Water Rocket 2020

Jimma University

Jimma Institute of Technology

Design of Mechanical System (MSc)

Title: Water Rocket

BY: Mr. Derara Umeta
ID No: RM2744/12-0
Sub. To: Dr. Johnson

1/21/2020
Jimma, Ethiopia

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Abstract
A simple rocket can be made using a plastic bottle filled with a volume of water and pressurized
air. When opened, the air pressure pushes the water out of the bottle. This causes an increase in
the bottle momentum so that it can be propelled to fairly long distances or heights. Water rockets
are widely used as an educational activity, and several mathematical models have been proposed
to investigate and predict their physics. However, the real equations that describe the physics of
the rockets are so complicated that certain assumptions are usually made to obtain models that
are easier to use.

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Acknowledgment
I am very thankful to Dr. Johnson for his outstanding to teaching me Engineering Design of
Mechanical system, Computer Engineering course and for giving me such nice project.

Last but not least I would like to record my gratitude to Faculty of Mechanical Engineering.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... I
Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................................1
Water Rocket Making and Instructional Objectives .....................................................................1
1.1. History of water rockets ................................................................................................1
1.2. Water rockets today ......................................................................................................1
1.3. Applied forms of water rockets .....................................................................................1
Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................................3
Design Considerations for Water-Bottle Rockets .........................................................................3
2.1. Five Critical Factors ......................................................................................................3
2.1.1. Reliability ..............................................................................................................3
2.1.2. Rigidness ...............................................................................................................3
2.1.3. Precision ................................................................................................................3
2.1.4. Weight ...................................................................................................................4
2.1.5. Drag.......................................................................................................................4
2.2. Forces ...........................................................................................................................4
2.2.1. Liftoff ....................................................................................................................5
2.2.2. Launch ...................................................................................................................6
2.2.3. Air Pulse ................................................................................................................6
2.2.4. Glide ......................................................................................................................7
2.3. Stability ........................................................................................................................7
2.3.1. Swing Test .............................................................................................................8
2.3.2. Center of Gravity and Center of Pressure ...............................................................8
2.3.3. Barrowman Equations .......................................................................................... 10
2.4. Mechanics of rocket motion ........................................................................................ 10
2.4.1. Thrust .................................................................................................................. 10
2.4.2. Drag..................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.3. Rocket mass ......................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................. 15
Simulator Data .......................................................................................................................... 15
3.1. Typical Launch ........................................................................................................... 15
3.1.1. Height .................................................................................................................. 15

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3.1.2. Velocity ............................................................................................................... 16

3.1.3. Acceleration ......................................................................................................... 16
3.2. Water Volume ............................................................................................................. 17
3.3. Mass ........................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................. 21
Rocket Construction .................................................................................................................. 21
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 24
References ................................................................................................................................ 25
Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 26

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Table of Figure
Figure 1: Basic-type (single stage) rocket ....................................................................................2
Figure 2: Multi-stage rocket ........................................................................................................2
Figure 3: Forces at Liftoff............................................................................................................5
Figure 4: Forces during Launch ...................................................................................................6
Figure 5: Forces during Air Pulse ...............................................................................................6
Figure 6: Forces during Glide .....................................................................................................7
Figure 7: The position of the CP in relation to the CG determines stability ................................ 10
Figure 8: Height of the rocket during a typical launch .............................................................. 15
Figure 9: Velocity of the rocket during a typical launch ............................................................. 16
Figure 10: Acceleration of the rocket during a typical launch ................................................... 16
Figure 11: Optimizing water volume for a 120 gram, 2 liter rocket ........................................... 18
Figure 12: Optimizing water volume for a 250 gram, 2 liter rocket ........................................... 18
Figure 13: Optimizing mass for a 2 liter rocket with 0.2 drag coefficient .................................. 19
Figure 14: Optimizing mass for a 2 liter rocket with 0.5 drag coefficient .................................. 19
Figure 15: Optimum mass can be deceptive under certain conditions, additional weight will
increase height, but it will actually cause the rocket to fall faster. .............................................. 20

