INTRODUCTION TO SILO

Knowledge of the flow properties of a powder or a bulk solid is necessary to

design silos and other bulk solid handling equipment so that no flow problems
(flow obstructions, segregation, irregular flow, flooding, etc.) occur. Furthermore,
quantitative information regarding flowability of bulk products is required, e.g. as
part of comparative tests (e.g. effect of flow agents or other additions on flow
behaviour) and quality control. The flow properties depend on several
parameters, e.g., particle size distribution, particle shape, chemical composition
of the particles, moisture, temperature. It is not possible to determine
theoretically the flow behaviour of bulk solids in dependence of all of these
parameters. Even if this were possible, the cost for the determination of all
parameters of influence would be really high. Thus it is necessary, and also easy,
to determine the flow properties in appropriate testers. The present project deals
with designing of a silo by considering all the properties of the silo material and
the bulk solid.The project also deals with the simulation of chute in Rocky DEM.
TO DESIGN A SILO VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF THE BULK SOLID
AND THE SILO LINER’S HAVE TO BE KEPT IN MIND LIKE:-
1. Internal angle of friction:- which exists among the particles of the bulk
solid. We used the ring shear tester to get this value

Fig: We determine the internal angle of friction through shear testers

2. Moisture content:-due to pretty high moisture contents the bulk solids may
stick to walls of silo, which here was a dry bulk solid.

3. Angle of repose:- it is the angle made by a powdery material’s heap with

horizontal level.

4. Wall angle of friction :- the slope of this angle gives us the friction between
the bulk material and the silo’s inner wall, we used translational shear tester to
find out wall angle of friction

5. Density of the bulk material :-it helps us to calculate volume of the

material to be stored

6. Total storage capacity of the silo

7. Size of the particles to be stored in silo
8. Type of flow:-We have to keep in mind wether the flow is mass flow or
funnel flow

9. Type of hopper:-We need to decide wether we are choosing a conical

hopper or wedge type hopper

a.Conical hopper b)Wedge hopper

c)Pyramidal hopper

a)Conical hopper: the crossection of this hopper is a circle (we are using this).
b)Wedge hopper :- the crossection of this hopper is a rectangle
c)Pyramidal hopper:- the crossection here is a square.
10.Checking the flowability:-we can check wether the bulk solid is free
flowing or not.
 11.type of silo : decide wether you will be using squat silo or deep silo(here we
are using deep silo)

TYPES OF SILOS AND THE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:-

Fig.1. Diagrams illustrating different types of silo based on h/d ratio

 Slender silos:-
these silos have the h/d ratio in the following range (h c/d c ≥ 2.0)
 Silos with medium slenderness :
these silos have the h/d ratio in the following range(1.0 <h c/d c <2.0)
 Low silos :-
these silos have the h/d ratio in the following range(0.4 <h c/d c ≤ 1.0)
 Retaining wall silos:-
These silos have the h/d ratio in the following range (h c/d c ≤ 0.4 and horizontal
silo floor)

1.COMMON PROBLEMS IN BULK SOLID TECHNOLOGY

At the point when a plant is structured, storehouses, containers, and receptacles
are typically not the primary target of the plan work, since they don't contribute a
lot to the handling and refinement of mass materials like, for instance, a plant or a
blender. Then again, ineffectively structured storehouses can diminish throughput
and item quality. In any if case numerous storehouses and containers are worked
without considering the stream conduct of the mass strong to be put away. This
outcomes in wellknown issues, e.g., the event of stream blocks. Regardless of
whether mass solids are dealt with for a littler scope (e.g., measurement), the
issues are like those in storehouses, in light of the fact that the fundamental
procedures are the equivalent and autonomous of the scale.

Some of the problems faced due to poor design of silos are:-

1.Ratholig:-

Fig.2. Ratholig
It is an issue which causes the compaction of materials on silos and bins side
walls, which brings about a seriously confined material stream. Storehouses and
containers are especially inclined to this issue if the materials they are putting
away are cohesive in nature.
2.Doming or arching:-

Fig.3.Here σ1 is consolidation stress and σ

Arching implies the development of self supporting curve like "layers" of granular
material inside the granular get together put away in the silos or bins. The
granular material should have free fall condition underneath this curve. Stream
speed at the outlet relies upon just the tallness of the fall.

