RESEARCH METHODS

By
DR. HIPOLITO P. PALCON
BSEED, MA Math, MA Measurement & Evaluation
PhD in Sociology & Anthropology
Director, Research and Development
Director, ETEEAP
Dean, Tertiary & Graduate School
Director, PWU-JASMS, Quezon City Campus

A Module for Exclusive Use of Students of

The Graduate School

2019 Revised
 Table of Contents

Module 1.1 Introduction

Lesson 1. The Meaning of Research

Science and Theory in Research

Lesson 2. Nature and Classification of Research

Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Pure and Applied Research

1.2 Variables

Lesson 1. Types of Variables

Independent and Dependent Variables
Continuous and Discrete Variables
Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

Module 2. The Research Method

Lesson 1. Experimental Method

Pre-Experimental Design
True Experimental Design
Quasi-Experimental Design
Factorial Designs

(Lesson 2. Historical Method)

Lesson 2.. Descriptive Method

Survey Studies: Job Analysis, Content Analysis,
Documentary Analysis, Public Opinion Survey,
Social Survey, Evaluation, Assessment,
Meta-Analysis
Interrelationship Studies: Causal-Comparative,
Correlation and Prediction, Cross-Cultural and
Comparative Studies
Developmental Studies: Growth Studies-
Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Studies

(Lesson . Ethnographic Research Method

The Participant Observation
Module 3. Research Techniques

Lesson 1. Sampling Technique

Lesson 2. Data-Gathering Technique

Module 4. The Research Proposal

Lesson 1. The Preliminary Parts

Format and Style
Title Page
List of Tables
List of Figures

Lesson 2. The Problem

Identifying a Problem
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Definition of Terms

Lesson 3. Related Literature and Studies

The Conceptual Framework
The theoretical Framework

Lesson 4. Methodology
Research Design
Sampling Techniques
Data-Gathering procedures
Data-Gathering Instruments
Data Analysis

Lesson 5. Data Presentation

Writing the Text
Ways of Presentation
How to Make Tables and Figures

Bibliography

A. PWU Format of an Abstract

 MODULE 1. INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1. Meaning of Research

Research is the search for knowledge (Best and Kahn, 1993). It is seeking

knowledge not by hearing something, knowledge not based on rumor, knowledge

not based on assumption of something, but “knowledge empirically obtained” (Rath,

1991: 1). Research is the process of arriving at dependable solution to problems

through the planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data

(Srivastava, 1994). Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable and

scientific methodology to solve a problem that creates generally applicable

knowledge. In all these given definitions, we can identify key words that are

characteristic features of research.

a. it is systematic because it undergoes a structured process and carefully

designed procedures.

b. It is empirical because it is based upon observable experience or

evidence. The method of establishing knowledge is based only on what

can be verified by empirical observations.

To further understand the meaning of research, let us explore the function of

science and theory. In research, science puts emphasis more on method than on
content. Conway and Feigert (in Rath, 1991) support this view when they say that
science has two major objectives, namely the description of phenomena (i.e. behavior,
attitude, happening) and the establishment of general principles by which these
phenomena can be explained and predicted. Again, descriptions and explanations are
based on empirical or observable evidence. In a research activity, science is seen as
static and dynamic. It is static in a way that it systematizes information about the
universe. The researcher tries to find out new information or discover new facts to
explain the phenomena that have already existed in the universe. As a dynamic activity,
it leads to the observation of new facts not for the sake of obtaining a new explanation
but for the development of theories and formation of new concepts.

According to Kerlinger (1986), the basic aim of science is theory. He meant that
science aims to explain natural phenomena. Such explanations are called theories. For
examples, what theory explains a child who learns so fast in solving mathematics
problems? a businessman who thinks that political instability can lead to business
failure?