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Chapter 1

Water Rocket Making and Instructional Objectives

1.1. History of water rockets
In the 1960s, Japan imported water rocket toys made in Germany and the United States. In the
mid-1980s, water rocket competitions were held in Scotland. It was in 1974 in the United States
that PET bottles for carbonated drinks now the prevalent water rocket material – were first
employed. The use of PET bottles became commonplace as such bottles spread among
consumers. Perhaps the first-ever print material that addressed the making of PET bottle-based
water rocket was the August 1983 issue of the American magazine ―Mother Earth News‖ (1).

1.2. Water rockets today

Today, the making and launching of water rockets are being pursued in various forms and in
various parts of the world. While model rockets are popular in the United States, water rocket
making events are taking place at schools, science museums and so forth, and a variety of water
rocket kits are available for sale. In Europe, model rockets have been more popular than water
rockets. However, water rockets have long traditions in several countries such as England,
France and Scotland (2). In 2001, for example, England initiated a competition known as the
Water Rocket Challenge. Water rocket enthusiasts can be found throughout the world,
exchanging information on original water rocket and launcher designs. Many compete with each
other for altitude records with the same enthusiasm and intensity that they enjoy sports. Turning
to Asia, water rockets are becoming increasingly popular in many countries – including China,
Korea, the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Singapore and India – and competitions
are growing in number. In 2005, an international water rocket event targeting Asia-Pacific youth
was initiated with the purpose of promoting space science education. JAXA Space Education
Center has introduced water rockets in Colombia, Chile and Spain (3).

1.3. Applied forms of water rockets

Over the years, a diversity of water rocket shapes and purposes have been proposed and devised.
The simplest, most basic type uses one or two PET bottles to make the body, which is then
charged with water and air. For significantly increased flight performance, two major designs

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predominate: cluster-type rockets based on a bundle of multiple PET bottles that expel their
water simultaneously; and multi-stage rockets comprising two, three or even more rockets placed
one on top of another. A great deal of ingenuity and know-how is incorporated in the
mechanisms that allow multiple rockets work in tandem. Some rockets have been adapted to
carrying distinctive payloads, such as one that sports a camera for aerial photography and one
loaded with a parachute to ensure post-flight recovery. Various switches have been devised and
refined, including those designed to allow the onboard camera to take a succession of photos
when the rocket reaches apogee and others that deploy the parachute without fail.

Figure 1: Basic-type (single stage) rocket

Figure 2: Multi-stage rocket

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Chapter 2

Design Considerations for Water-Bottle Rockets

2.1. Five Critical Factors
A good rocket design can be summarized in five words: reliability, rigidness, precision, weight,
and drag. There is no perfect rocket, but the following five critical factors will ensure that your
design is as successful as possible. The factors are listed in their order of importance. For
example, do not add weight to a rocket to decrease drag, and do not select a material that is
weighs less, unless it is strong.

2.1.1. Reliability
In the rocket Science reliability is critical. Remember, a rocket that consistently gets 20 seconds
aloft will on average, score higher than a rocket which reaches one minute, but only works 20%
of the time. Simple designs are not necessarily the most reliable. A semicomplex design, such as
an airspeed-deployment system, tends to be significantly more reliable than a rocket which relies
on gravity, but only if it is thoroughly tested. Testing is the key to reliability. A reliable rocket is
the result of thorough testing, both on the ground, before it is actually launched, and in the air,
through numerous launches.

2.1.2. Rigidness
Rigidness is the most commonly overlooked factor of rocket design, but it is one of the most
critical. If the rocket or any part of the fins is able to flex, there is no way to accurately calculate
how it will perform in the air.

Obviously the rocket cannot be perfectly rigid, since I building it out of light materials such as
plastic. A good test of rigidness is simply by handling your rocket. You should be able to pick up
your rocket by any part (fins and nosecone included), handle it, shake it around, etc...and nothing
on the rocket should ever move. If it bends when you handle it, it will definately bend under the
80MPH of wind from the launch.