3.Particle segregation:-
Here partition of particles by size, shape, thickness, and so on.; isolation may
forestall a compound response, cause out-of-spec item, or require expensive
adjust. There are numerous results of stream issues. A receptacle encountering
ratholing will have constrained live limit as low as just 10–20% of the canister's
evaluated stockpiling limit. Huge numbers of these stream issues happen in a
receptacle that is releasing material in an unwanted stream design. Along these
lines, picking the Flow design in the receptacle is fundamental in Silo Design.
2.TYPES OF FLOWS IN SILOS

Fig.4. figures indicating types of flow

a)Mass flow:- Here each granule is moving during the release; otherwise
silos or bins are named funnel stream bins or silos .Mass-flow facilitates some
undeniable focal points. It ensures total release of the silo substance at stream
rates that are commonly unsurprising. When effectively planned, a mass-stream
silo or bin can likewise re-blend mass solids which may have isolated during the
filling of the bins or silos. Counteraction of accumilation could be generally tended
to be by reception of mass stream. Cautious filling techniques are extra or elective
estimates when accumilation must be stayed away from.

b)Funnel flow:- these are normally portrayed either by their squat container
geometry or their level bottoms, they store more material than mass stream silos
of a similar in general tallness and width. The benefits of the decreased headroom
and along these lines the diminished capital consumption make a channel stream
storehouse an alluring arrangement in specific conditions, for instance when
isolation of particulate solids is certifiably not a problem that is begging to be
addressed. The significant worry in structuring a pipe stream storehouse is to
evade inconsistent stream, arrangement of rodent opening and guarantee a total
cleanout of solids during release.
 4.PRINCIPLE OF SHEAR TESTING

The utilization of the uniaxial pressure test with fine-grained, durable mass solids
is dangerous, since one gets unconfined yield quality qualities that are excessively
low and since readiness of the empty chamber to acquire frictionless dividers is
very tedious if not difficult to accomplish). What's more, further significant
parameters (for example inner friction and wall friction ) can't be resolved with
this test. Along these lines shear analyzers are utilized in cutting edge mass solids
innovation. The primary shear analyzer intended for mass solids is the
translational shear analyzer created by Jenike around 1960 (Jenike shear analyzer)
. A few years after the fact the main ring shear analyzers intended for mass solids
followed . In the accompanying the test technique (called "shear test") is
portrayed all in all, i.e., autonomous of a particular kind of shear analyzer. Here
first the bulk solid specimen is subjected to preshear and then subjected to shear
to failure.
 Fig .5. Illustrating the mohrs circles plotted during shear testing

Fig.6. showing the preshear and shear to failure plottings

It is very important to to perform the pre shearing before shearing the specimen
to failure, as after preshearing we the properties like shear stress and bulk density
become constant. In the above figure if we calculate the slope of the line joining
all the points indicating shear failure , we get wall angle of friction . The specimen
first here is consolidated at the normal stress, σpre, and then next sheared the
first time at a normal stress lower than the previous preshear stress, σsh < σpre.
Then the specimen is presheared again and the cycle goes on. And we are able to
plot many yield points using a single specimen. Preshearing helps the bulk solid
specipen to have constant properties and helps the bulk solid specimen to be
more homogenous. We can determine many properties from shear testing like
the internal angle of friction, wall friction angle, and bulk density. It always
assumed that the walls of the shear tester are frictionless as they are very smooth
Step 1:- Preshearing or Attaining steady state flow

Fig .7. Showing the mohrs circles related to preshearing

At the point when the example is at first exposed to the vertical typical pressure
(beginning burden), σpre, it experiences a uniaxial combination where the vertical
pressure is indistinguishable from the significant chief pressure. right angled to
this pressure a littler pressure wins which by and large is about 40% to half of the
applied typical pressure, σpre. The pressure circle reffering to this pressure
condition is attracted Fig. 7. At the point when the bulk solid example is sheared,
the shear stress in the level cutting planes increments. Along these lines the
vertical pressure, σpre, can't be a principle stress, on the grounds that in the even
cutting plane a shear pressure is acting. Two Mohr stress circles, speaking to
potential conditions of pressure while the shear pressure is expanding, are
plotted in Fig. 7. The expanding shear pressure, τ, unavoidably brings about an
expansion of the major principle stress(the major principal stress is to be found at
intersection of the Mohr stress circle with the σ-axis). Finally after some time we
achieve a steady state where in all the properties of the bulk solid remain
constant. At the steady state the major prinpicle stress is termed as consolidation
stress. And the point of tangency of that Mohrs circle with the yield loci is called
preshear point which gives us the normal and horizontal shear stress value at
preshear.The preshear plays a very important role in finding the properties of the
bulk solid . When we draw a line joining the preshear point and the origin of the
graph , we get internal angle of friction. After preshearing the solid become more
compact and if at all there were any air voids ,they would get filled up after the
preshearing. Thus we get a specimen with uniform properties which is
homogenous in nature.