Science theory has got specific roles in any research activity. In any scientific
study, concepts are defined and classified and science uses facts which are arranged
in a system with a particular structure. When knowledge is organized, there must be
some systems imposed upon the facts which are observable. Theory provides the
basis for such scientific inquiry as it conceptualizes, defines and classifies the study.
For example, if we study the role perception of corporate managers, we may refer to
the role theory, decision-making theory, or game theory. The knowledge of these
theories will give us a clear concept of the subject under study thus classified facts
accordingly. Thus, theory defines the boundary of the study. This may lead to the
fragmentation of research. For example, if we want to study labor problems in the
Philippines, we do not look to all the problems, but select some smaller problems such
as wage policy, recruitment policy, employer-employee relations, or crisis management.
In the end, putting all these pieces together is made using the integrative approach to
analysis.
Lesson 2. Classification of Research

In all field of knowledge – the natural, behavioral, and social sciences, research
becomes a must to know not only for personal aggrandizement but for society’s gain.
Nowadays, man is continuously searching to improve and develop new knowledge,
new technologies, new techniques, new processes and concepts/theories, and new
developments as indicators of progress. The concern of research is to understand,
explain and to some degrees predict and control behavior and conditions that are both
beneficial and harmful to mankind. He does this in three ways: discover, verify, and
test. Man discovers new knowledge and theories, verifies and tests applicability of
these theories.

Classification of Research

A. Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Research in the field can be classified according to variable
measurements and methodology used such as qualitative and quantitative. As shown
in Figure 1, qualitative research is characterized by findings that can be expressed and
described verbally -all kinds of studies relying on observations made by the researcher.
Quantitative research is characterized by findings that are expressed in numerical
forms -data analyzed by various statistical techniques.
 EXPERIMENTAL
MAXIMUM CONTROL
LABORATORY-TYPE ENVIRONMENT

Fully Defined
Question/Hypothesis

Manipulated Variables

Numerical Verbal

Variable Unrestricted

Questions and Hypothesis

Emerged During Observations

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
NON-EXPERIMENTAL

Figure 1. Dimensions of Distinction between

Experimental-Quantitative and Non-experimental-Qualitative
(taken from Drew & Hart, 1996)
B. Pure and Applied Research

Generally, research is classified as basic or fundamental and applied

research based on the objectives the researcher intends to accomplish. Basic research
is concerned with the formulation of a theory; is aimed to obtain and use empirical
data to formulate, expand or evaluate a theory; has a wider applicability of results thus,
employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group
or situation; is aimed to “discover knowledge for the sake of knowledge; has little
concern for the application of the finding or social usefulness of the findings” (Koul,
1995:20).

Applied research is concerned with improving a product or process; is aimed

towards the solution of immediate, specific and practical problems; has a narrower
applicability of results; employs scientific method of inquiry but not as rigorous as that
of basic research where findings are evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in
terms of universal validity. Operations research in industry and action research in
education are outgrowth of this need to use empirical solution to problems of
immediate concern.
 1.2. VARIABLES

Lesson 1. Types of Variable

A variable is a characteristic of an observed unit or subject which takes on
different values. For example, price of any commodity varies from day to day. Price is
the variable and this takes on different values. Otherwise, it is called constant.

In research, variables are those characteristic of sample or any focus of study

that vary in values called variates. These variables can be quantified employing
measuring instruments. For instance, body temperature is a variable which has values
of 37, 37-5,39, etc. It is quantified using a thermometer. For example, work
performance is a variable which can be measured by any of the following;

1. If it is the work performance of a salesman, it can be measured in terms of

the number of units sold during the day, week, month or year.

2. If it is the work performance of rank-and-file employees of any government

offices or industry, it can be measured by a performance questionnaire or
checklist using the likert scale from 1 to 5 to show the degree of performance
from very poor one to outstanding.

Variables can be Classified as:

1. Dependent or Independent Variables. Given the mathematical equation

Y=2x+1

The variables are x and y. the value of y if x=1 is 3, if x=2, y=5. The value of y is
dependent on the value of x. therefore, x is the independent variable and y is the
dependent variable. Independent variable, therefore, is the cause for change, the
influence for change. In an experimental design, the independent variable is the effect,
the condition or characteristic that appears, disappears, or changes in the experiment.