2.1.3. Precision
When working on such a small scale like water rockets, precision is essential. On deployment
systems like the airspeed-flap, one millimeter of adjustment can make the difference between a

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rocket that is 90% reliable and one that is only 10% or 20%. Precision is also needed for the
simulators one centimeter will make the difference between a stable and an unstable rocket.

Like rigidness, we must be realistic when measuring precision, due to the materials we have to
work with. If you take your time when constructing pieces, and do it carefully with a sharp knife,
no part of the final rocket should vary by more than 2 or 3 millimeters from your plans.

2.1.4. Weight
Weight is a misunderstood factor of rocket design. When used in reasonable amounts (80 to 200
grams), rocket weight only has a small effect on the rocket‘s maximum height. Stability is far
more important.

Although the weight of a rocket does not significantly affect its height, it has a great affect on its
time aloft. As the parachute on a rocket inflates, the rocket quickly slows down, until it reaches
its terminal velocity (which usually takes about 2 to 3 seconds). Once the rocket has slowed to its
terminal velocity, it continues to fall at this contant speed until it hits the ground. This is where
weight comes in terminal velocity depends on weight and parachute area-the more the rocket
weighs, the greater its terminal velocity, and the faster it will fall. As a general rule of thumb, if
you reduce the weight of your rocket by 3 grams, you will increase its time aloft by 1 second.

2.1.5. Drag
Drag is the factor which primarily determines a rocket‘s height. It is important to design a rocket
with low drag to reach its maximum height, because the higher a rocket is when the parachute
deploys, the longer it will stay aloft. Drag, however, is not as important of a factor as weight drag
only affects the first four seconds of the launch (from liftoff to apogee). Weight affects the rocket
for the rest of the flight, from apogee, until it touches the ground.

2.2. Forces
The pressurized air inside the rocket that propels is used makes rocket fly upwards properly. but
why does adding water increase the height of the rocket? And how does the size of the nozzle
affect the rocket? To answer these questions, we must look at the forces which affect the rocket
during its flight.

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2.2.1. Liftoff
When the rocket is sitting on the launch pad, the nozzle of the rocket typically fits over some
type of rubber or metal stopper, called a ―launch rod.‖ For the first few tenths of a second, all of
the rocket‘s propulsive forces are generated by the pressurized air pushing against the launch
rod. This pushes the rocket upwards, until the rocket lifts off the launch pad. We call this the
―launch rod reaction force.‖

While the launch rod reaction force may seem insignificant (it only occurs for a fraction of a
second), it becomes extremely important when working with a simulator. As a simulator will
show you, the rocket typically reaches a speed of over 10MPH before it ever leaves the launch
pad.

The next force to consider is gravity the force which pulls the rocket towards the ground. If the
launch rod reaction force is not greater than the force of gravity, the rocket will not lift off the
ground.

The force of gravity is proportional to the rocket‘s total mass. At this point, the force of gravity is
constant, since the mass is not changing, but in the next stage, this force will be constantly
decreasing as water is expelled through the nozzle.

There is one last force to consider drag. As the speed of the rocket increases, there is a friction
with the air, creating a force in the opposite direction of the rocket‘s movement.

Figure 3: Forces at Liftoff

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2.2.2. Launch
Rocket has cleared the launch pad. The pressurized air pushes against the surface of the water,
causing the water to be expelled through the nozzle of the bottle. This creates a propulsive force,
pushing the rocket upward.

Newton‘s third law of motion states: ―For every action there is an equal, but opposite, reaction.‖
Like a balloon full of air, the bottle rocket is pressurized. When the locking clamp is released,
fluid escapes the bottle providing an action force that is accompanied by an equal and opposite
reaction force which results in the movement of the rocket in the opposite direction.