Fig.8.diagram illustrating the preshear point

The following diagram illustrates the pre shear normal stress and the pre shear
horizontal stress . The point on the mohrs circle which touches the yield limit of
the bulk solid indicates the preshear point . When we draw a line from the
preshear point on the mohr circle to the center of the circle and measure the
angle in anticlockwise direction, we get twice the angle made by principle plane
with the horizontal level. Its observed that the preshear point for a particular bulk
solid specimen is found to be to the left of the mohrs circle representing the
mohrs circle. After preshearing we move to the next step , that is loading the bulk
solid specimen with different vertical loads thill shear due to failure occurs.
Step 2:- Shear to failure

Fig.9. Morhs circles showing shear to failure

Right now applied ordinary pressure, σsh, is smaller from the significant pre shear
stress. At the point when the specimen of bulk solid is sheared, the shear weight
on the level cutting plane increments . Because of the shear stress on the
horizontal plane, the vertical pressure, σsh, can't be the principle stress any
more. The above figure shows the increment of the major principle stress with
expanding shear pressure, τ. At last the Mohr stress circle contacts the yield locus
which makes the bulk solid specimen to get sheared, the bulk mass expands and
the shear pressure diminishes. In this case the pair of values (σsh, τsh) measured
at the shear stress maximum is a point on the yield locus and called a “shear
point”. Therefore the shear plane defined by the applied shear stress is assumed
to be the failure plane. The mohrs circle which touches the yield locus is the
mohrs circle corresponding to the shear to failure phenomenon. The the point
where the shear to failure mohrs circle touches the yield locus , corresponds to a
shear to failure normal stress and shear to failure horizontal stress. The major
principle stress of the mohrs circle representing the shear to failure phenomenon
is termed as unconfined yield strength.
5.PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE INTERNAL ANGLE:-

Fig .10. The slope of the line passing through origin and the pre shear point is
taken as internal angle of friction.
Some of the properties that can be determined using a single yield locus are
• The angle made by linearized yield locus with σ axis, φlin
• the slope of the effective yield locus gives the value of effective internal friction
angle, φe
• The internal friction angle at the steady is the slope of the joining origin and
preshear point.φsf
• bulk density, ρb
The edge of inward erosion at nascent stream, φi, is characterized as the
neighborhood slant of the yield locus against the σ-axis (abscissa) of the σ,τ
outline. Since a yield locus is generally an arched upward bend, the internal
friction angle shifts along the yield locus. For some applications it is adequate to
utilize a steady an internal angle of friction. At that point the tangent function of
internal angle of friction is represented by slope of the linearized yield locus, φlin,
estimated against the σ-axis(Fig. 10.). The linearized yield locus is a straight line
digression to both Mohr stress circles, i.e., the Mohr stress circles characterizing
σc and σ1.We get the internal angle of friction using the Ring shear tester.

RING SHEAR TESTER:-

Fig.11.Shear cell of the Schulze ring shear tester

The main purpose of the ring shear tester is to determine the internal angle of
friction and the bulk density. The bottom part of the ring shear tester is loaded
with the bulk solid specimen who properties are to be found. And then it is
covered with the top lid . The top lid which is attached to the crossbeam exerts a
particular normal load on the specimen. For the phenomenon of shearing to
occur the the top and bottom ring must have a relative motion with respect to
each other. This is achieved by rotating the bottom lid and the top lid is fixed by
the crossbeams. The walls of the ring shear tester are considered to be very
smooth ,they are assumed to be frictionless. After the shear test we get the result
of different mohrs cicles plotted for different loading , and hence we can find the
average internal friction angle using it. We aslo get measure of bulk density
through the ring shear tester for the given bulk solid specimen.
6. PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE THE WALL FRICTION
ANGLE

Fig.12. Wall friction test procedure

Fig.13. Graphs plotted during the wall friction test

Both the values of wall normal stress and constant wall shear stress (σw,τw) helps
us to describe the kinematic wall friction corresponding to the wall normal stress,
σw, and it is also useful for the evaluation of the test. Wall friction is often
dependent on wall normal stress, wall normal stress is changed incrementally
while the test is going on . A graph is plotted with the X-axis as the normal
pressure and Y-axis as the shear stress . The curve (or line) running through the
measured points is called the wall yield locus. Therefore the slope of the wall yield
locus gives us the wall angle of friction between the bulk solid and the silo
internal walls.