______________________________________________
INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
VARIABLE VARIABLE

X Y

CAUSE EFFECT

PREDICTOR PREDICTED
______________________________________________

2. Continuous Variable and Discrete Variables

Discrete variable takes values specifically only in units—no fractional values

exits. Considering “size of a family” as a variable, the value that can take place will only
be 0,1,2,3,… but not 1.25,…

Continuous variable takes values in a given range. It can take fractional values
as when we consider temperature [37 degree, 37.1 degrees, 37.2 degrees…].
All these values are meaningful to the researcher.
3. Qualitative and Quantitative Variable

One research activity that a research does is classifying or measuring variables,

the process of determining the value or level of a particular attribute for a particular
units of analysis. Variables can either be qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative variables have labels or names rather than numbers. They vary in
kind. For example, the variable performance can be labeled high or low. Quantitative
variables are measured in numbers. They vary in amount or in degree as in a
continuum. For examples of quantitative variables are height, weight, performance test
scores, etc.
MODULE 3. RESEARCH METHODS

Lesson 1. Experimental Method

An experiment is expected to reveal causal relationship done under carefully

controlled conditions. The experimenter manipulates certain stimuli, treatments, or
environmental conditions, and observe how the condition or behavior of the subject is
affected or changed. Its main purpose is to predict events in the experimental setting
and generalize variable relationship. The following are the concepts of causation or
relationships:
x y
Cause treatment effect

1. One-on-One Relationship. For a particular cause (X), there is a corresponding

Effect (y). For example, when weight is increased the scale rises.
x y
weight scale

2. Two-variable relationship. A dual explanation of a particular occurrence is given.

For example,
x1 y x2
education proficiency socio-economic status

Here, factors or variables x1 and x2 are attributed to a change in y. For instance, the
proficiency of a person on a certain skill/job is attributable to his education or training
and socio-economic status. The relationship here is: A person is more proficient in his
job given that he has attained higher education and more training exposure and
having a higher family income.

3. Complex relationship. A particular effect is caused by three or more variables as

shown below:
X1

x2 y x3

X4

An example of this is work performance (y) which can be influenced by ones education
(x1), SES, (x2), training (x3), incentives (x4),etc.

In any kind of experiment, the experimenter manipulates or controls a variable

called independent variable. This independent variables can cause a change in
another variable called dependent variable. Independent variables are of two types.

Treatment Variable – is the factor that the experimenter manipulates. For

example, in a study of increasing the productivity of factory worker, the experimenter
used classical music played while work is going on. At the end of the day, the workers
were able to increase their output. Here, the use of classical music is the treatment
variable and the effect is increased productivity.

Attribute or Organismic – is a factor or characteristic that cannot be altered by

the experimenter because it is present in the subject. For example: sex, age, and IQ. In
the course of experimentation, there might be other aspect or factor of the study that
may influence the dependent variable. These are called compounding variables, They
are of two types, intervening and extraneous variables.
 Intervening Variables – are modifying variables that intervene the cause and
effect during the period of experimentation. They are not observed directly by the
experimenter. For example: anxiety, fatigue, motivation or interest. All these may be
present in the subject without being directly noticed by the experimenter but may
significantly influence the result of the study [dependent variable]

Extraneous Variables: are uncontrolled variables, not used in the study, that
may influence the result of the study. How does the experimenter control these
extraneous variables? Here are some methods that may be used by the experimenter
in order to control extraneous variables:

1. By building these variables into the study as independent variables. For

example, if one wishes to control sex, use it as an independent variable.
Investigate the effect of sex in any desired outcome.
2. Variables that are not of direct interest to the researcher may be removed by
eliminating them completely. For instance, if it is a noise, use an enclosed air
conditioned room. Variables present in the subject may be eliminated by
selecting cases with uniform characteristic.
3. By randomization. The researcher can assign subjects to both experimental
and control groups at random.
4. By matching cases. The researcher selects pairs or sets of individuals with
identical characteristic, so that both experimental and control groups have
identical characteristics.
5. By balancing cases or group matching. Both groups are equated by
computing their mean and variances. They should have equal or nearly
equal means and variances with tolerable error.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Any researcher who uses the experimental methods may choose to use one
experimental design based on the purpose of the experiment considering the variables
to be manipulated, limiting factors, assigning subjects to experimental and control,
observation and statistical analysis to be employed.

1. Pre-experimental Design:

A. One-Shot Case Study

X---------O

The research is experimenting or X [treatment] on one group. After the

treatment, he measured the results. He concludes that the result is due to treatment.
This design lacks a control group. There is no provision for equivalence and baseline
data to compare final results to be assured of the effect attributable to the treatment
variable.