Figure 4: Forces during Launch

2.2.3. Air Pulse

After all of the water has been propelled out of the rocket, the ―air pulse‖ occurs. The air pulse is
caused by the remaining air pressure in the bottle leaving through the nozzle, much like the water
did earlier. This force is not nearly as great as the one generated by the water, but it is important
to consider it.

Figure 5: Forces during Air Pulse

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2.2.4. Glide
From this point on, this rocket no longer has any propulsive forces. Since it already has so much
speed built up, it continues travelling upward, until the forces of drag and gravity finally bring
the rocket to a stop. The point at which the rocket‘s velocity is zero is called ―apogee.‖

Figure 6: Forces during Glide

2.3. Stability
Stability is the single most important factor in rocket design, and it is also the most commonly
over looked. A stable rocket not only goes much higher than one that is only moderately stable,
but it also has a much smoother flight, reducing the chance of parachute failures.

One common way to improve the stability is to add weight to the rocket, which does improve the
stability (you will understand why later), but a much better way to improve stability is by adding
fins. This is not a simple task though. Before adding fins, it is important to understand the factors
which contribute to the efficiency of the fins. A rocket with large fins is not necessarily more
stable than one with small fins it depends on the shape and position of the fins, and the shape and
weight of the rocket itself. Understanding rocket stability will allow you to make a stable rocket
while using the smallest fins, and adding the least amount of excess weight and drag to the
rocket.

Stability does not necessarily mean to fly in a straight line, or to fly vertically it is the tendency of
a rocket to rotate towards the relative wind. The relative wind is the wind ―felt‖ on the front of
the rocket as it is moving. For example, if the rocket was moving at 50MPH on a windless day, it
would ―feel‖ 50 MPH of wind on the front of the rocket, meaning there is a relative wind of 50

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MPH. The relative wind is relative to the movement of the rocket. The relative wind is always in
the opposite direction of the rocket.

2.3.1. Swing Test

One method of determining rocket stability is the swing test. The swing test is done on a ready-
to-fly rocket by attaching a string to it on the point where it balances and then swinging it in a
large circle (about 10 feet). If the rocket points in the direction that it is swinging, the rocket is
probably stable. The swing test has two major downfalls. First, it can only be done on a ready-to-
fly rocket. The only way to test different fin configurations is to actually build the fins and attach
them to the rocket. This is not only time-consuming, but can also get expensive—balsa wood is
not cheap. The second downfall of the swing test is that it is not an accurate simulation of a
rocket‘s flight. A rocket never actually experiences circular motion as it does in the swing test.
Sometimes, a rocket can fail the swing test, but actually be stable when it is launched.

2.3.2. Center of Gravity and Center of Pressure

Before we look at more advanced methods of calculating stability, we must understand two
points and how they contribute to rocket stability: the center of gravity (CG) and the center of
pressure (CP).

The center of gravity is the center of the mass of a ready-to-fly rocket. It is the point where the
rocket balances, and the point at which it rotates during flight. The center of gravity can either be
measured by experimentation (finding the balancing point of the rocket using string or your
finger), or by using force-balancing equations. Just as the center of gravity is the point where the
gravitational forces of the rocket balance, there is also a point at which the aerodynamic forces
(such as wind resistance) balance. This point is called the center of pressure.

The center of pressure is not nearly as easy to calculate as the center of gravity. Without
sophisticated equipment, there is no way to experimentally determine the center of pressure, but
there are two mathematical methods to accurately estimate the point: the cross-section method
and the Barrowman equations. The benefit of mathematically calculating the center of pressure,
and using force-balancing equations to find the center of gravity, is that we can predict how a
rocket will fly from the plans for it, without actually building the rocket. If we find out that the
rocket is not stable, we can make changes to the plans before we start building the rocket.

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In a stable rocket, the center of pressure must be located aft of the center of gravity. This is
because the aerodynamic forces centered at the center of pressure are in the direction of the
relative wind (the opposite direction of the rocket). If the rocket is moving up, the aerodynamic
forces are pushing down on it.

