltage regul:iior signal Gf,,,,
tioner - the UPQC - is proposed. Simulation results
have validated the proposed control strategy, for the use in
20
three-phase three-wire systems. In case of using in three- 1.0
phase four-wire systems, there is the necessity of compen- 0.0
-1 0
sating the neutral current. In this case, three-phase four- -2 0
wire PWM converter is necessary.
The computational efforts to develop the proposed con-
trol strategy is reduced, if compared with pq-Theor?>-based
controllers, since tlie a-p-0 transformation is avoided. For
three-phase three-wire systems, the performance of the pro-
posed approach is comparable with those based on the p q
Theory, without loss of robustness even if operating under
distorted and unbalanced system voltage conditions.
0 18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0 26 0 28 0 30
Presently, the authors are working on tlie possibility of
extending the proposed control strategy for the use in three- Fig. 12. Source currents, compensated voltages :id liiL,i.tmipi'iizatcd
voltage I',,,,. together with the source cui Icni I
phase four-wire systems.

V. REFERENCES VI. BIOGRAPHIES

S. Fryze. "Wirk-. Blind- und Scheinleistung in elektrischen Luis Fernando CorrPa Monteiro was born iii K i l s IIC 1.i1i;ii~~W I I C on
Stromkainseii init nicht-sinusfoniigen Verlauf voii Stroin und March 1975. He received the B. Sc. Degree l i c m I c ~ l c t . t l i i i i \ c ~ \ i i ! of
Spannung." ETZ-Arch. Elektrotech.. vol. 53. 1932, pp. 596-599. Rio de Janeiro in 2003. He is enrolled in M S c . ;it C ( )l'I'l i I K.1 111 hnver
625-627. 700-702. Electronics where is developing control strategic. fiu . t L . r t \ i IiIrLn and
L. Malesani. L. Rosseto. P. Tenti. "Active Filter for Reactive Power devices to improve the power quality in the elrctrrc,il .\,iciii 1113 hlain

and Harmonics Compensation", IEEE - PESC 1986. pp. 321-330. research areas of interest are Custom Power and I \ ( ' I > I lic rmyineer
Luis F.C. Monteiro, M. Aredes. "A Comparative Analysis . b o n g Luis F. C. Monteiro is a student member ofthe l31.;1/i11.111 l?mL,i I lcctron-
Different Control Strategies for Shunt Active Filters." Proc. ics Society (SOBRAEP), Intemational Electrical :ind I ILYII~W~L~. I n~ineer-
(CDROM) of the V INDUSCON - Conferencia de Aplicaq6es In- ing (IEEE). andcouncil on Large Electric Systrniz I( 11 11<1 i
dustriais. Salvador. Brazil, July 2002. pp.345-350. Mauricio Aredcs 6'94. M'97) was born in %I I'.IIIL~ \I.I~L'. 111:1/11. o n
T. Furuhashi, S . Okuma. Y. Uchikawa, "A Study on the Theory of August 13. 1961. He received the B.Sc. degree lrom I Iriiiiiiiiii.c I:cderal
Instantaneous Reactive Power," IEEE Truns. or? hidirslr.irrl Elecrwfi- University. Rio de Janeiro State in 1984. the h1.k d i y i i . ~ .t i i I Icctrical
ics. vol. 37. no. 1. pp. 86-90. Feb. 1990. Engineering from Federal University of Rio de .):iiiL,its, 111 l * J OI . :tiid the
L. Rossetto, P. Tenti. "Evaluation of Instantaneous Power Terms in Dr.-lng. Degree (friogrlucifm IuiiilLI) from Techniach~~I iii\ CI \ii.ii I h d i i i i n
Multi-Phase Systems: Techniques and Application t o Pouer- 1996. From 1985 to 198s he worked at the I t a i p r i I I \ I)( .I r.iii\irii\siciii
Conditioning Equipments." ETEP - €fir.. T ~ U J IElect.
S. Ponw Eq5. System and from 1988 to 1991 in the SCAD:\ I ' r o i ~ ~$ i5 1 II,~I~IIi'{n\er
vol. 4. no. 6. pp. 469475, Nov./Dec. 1993. Plant. From 1996 to 1997 he worked \vithin C'EPI'I. ( (1: i'Lwiiii>as
t'tiiit1
M. Depenbrock. D. A. Marshall. J. D. van Wyk. "Fomiulating Re- de Energia Eletrica, Rio dr Janeiro. as R&D Enyiicci 111 I ' J \ J - . Iic ti.umi.
quirements for a Universally .Applicable Power Theory as Control an Associate Professor at the Fcderal Uni\wsit? (111<1<$ S I C .I.IIICII~~. \\lici-c
Algorithm in Power Compensators." ETEP - E w . TVUJIS. Elccr. he teaches Power Electronics. His main research x c , i iiiL~iud:. I I\ I)( and
Poiwr Etig., \d. 4. no. 6. pp. 445-3S5, Nov.iDec. 1994.
FACTS systems. active filters. Custom Powel- arid Po\\ L'I Oii.ilii! 1 ~ ~ ~ s .
F.Z. Peng. H. Akagi. A. Nabae. "A New Approach to Hannonic Dr. Aredes is il meniber of the Brazilian Socici? liu \ r t i o i i i ~ i i l , oritrol
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110.6. Nov./Dec. 1990. pp. 983-990. Joio A. Moor Neto was born in Rio de Janeiro Statc (NI l $ J ( 1 5I. l c rscei\ed
M. Aredes, J. Hafner. K. Heuniann. '' A Combined Series and Shunt the BSc. Degree from UCP-RJ in 1991. aiid M.Sc. Iron1 I LYILXIILiii\.er-
Active Power Filter." /€€E/KTH Stuckllolrii Power. T w h Cor!$. vol. sity of ltajubi in 1995. He is enrolled in D.Sc. at C'OI'I'I I I l R I ti1 Po\ver
Power Electronics. pp. 237-242. Stockholm, Sweden. June 1995. Electronics since 2002. In 199s he became a i'roli',soi ;it 1. SLIUI-RS.
H. Fujita. H. Akagi, "The Unified Power Quality Conditioner: The where he teaches Power System. His niaiii rescarcli :II~:I. (>IIiiicr-cIt arc
Integration of Series aiid Shunt Active Filters." IEEE T ~ U J IOJ? S. FACTS and Custoni Power.
Poii;erNecrronics. vol. 13. No.2. March 1998.

396