B. One-group, Pretest-Posttest Design

O1-----X-----O2
O1 – pretest
O2 – posttest
X - treatment

This is an improvement of the first one because of the presence of a pretest, the
baseline data that can be compared to the posttest. It involves three steps. The first
step is the administration of a pre-test measuring the dependent variable. The second
step is the application of the experimental treatment (independent variable) to the
subjects, and the final step is the administration of the posttest measuring the
dependent variable again. Differences due to application of the experimental treatment
are then determined by comparing the pretest and posttest scores.

C. Static-group Comparison Design

X---------------------O1 X – experimental group

C---------------------O2 C – control group [static]

As an improvement of the first design, this uses a control group. Result

(O1 and O2) of both experimental and control [static] groups are compared.

2. True Experimental Design

Unlike the pre-experimental design, the true experimental design provides

equivalence both for experimental and control groups through random assignment
of subjects. The following design uses the following symbols.

R – random assignment of subject treatment groups

X – exposure to treatment variables
C. – exposure to control or placebo condition
O – observed effect or result
A. The Posttest only, Equivalent Group Design

R -------------------- X --------------- O1
R -------------------- C ---------------- O2

B. The Pretest-Posttest Equivalent Groups Design

R ----------------- O1 ------------------- X -----------------O2

R ------------------O3 ------------------- C -----------------O4

Where,
X gain = O2 – O1
C gain = O4 – O3
O1, O3 are pretests
O2, O4 are posttests

C. Solomon Four-Group Design

R ----------- O1 --------------- X ---------------O2

R ----------- O3 --------------- C ---------------O4
R -------------------------------- X ---------------O5
R -------------------------------- C ---------------O6
3. Quasi –Experimental Designs

The design provides control where measurement is applied, but because no

random assignment to both experimental and control, treatment is applied, the
equivalence of the groups is not assured.

A. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Groups Design

O1 ------------------ X ---------------- O2
O3 ------------------ C ---------------- 04

This is used for two intact groups which may be similar.

B. Time-Series Design

At periodic intervals, observations or measurements are applied to

individuals or a group. An experimental variable is introduced [X] and its
effect may be judged by the change or gain immediately before and
immediately after its introduction.

O1 -------- O2 ------- O3 ---- X ---- O4 ------O5 -------O6

Pre-intervention post-intervention
Lesson 3. The Descriptive Method

The descriptive method can tell us about what is, what exists at present by
determining the nature and degree of existing conditions. It collects data to test
hypothesis or answer questions concerning current status of the participants of the
study or prevailing conditions of the selected research environment. Where possible,
valid general conclusions are drawn from the facts gathered or discovered. They are
restricted not only to fact-findings but in the formulation of important principles of
knowledge and solution of significant problems concerning some local or international
issues.

Descriptive studies are more than just a collection of data. They involve
measurement, classification, analysis and interpretation.

Measurement: Describing a set of data requires measurement or counting such as a)

income, b) height, c) performance, d) achievements. For examples in a survey of the
profile of one barangay, variables that are to be measured may include
population size, age of families and members, income of families, civil status of family
members and residential units. These measures will be very important to describe if the
barangay is young or old and/or rich or poor.

Classification: The need for classification arises if the research wants to deduce a
“neat system” of generalized statements—as in the differences and effects of each
group or class, and in the process of ordering things, people and events. For instance,
a researcher may classify employees according to some criteria like age, salary, and
work experience because he thinks performance of employees may differ because of
differences in age, salary and length of experience.

The following are some pointers in classifying:

1. Keep mind the purpose of classifying being made.
2. Think of a new related headings or variables.
3. Disturbing classes should be avoided.
4. Consider the different ways by which things, people and situations may be
classified, e.g. money according to kind of paper, coin; according to source,
or to buying power.