Now, let‘s look at how these forces work in flight. The rocket starts off pointing into the relative
wind, but eventually, some unpredictable force (uneven drag on the rocket, a small gust of wind,
etc.) will cause the rocket to stray from its course. If the center of pressure is located aft of the
center of gravity, the aerodynamic forces will work to pull the bottom of the rocket back in line
with the relative wind, pointing the rocket back in the direction of the relative wind. This makes
a stable rocket. If the center of pressure were forward of the center of gravity, the opposite would
happen. The aerodynamic forces would pull the nose in the opposite direction that it should
move, causing the rocket to spin out of control—an unstable rocket. A rocket is not necessarily
stable or unstable. There are many different ―degrees‖ of stability—one rocket can be more
stable than another. Rocket stability is compared using body calibers. One caliber is equal to the
maximum diameter of the rocket (the actual round body, not including fins and other
protrustions). The distance between the CP and the CG is referred to as the static stability
margin1. Thus, if the static stability margin is equal to the diameter of the rocket, the rocket has
one caliber of stability.

In general, one caliber of stability or greater means the rocket is stable. A negative stability
indicates that the rocket is unstable—it will likely spin out of control, and only get about 30 feet
of altitude. There is one other factor to consider—a rocket that is ―too stable.‖ Yes, this is
possible. Normal stabilities range from one to three calibers, but too much higher can result in a
rocket that is too stable. This can happen when there is a crosswind at the launch site. This
crosswind becomes a component in the relative wind, and will cause the rocket to point into the
wind, launching off to the side instead of perfectly vertical. The higher the stability of the rocket,
the more likely it is to follow the crosswind.

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Figure 7: The position of the CP in relation to the CG determines stability

2.3.3. Barrowman Equations

The most accurate center of pressure calculations come from what are known as the Barrowman
Equations. These are a set of equations, developed by aeronautical engineer James Barrowman,
which are used to estimate the center of pressure of subsonic rockets. For bottle rockets, which
do not even exceed 100 MPH, these equations are more than accurate enough. The best way to
use the Barrowman Equations is using a computer simulator, because it will allow you to try
different modifications to your rocket to fine-tune its stability. The Barrowman Equations are
used commonly by rocket hobbyists, so there is a lot of information about them available on the
Internet. The best calculator for the Barrowman Equations is the VCP CP/CG Calculator,
available for download as freeware on the Internet. VCP allows you to enter your rocket as a
series of body sections of varying diameters and masses, add a nosecone and fins, and determine
both the center of gravity and center of pressure with a single program. VCP‘s coordinate system
takes a while to familiarize yourself with, but it is well worth the effort.

2.4. Mechanics of rocket motion

There are numerous references to the basic physics of rockets. The basic problem is to find the
thrust, drag, and mass of the rocket as a function of time in order to find the acceleration,
velocity, and position.

2.4.1. Thrust
The thrust, T, of a rocket due to the ejection of mass from the nozzle is

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where is the exhaust velocity of the ejected mass in the rocket‘s frame of reference and dM/dt
is the rate at which mass is ejected from the rocket. In our case, the mass is the water that is
pushed out as a result of the elevated air pressure inside the rocket. Because and dM/dt both
depend on the pressure inside the rocket, finding the time profile of the thrust is nontrivial.
However, it is within the capability of better introductory physics students.

Bernoulli‘s equation (conservation of energy) is applied at two points along a streamline. This
can be written generally as

Neglecting the pressure difference due to the height of the water and neglecting the velocity of
the water at the surface compared to the velocity at the nozzle, we obtain

where P is the pressure inside the rocket, Pa is atmospheric pressure, and r w is the density of
water. In addition to the assumptions listed above, we must also take as valid all the assumptions
which apply to Bernoulli‘s equation (principally incompressible, nonviscous, irrotational flow).