TRANSLATIONAL SHEAR TESTER:-

Fig. 14.Diagram showing translational shear tester(Jenike’s shear tester)

Using the shear tester we are able to find the wall friction angle.The shear cell in
Jenike shear tester has of a bottom ring (which is also called mould ring), another
shear ring of the same diameter (which is called the upper ring) which lies above
the bottom ring, and a lid (Figure 14). When the lid has been loaded centrally
along with a normal force, FN. The upper ring of the shear cell is relatively
displaced horizontally against the fixed mould ring by a motor driven stem which
pushes itself against a bracket which has been fixed to the lid. The normal force
FS – the horizontal force , which is the shear force –which are applied by the stem
is measured. Due to the relative displacement of the upper ring and the bottom
ring, the bulk solid undergoes a shear deformation. The normal stress, σ, and
shear stress, τ, acting in the horizontal plane between upper ring and bottom ring
are determined by dividing normal Force, FN, and shear force, FS, by the cross-
sectional area of the shear cell, A. In translational shear tester also first the bulk
solid specimen pre sheared and then sheared to failure. Few of its disadvantages
are that it has is the probability of errors as the pre-consolidation is done and also
the time take ro plot a single yield loci is one to two hours
SIGNIFICANCE OF FLOWABILITY FACTOR

Fig. 15.The following graph is σ1 (unconfined)

Flowability of a bulk solid is known mainly through its unconfined yield strength,
σc, which is a function of the consolidation stress during preshear, σ1, and the
storage time, t. Generally the ratio ffc(flowablity) of consolidation stress, σ1, to
unconfined yield strength, σc, is used to describe the flowability of the bulk solid
numerically:

ffc=σ1/σc
The more the ffc is, i.e., the tinier is the ratio of the unconfined yield strength
during shear to failure to the consolidation stress during preshear, and the a bulk
solid flows smoothly.
•If the ffc < 1 ,bulk solid is not flowing
• If the 1 < ffc < 2, bulk solid is very cohesive very cohesive
•If the 2 < ffc < 4, the bulk solid is cohesive
• If the 4 < ffc < 10 , bulk solid is easy-flowing
•If the 10 < ffc ,the bulk solid is free-flowing
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MOHRS CIRCLES IN ANALYSING
THE FLOWABILITY OF THE BULK SOLID

Fig.16. Showing the varying flowability depending on mohr’s circles

The position of tangency point B for various values of the flowability of the bulk
solid. Point B shown is the point where we can observe the Mohr’s stress circle
representing the unconfined yield strength of the bulk solid, σc, comes in contact
with the yield locus, for different types flow behavior of the bulk solid.
 DETERMINATION OF THE HOPPER ANGLE

Fig.17. The mass flow diagram(φe is internal angle of friction, φx is wall friction
angle, φc is hopper angle)

For the proper mass flow ,it is very important to choose the proper hopper angle ,
or else the silo will be subjected to defects like ratholing , arching etc. with the
help of the above diagram we can choose the appropriate hopper angle for the
silo. First , after determining the internal angle of friction for the given bulk solid
with the help of the ring shear tester and the wall friction angle of the bulk solid
with the help of the translational shear tester, choose the appropriate curve
representing that particular internal friction angle of friction. Then for the given
wall friction angle locate the corresponding hopper angle with the help of the
graph for mass flow.
THE GIVEN DATA FOR THE PROJECT:-

1. Material(bulk solid) Iron ore

2. Particle size of the 3mm
bulk solid
3. Particle density of 4.8Kg/m³
the bulk solid
4. Material capacity of 5000 tons
the silo
5. Silo’s crossection Circular
6. Type of silo to be Slender silo
designed
7. Type of the hopper Conical
to be designed
8. Moisture content in 0%(Dry)
the bulk solid
9. Outlet diameter of 1.5 mm
the hopper
10. Type of flow for the Mass flow
bulk solid
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