According to Good and Scates (in Estolas, 1973, 2003), the goal of any
researcher is perceived to be in the use of classification scheme such as the
following:

1. To provide codified data.

2. To form useful classes according to kind.
3. To afford logical order and system.
4. To develop the meaning of class concepts
5. To create cases through delimitation
6. To standardize observation which describe.
7. To select and categorize scale indicators.
Specific Illustrations of these are as follows:
A. Qualitative Classification

Concept: : Description : Code

Nutritional : Very Satisfactory : 3

Status : Satisfactory : 2
Poor : 1

Political : High Ideologies : 3

Status : Moderate : 2
: poor : 1
 Work : Very Competent : 5
Competencies: Competent : 4
Average : 3
Below Average : 2
Low : 1

B. Quantitative Classification

Scale Range Descriptive Interpretation Code

1. Income Monthly
10,001 and above High Income 3
5,001 to 10,000 Average Income 2
5,000 and below Low Income 1

ANALYSIS: Analysis is always a part of any research study irrespective of

methods or approach used. Analysis is studying components to serve as direction in
reaching a goal. It is a form of description, for description is founded upon analysis.
There are two parts of analysis: a) the purpose of analysis and b) the processes of
analysis.

Purpose of Analysis

1. Analysis dissects. The researcher should look into the meaning of every word in the
problem. What are included? What are excluded? Who are involved? Where will it
take place, or where is the setting?
2. Analysis directs. Analysis serves as a direction in the sense that it leads one to
structure or organize his movements. Movement here means how he would
proceed to solve problem. Steps are determined.

3. Analysis compares. Characteristics, traits, behavior, conditions and events are

compared. This is especially important in comparative and case studies. When
comparisons are made, similar and differences are described.

4. Analysis identifies. Dominant occurrences – those that do not exist and those that
exist to a little extent are identified. Findings, for instance, can lead to identify areas
of excellence, weaknesses, problems. Distinctive characteristics may be deducted
from the results of the study.

5. Analysis discovers. New things or avenues are discovered through analysis.

Process of Analysis

Analysis focuses on a study of an individual, agency or institution, and a study of

groups. The research should proceed by following steps until results are made. Steps
may differ depending on the problem. For example, if one may study the unemployed
graduates of Metro Manila, the following steps to be undertaken are
suggested:

1. List down the different municipalities and cities in Metro Manila

2. Take a sample of a) cities b) municipalities) c) barangays.
3. Take a sample from each of the barangays. Included in the sample.
4. Take the profile of each of the participants/respondents by categories.
Provide these in your questionnaire
For example: degree taken, year graduated, and all other variables such
as age, sex, socio-economic status.
 5. Study the results and make generalizations.

INTERPRETATION. Interpretation is made after presenting gathered data. It includes

meanings shown from the data and inferences to explain such meaning or finding.

Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive studies may be classified according to various purpose of writers
(e.g. on the basis of purpose they want to achieve, on the techniques they employ).
Koul (1984) classified descriptive into three categories:

1. survey studies
2. interrelationship studies
3. development studies

Survey Studies

It should be understood that a survey is not a research study as thought of by

many people. The word “survey” indicates the gathering of data from place to place
and from group to group. Survey studies are conducted to collect detailed descriptions
of existing phenomena with the intent of employing data to justify current conditions
and practices to make more intelligent plans for improving them. The objective is not
only to analyze, interpret, and report the status of an institution, group or area but also
to determine the adequacy of status by comparing it with established standards.
Surveys gather three types of informations: 1) data concerning existing status, 2)
comparison of existing status with the established status and standards, and 3) means
of improving the existing status. There are different types of survey techniques or
approach depending upon the situation, interest and goal, professional competence
and financial capability of the researcher. They are population survey, sample survey,
poll survey, and market survey. Some common survey approaches are discussed
below:
 School surveys. School surveys may be undertaken at various levels of
instruction, problem of school building, school setting, financial resources, student
transportation system, future enrolment, characteristic of personnel, testing to identify
the gifted and mental growth, personality, school appraisal, financial and curriculum.
There are three ways by which school surveys can be organized: 1) by outside
consultants, 2) by the personnel of the local school system and 3) by a comprehensive
group consisting of local teachers, interested members of the community, resource
person, headed by an expert as consultant and a survey leader.

Normative Surveys. Information in normative survey is usually sought on

current conditions of communities, agencies, institutions, etc. where characteristics,
status, practice of individuals or particular groups are sought. The term “normative”
is used because surveys are conducted to find out the normal or typical condition of
situations and people. Norms are established by authoritative standard. Authoritative
standards are made by getting an ideal from a representative group.