Equation (2) can be solved for and determines the exhaust velocity as a function of internal
pressure, P. The other term needed to find the thrust from Equation (1) is the mass flow rate.
Since the mass flow rate is just the volume flow rate times the density of the water,

( )

where is the cross-sectional area of the exhaust nozzle. Combining Equations (1-3) gives

Finding the thrust therefore depends on finding the pressure within the rocket as a function of
time. As the rocket expels the water, the pressure and exhaust velocity drop, and thus the rate of
pressure decrease drops. The solution begins with two assumptions: (1) the air in the rocket

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behaves as an ideal gas and (2) the air expands isothermally. (Justification for the isothermal
assumption is given in Appendix A.) These assumptions allow us to write

where P and V are the pressure and volume of air inside the rocket at any time before all the
water is ejected and and are the initial pressure and volume of air. Solving for P and taking
the derivative with respect to time

Now substituting from Equations (2), (3), and (5) to eliminate V, we get

Equation (7) can be solved to obtain . The analytic solution is presented below for
comparison but, because of the complexity of the result, I had the students utilize a numerical
solution for . To solve (7) analytically, separate variables and integrate from to and
from to , which yields

( ) ( )
√ (√ [ ])
√

2.4.2. Drag
Aerodynamic drag is an important velocity-dependent force, but not always discussed in
introductory physics. Traditionally the drag force, , is expressed as

where is the drag coefficient, is an area corresponding to the geometry of interest, and is
the density of air. At moderate the drag coefficient is independent of the size of the object and
speed of the airflow. In the case of these rockets, there were two components contributing to the
drag: the rocket body and the fins. For these rockets, drag is a fairly small effect, so the precise

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value of is not critical. The appropriate area for the body is the circular cross-section normal
to the airflow. The area for the fins is the surface area (of one side of each fin) which is roughly
parallel to the airflow. Combining these into a single value, and using the local average air
density of (for an elevation of ), yields a total drag force

where . This equation is incorporated into the numerical solution for the
motion of the rocket. Now consider the following analytic approximation for the reduction in the
maximum possible height due to drag. First, drag can be neglected during the thrust phase for the
following reasons: The thrust phase lasts only about 0.1–0.2s, or about 1.5m out of a total
altitude gain of 20m. Furthermore, drag is not the dominant force during the thrust phase (or
during the coast phase, for that matter). For a speed of 20m/s, the drag force is only about 0.08N,
compared to the thrust of 10–20N. However, the force of gravity on the empty rocket is about 0.4
N, so drag is a minor (but significant) effect during the coast phase.

Therefore, it is possible to treat the drag force as a perturbation on the kinematic solution. From
kinematics (i.e., ignoring drag), the velocity profile for an initial speed is

Now calculate the work done by the force of drag using this profile,

∫ ∫

Applying this value of work in conservation of energy ( ) and solving for the
maximum height of the rocket ( is the mass of the empty rocket),

The fraction under the radical is just the square of the ratio of the maximum drag force to the
force of gravity. For our rockets, this value was about 0.05. Therefore it can be expanded to first
order. Finally, again use kinematics to replace with , the total time of flight of the rocket

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from launch to impact, we obtain for the height of the rocket (to first order in the drag
coefficient)

This expression can be used to estimate the height of the rocket given the time of flight a much
simpler measurement to take than using sextant and trigonometric.

2.4.3. Rocket mass

Rocket ‗‗burnout‘‘ will be determined by one of two possible conditions: either the air expands
until it forces all of the water out of the rocket or it expands until it reaches atmospheric pressure.
While the latter could conceivably occur if the initial volume of the air was much smaller than
the total volume inside the rocket, it is of little practical interest and is not considered further. In
the former case, once all of the water is exhausted, the remainder of the air will rush out, but the
air will contribute little to the thrust and is neglected.

The mass of the rocket constantly decreases until all of the water is ejected from the rocket. For a
given pressure inside the rocket, the volume of the air inside the rocket was found using
Equation (5). The volume of the water, is thus the difference between the volume of the air
and the total volume of the rocket . Multiplying by the density of water ( )
and adding the mass of the empty rocket ( ) yields the final result for the mass of the
rocket as a function of the internal pressure (before ‗‗burnout‘‘):

( )
{

This expression is used in the numerical solution.