1.WALL FRICTION ANGLE:-

2.INTERNAL ANGLE OF FRICTION:-
BULK DENSITY (ρb): 2475.250 ~ 2500 Kg/m3 Effective
Angle of INTERNAL FRICTION (∅e): 50°
3.HOPPER’S SLOPE:-

The internal friction angle is 50°

The wall friction angle is 25°
The red line in the above diagram represents the internal
frion angle of 50°, for the wall friction angle of 25°, the
corresponding hopper angle is 20°.
Hoppers’s slope against vertical is 20°
4.CALCULATING DIMENSIONS OF SILO:-
FINAL VALUES OF THE SILO’S DIMENSIONS:-
Cylinder Diameter (D) = 9.515m
Cylinder Height (H) = 23.7875m
Hopper Height (h) = 11.010516m
Cylinder Volume (V1) = 1691.438 m3
Hopper Volume (V2) = 308.5984 m3

SILO DESIGN:-

SILO STRESS TOOL

 Fig.18. Silo stress tool

SILO STRESS TOOL calculates stresses in bins and silos with easy geometry (e.g. a
vertical section of a silo and a hopper). The calculation can be done for the filling
stress state of silo (stress state of the silo after an empty silo has been filled) and
for the discharging stress state of the silo ( which will be valid after some of the
bulk solid has been discharged from the mass flow silo.

The following program helps us to calculates mean vertical stress of the silo and
wall normal stress of the silo at various heights from the top of the filling and the
outlet opening. With the help of these results the results it can be observed that
the stresses in a bulk solid is subjected when it is flowing or stored in the silo.
With the help of this information it is possible, for example, to select the correct
stress level for a comparative test or flowability test.
Filling: Horizontal (Ph) and Vertical (Pv) Pressure through out the
silo while Filling:-
EXPLANATION FOR THE STRESS PATTERN SHOWN BY THE STRESS TOOL
DURING THE SILO IS BEING FILLED UP WITH THE BULK SOLID :-

Fig.19. Sresses in silo during filling

A typical silo has a a vertical section (vertical section which is the cylinder section)
and a hopper(which is conical here). The stress conditions existing in the hopper
of the silo are way more complicated compared to the vertical section. When we
have a previously empty silo and when it is filled with a bulk solid, we can observe
the stress distribution results as shown in figure above.In the vertical section of
the silo both the the horizontal stress( wall normal stress) σw, and the vertical
stress, σv, keep on increasing in the downward direction of the silo and reachs an
asymptotic value. The ratio of the wall normal stress of the silo to mean vertical
stress of the silo is given by the pressure ratio or the lateral stress ratio, K .
At the transition where the hopper parts starts the wall normal stress or the
horizontal stress has a discontinuity which occurs due to the sudden change of
the wall inclination at the hopper. As we go downwards in the hopper of the silo
both the vertical stress of silo and the wall normal stress or the horizontal stress
of the silo are decreasing and reach zero at the hopper ending, but it depends on
the on the vertical stress located at the transition of cylinder and conical hopper,
the shape of the silo, and the properties of the bulk solid, the stress pattern in the
hopper either starts to increase at the first time and then it starts to decrease
continuously from the transition zone to the hopper’s apex as . Generally the
stresses in vertical direction of the hopper are larger than the in horizontal
direction or wall normal stress. We can observe that at the the hopper’s axis the
major principal stress is located vertically, which means an active stress field
exists in the vertical section. Therefore the stress field in the hopper of silo
prevailing after filling it with bulk solid is also termed as as “filling state of stress” .
Discharge: horizontal (ph) and vertical (pv) pressure through out the silo while
discharging
EXPLANATION FOR THE STRESS PATTERN SHOWN BY THE STRESS TOOL
WHEN THE BULK SOLID IS BEING DISCHARGED FROM THE SILO :-

Fig.20.Sresses in silo during discharging of bulk solid

When the bulk solid material is being discharged from the mass flow type silo at
the first time after the silo has been filled, after a short transition time the whole
contents of the mass flow silo starts moving downward. Because of the
convergent flow zone observed in the hopper, we can see that the bulk solid in
the silo is compressed horizontally, meanwhile it dilates in the vertical direction
because of the downwards flow of the bulk solid. As the cosequence the larger
stresses will act in the horizontal direction, and the major principal stress is
oriented horizontally along hopper axis . This stress field which is observed here
is called “arched” or “passive” stress field.