Job Analysis. The method of job analysis is generally used in business and
industry. It is employed to gather information about the general duties and
responsibilities of personnel; specific duties that they perform, their working conditions,
nature and type of facilities, status and relationship with the administrative
organization. Data about the education, specialized training, experiences, skills, habits,
standards, and behavioral traits are also collected. These will help the researcher to
get knowledge about the existing practices and conditions of employment and the
competencies and behavioral traits that the personnel possess or should possess to
carry out their work effectively and efficiently. Van Dalen (in Koul, 1984) has pointed out
an analytical knowledge of job components such as the following:

1. Detect weakness, duplications, or inefficiency in the area of work and

procedures.
2. Establish uniform classification of similar work.
 3. Determine wage or salary schedules for jobs entailing various levels or skills
or responsibility.
4. Identify the competencies.
5. Assign workers to jobs in a manner that will achieve the best utilization of the
available manpower.
6. Set up training programs, and prepare instructional materials for prospective
in service employees.
7. Establish requirements for promotion.
8. Make decisions concerning the transfer or retraining of personnel.
9. Development theoretical framework for studying administrative functions and
structures.

Content Analysis. Content analysis is concerned with the classification,

quantification, and comparison of the content of document or communication, thus
sometimes referred to as “documentary activity” or “informational” analysis. This
communication may be in the form of official records or any written, printed, verbal, or
pictorial form. The following are the procedures for content analysis:

1. Defining the unit of analysis. The researcher decides whether the units is
confined to single word to phrases, sentence, paragraphs, or even to larger
amounts of materials such as articles or complete journal or book. Once the
unit is defined, the researcher will provide the classifying units in the material
to be analyzed.
2. Frequency. The research counts the number of units which fall into each of
his categories for determining the frequency.
3. Direction and intensity. In certain situation, it is worthwhile to further classify
the unit according to direction and intensity. By direction, it refers to whether
the reference was favorable, or neutral. It might be pleasant-unpleasant,
interesting-uninteresting, threatening-non-threatening. By intensity, it
indicates the emotional impact of the unit analyzed. Is it great or small and in
what direction?
 4. Contingency. The contingency analysis aims at considering the context with
which the unit is found. A researcher should consider the favorableness or
unfavorableness of a single unit in the light of the remainder of the
communication so that its real meaning might not be lost.
5. Sampling. The unit that a researcher analyzes must be representative of the
total material with which he is concerned, so that the results can be
generalized.
6. The recording instrument. A form is usually used in content analysis for
classifying and recording of the units. He should indicate the categories and
make provision for marking the category into which each unit falls. Usually,
rating scales are used to describe or interpret every category.

Public opinion surveys. In order to make some important and crucial

decisions, industrial, political, educational and other leaders seek knowledge of the
public opinions attitudes, and preferences. For example, educators conduct public
opinion surveys to find out how people feel about some school issue. Business firms
make public opinion surveys to find out what type of products, packaging, or
advertising appeals to purchasers. Politicians conduct opinion surveys to ascertain how
people will vote or what programs they favor. In public opinion surveys, the researcher
make sure of questionnaires, schedules or interviews to gather data from the selected
group or groups following appropriate sampling procedures.

Social surveys. Social surveys are also called community surveys. They are
more general and comprehensive, as compared to school surveys, these surveys
include data concerning health services, employment condition, causes of juvenile
delinquency, housing problem, discriminations, etc. Such surveys can be conducted by
local community leaders independent of the government, or by a group of experts
financed by the government or some other agencies. Researchers employ research
methods from various fields and gather information concerning many factors that
contribute to the character of the community life. They make use of research tools like
questionnaires, schedules, interviews, rating scales, and direct observations a well as
statistical techniques to gather data from the government officials, social agencies,
community leaders, schools and various documents.