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Chapter 3

Simulator Data
Simulators are great tools for designing water rockets, because they allow you to test numerous
factors, such as mass, water level, and parachute size, without the hours of launching required to
do traditional experimentation.

3.1. Typical Launch

Start by looking at the height, velocity, and acceleration of a typical launch. For this
demonstration, use a 120 gram, 2 liter rocket with a 1 meter diameter parachute, launched with
40% water at a pressure of 60 PSI. Also assume that it takes 1 second for the parachute to fully
deploy.

3.1.1. Height

Figure 8: Height of the rocket during a typical launch

The height graph provides some interesting data. First and foremost, you should notice that this
rocket will stay aloft for 25 seconds (assuming the parachute deploys properly and there is no
wind). Next, notice the peak on the left side of the graph here, the rocket reaches apogee about 3
seconds into the flight, at a height of 170 feet. Afterwards, the rocket begins to pick up speed as
the parachute deploys. The rocket loses 15 to 20 feet of altitude before the parachute fully
deploys, and the rocket descends at a constant velocity thereafter.

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3.1.2. Velocity

Figure 9: Velocity of the rocket during a typical launch

The velocity graph provides two important pieces of data: maximum velocity and descent
velocity. For this rocket, the maximum velocity is 84MPH.This velocity occurs not at a pongee,
but a few tenths of a second into the flight. Apogee occurs when the velocity is 0 MPH. Once the
parachute opens, the rocket slows to its decent velocity, in this case, about 4 MPH. This decent
velocity is one of the most critical factors in designing a winning rocket the slower the rocket
falls, the longer it is going to stay aloft.

3.1.3. Acceleration

Figure 10: Acceleration of the rocket during a typical launch

Notice that the acceleration graph has two spikes in it a large one a few tenths of a second after
launch, and a second, smaller one about 4 seconds into the flight.

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The first spike is the important one it indicates the maximum acceleration of the rocket due to the
propulsion of the pressurized air and water. During this launch, the rocket will experience 28G‘s,
or 28times the force of gravity, as it ascends. This value is important to consider when building
rockets a small, 30gram parachute, will have the effective weight of 30×28 = 840 grams during
launch! If the parachute hold is not strong enough to support the weight of 840 grams, it will
likely break.

The second spike is caused by the rocket slowing down as the parachute inflates. The value of
this spike is typically not important, because it is small compared to the acceleration due to the
pressurized air and water.

3.2. Water Volume

Simulators are great for finding the optimum water level for a rocket. Sure, you could test your
rocket with various amounts of water to find the optimum level, but that would be tedious. Plus,
accurate testing is often not possible, because wind and other uncontrollable factors get in the
way.

Finding the optimum water level is important. Most people typically use around 50%, but you
can usually get an extra 10 to 20 feet of height by finding the optimum water level (typically
40% to 45% of the bottle‘s volume). A few feet may not sound like much, but since a typical
rocket with a parachute descends at 2 to 3 feet per second, this extra height results in another 5 to
10 seconds of time aloft.

Comparing the two graphs on the next page illustrates an important point about optimum water
levels it varies depending on the rocket. Heavier rockets, and ones with greater drag, require a
greater volume of water to reach their maximum height. For most rockets, the optimum volume
will be 40% to 45% of the volume of the bottle. Once you find the optimum water level for your
rocket, it is important to be able to consistently measure that volume of water into your rocket.

3.3. Mass
Just as there is an optimum water volume to get the maximum height, there is an optimum mass
to reach the maximum height. This optimum mass varies, depending on the rocket‘s drag. The
optimum mass for rockets is typically very low. Very rarely will you have to add weight to your
rocket to reach the optimum mass. Normally, a stable, aerodynamic rocket with parachute

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weighs more than the optimum mass, but this value will give you a good goal for the weight of
your rockets.