Evaluation. An evaluative study is conducted to determine the

potential performance of a program, project or process. For examples, one may
evaluate the energy program of the government while it is being implemented. Is it
moving according to schedule? Is it accomplishing the objectives embodied by the
policy framework of the program. Another aspect of inquiry may be raised about the
potential of a program even before it gets implemented. Will the program be accepted
by the target beneficiaries? Will enough support be generated from the program
implementers to accomplish the objectives of the program? Another broad question
concerns the factors that may affect the performance or potential performance of a
given program or project. What qualities do the components of the service delivery
system possess that affect the performance of a given program or project? How about
the beneficiaries? Do they facilitate or hinder the program’s implementation? What
qualities do the beneficiaries possess that lead to the success or failure of the program
or project?

Types of Evaluation Research

Ex-ante evaluation. Evaluation undertaken even before the program is

implemented to ascertain that it is worth implementing. The broad research problem of
this type is to determine the potential performance of a program or project and to
ascertain if there are factors that may influence its accomplishments, thus also called a
feasibility study.

In-vivo or on-going evaluation. A program is assessed while it is being

implemented. This is undertaken to determine what corrective measures to apply in
order to improve the process of implementation. Results may provide program
managers directions for the modification of the mechanics of implementation so that
the objective of the program can be effectively fulfilled. Hence, the relevant research
problem to be raised pertains to the fulfillment of the programs initial objectives. Are
there bottlenecks or impediments in the process of implementation? Are there factors
that hasten or facilitate the way the program is proceeding?

Ex-post or impact evaluation. This type of research is undertaken

after the program has been completed or fully implemented. The relevant research
question concerns success or failure of the program or project. Has the program fully
realized what it has determined to accomplish? What is the program’s impact on the
clientele? Has the program affected the target beneficiaries in accordance with its
premises? What factors have led to its success or failure?

Assessment. An assessment study is a component technique of evaluation. In

this technique, it uses measurement of the effectiveness or extent of failure or success
of any component of a program or project. Question answered focuses on the extent of
implementation (e.g. extent of capabilities, extent of acceptability).

Meta-Analysis. Glass (in Zuniga (1995) defined meta-analysis as the statistical

analysis of a large collection of analysis resulting from a large number of individual
studies for the purpose of integrating the findings. It 1) uses objective methods to find
studies for view, 2) describes the feature of the studies in quantitative or quasi-
quantitative terms, 3) express treatment effects of all studies on a common scale of
effect size, and 4) uses statistical technique to relate study feature to study outcomes.
 Interrelationship studies

Researchers in the field do not merely gather facts to obtain an accurate

description of existing phenomena but also attempt to trace relationship between facts
that will provide deeper insights into the phenomena. These include:

Case Study. This is an intensive investigation of a social unit. The social unit
may be an individual or unit in depth. The researcher gathers pertinent data about the
present status (the prospective phase), past experience (the retrospective phase), and
the future development and improvement of the case (conspective phase) and
environmental forces that contribute to the behavior of the individual or
social unit, and how these factors relate to one another. The analysis of the factors and
their interrelationships helps the researcher construct a comprehensive and integrated
picture of the unit. A teacher, for instance, may study a special or gifted child in Grade
1. Various factors, both social and environmental can be looked into to find out the
influences of these factors into the mental growth of the child. A businessman or
government employee may study his own department, say the personnel department,
and look into the different factors such as the recruitment requirements, education, sex,
age, training undergone, and salaries that might influence the performance of the
personnel.

Steps in Case Study:

1. Determine the present status of the individual or the social unit under
investigation through direct observation or measurement.
2. Determine the most probable antecedents of the case and formulate a
fruitful hypothesis or hypothesis. Through the knowledge of similar cases.
3. Verify the hypothesis. The case is then checked for the presence or absence
of the antecedents supposed to apply to the situation under investigation.
4. Further validate the diagnosis. Some remedial measures in the light of the
causes found are suggested.
5. Follow up the case to ascertain whether any changes have been produced
by the treatment introduced

Types of Case Studies

1. Historical case studies of organization

2. Observational case studies
3. Case study of a group
4. Oral histories (first person narratives using extensive interviewing of a single
individual)
5. Situational analysis
6. Clinical case study
7. The case study of an individual