Figure 11: Optimizing water volume for a 120 gram, 2 liter rocket

Figure 12: Optimizing water volume for a 250 gram, 2 liter rocket

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Figure 13: Optimizing mass for a 2 liter rocket with 0.2 drag coefficient

Figure 14: Optimizing mass for a 2 liter rocket with 0.5 drag coefficient

As you can see from the graphs on the previous page, the optimum mass for a 2 liter rocket is
typically between 75 and 125 grams. These values are deceptive though these are the optimum
masses to get the maximum height. The optimum mass to get the maximum time aloft is
typically much lighter, because weight causes the rocket to fall faster, especially when it is
descending with a lot of drag (when the parachute opens). It is better to have a light rocket
descend from an altitude of only 100 feet, as opposed to a heavy rocket descending from 120
feet.

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Figure 15: Optimum mass can be deceptive under certain conditions, additional weight will
increase height, but it will actually cause the rocket to fall faster.

If your rocket weighs less than the optimum mass, there is a simple solution: bring your rocket
up to weight by adding additional parachute. This will not only increase the height of your
rocket, but it will also result in a slower decent and longer time aloft.

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Chapter 4

Rocket Construction
1. Roll a piece of paper into a cone.

This will be the nose cone of the rocket. Feel free to use colored or patterned paper to design the
rocket. Colored construction paper is both durable and nice-looking!

2. Wrap the nose cone with duct tape.

This will have it stronger and more water-resistant. If you want to add a bit of color to your
rocket, you can use colored duct tape to wrap the nose cone. You can also paint the plastic bottle
if you‘d like to decorate it further. Feel free to also add a design or logo to the plastic bottle (or
body of) the rocket.

3. Attach the nose cone to the bottom of the bottle.

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You can glue it or use duct tape and, if you have it, wire tape. Try to put it on as straight as you
can onto the bottle and make sure it is secure

4. Take thin cardboard and cut out fins.

Since these will be the fins of your rocket, try to cut them at right angles so they can help the
rocket stand straight. Use cardboard, construction paper, or normal paper as material for the fins.
Place the fins on the lower part of the rocket. Bend ―tabs‖ into the sides of the fins so that they
can attach to the rocket body more easily. Then, tape or glue them on. If you line up the bottoms
of the fins with the bottom of the rocket, it should be able to stand on its own.

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5. Turn the rocket right-side up.

Hold it by the neck of the bottle onto the bicycle pump valve, and aim it away from your face.

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Conclusion
Simulators are a great tool for developing rockets, because they allow you to test modifications
in seconds, without spending the days required to do actual testing. The simulator covers some of
the most important forces, but it does not cover everyone. There are still many more factors that
could be taken in to consideration by a simulator, such as wind, air pulse, fin drag, stability, and
bottle shape.

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References
1. Sons., John Wiley and. Elementary Linear Algebra. NewYork : s.n., 1994.
2. Finney, G.A. Analysis of a water-propelled rocket. 2000.
3. Prusa, J.M. Hydrodynamics of a water rocket. 2000.

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Appendix
1. Bottles

The following table lists the mass of some 1 and 2 liter bottles.

These values should be used for estimating the mass of the pressurized bottle of the rocket:

Volume Brand Mass

1L Poland Springs 37.8g
2L Coca-Cola 48.6g
2L Publix 50.2g
2L Sam‘s Choice 51.1g

For other parts of the rocket, which are made from pieces of plastic bottles, but not necessarily
the whole value, we must look at the weight of each particular section of the bottle. For strength
reasons, the plastic of the bottle varies in thickness. Typically, the neck and the base have the
thickest plastic, while the flat, middle section is made of thinner plastic.

2. Fins

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Various shapes of fins can be made in height and width. Let‘s make 3 fins of the pattern at left.

Using a permanent magic marker, draw fin pattern guidelines on a plastic sheet, then carefully
cut out the patterns following the guidelines.

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