Causal-comparative studies. In some investigations, the research attempts

to explore not only what a phenomenon is like, but how and why it occurs. In
such cases, the aim of researcher is to compare the likeness and differences
among phenomena to discover what factors or circumstances seem to
accompany or contribute to the occurrence of certain events, conditions or
practices. The causal-comparative studies are based upon John Stuart Mill’s
method (in Koul, 1984) of discovering causal relationships. The method states
that “If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only
one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances
agree, is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomena” (p.419).
This can be illustrated by the following:

Suppose that six person A,B,C,D,E,F, went to a party, and subsequently, three of
them A,B, and C got ill. To find out the cause of their illness, the doctor
questioned A,B, and C about what food they had eaten and discovered that every item
they has selected differed expect for a pie. In other words, the only food eaten
by all those who became ill was the pie. In conformity with the Method of Agreement,
the doctor concluded that the illness was caused by a pie, for it was this item on the
menu that the ill students had experienced in common.

Correlation and Prediction Studies

Correlational studies are frequently used types or descriptive research

concerned with determining the extent of relationship existing between variables. They
are used to obtain description of existing phenomenon and enable a researcher to
ascertain the extent to which variations in one variable are associated with variations in
another. The magnitude of relationship is determined through the use of the coefficient
of correlation. Relationships can hold through a) between two variables and b) between
three or more variables. The magnitude or relationship depends on the extent of
increase and decrease in one variable accompanied by an increase or decrease in
another, whether in the same direction (positive) or opposite direction (negative). The
degree of magnitude of the relationship is inferred from the numerical value of the
correlation coefficient which ranges from –1.00 to +1.00 through zero and interpreted
from strong to slight or no relation at all.

Prediction studies. Correlation studies are particularly useful in making

predictions, that is, if we know that there is a substantial correlation between variables.
For instance, if the variable y (work performance) and variable x (educational
attainment) are highly correlated with r = 0.84, then we can predict work performance
from a knowledge of one’s educational attainment. Predicting values uses the
measure regression equation.

Cross-cultural and comparative studies. In cross-cultural and comparative

studies, the aim of the researcher is to make explicit comparisons of a number of
societies in terms of given phenomena. For example, studies on the relationships
between certain social institutions and stages of economic development, between
education and development of selected societies, comparison of and relationship
between work values and levels of economic development of countries.

Developmental Studies

Growth studies. Growth studies are used to seek knowledge of the nature and
rate of changes that take place in human organism or social, political and economic
institutions. They are helpful in providing informations for the purpose of knowing
whether there is development is accelerating, stationary or there is a decline or
retardation.

Longitudinal studies. Longitudinal studies follow or use the same subject,

individual, group or institution over a relatively long period of time, it is a kind of
extended case study as it involves a long-life span of the individual, group or institution.
For example, a researcher may study the personality of a child when he is seven years
old. Then eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. A businessman may
study the buying behavior or the advertising strategy or packaging behavior of
custumers as when they first enter the business world until about ten years in the
business using the same subjects.

Cross-sectional studies. Many of the limitations of the longitudinal method are

overcome in the cross-sectional studies. When conducting a cross-sectional study,
instead of following the same group of individuals or institutions and taking their
repeated measurements over a relatively long period of time, the random samples of
individuals or institutions of successive ages are selected and one set of
measurements of different individuals or institutions from each age level are taken as
the basis for developing growth norms.
FORMAT FOR THESIS WRITING
(The following are the chapter titles and the topics under each chapter)
==========================================================
Preliminary Parts:
Title Page
Approval Sheet
Table of Contents
List of Tables (if there are table)
List of Figures (if there are figures in the text)
Abstract

Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Background of the Study

Statement of the Problem

The Null Hypothesis (Optional)

Scope and Limitation of the Study

Significance of the Study

Definition of Terms

Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature

Related Studies

Synthesis

Conceptual Framework
 Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Participants/ Respondents

Data-Gathering Procedures

Instrumentation

Statistical Treatment of Data

Chapter 4
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

(Note: Topics must be taken from the Statement of the Problem. Present, Analyze, and interprete
the data to answer the different problems stated under Statement of the Problem in Chapter 1)

Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

Findings. Based on the data presented, the following are the findings:

Conclusions
Based on the findings , the following are concluded:

Recommendations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER/THESIS

Parts of a Research Paper/Thesis

A Research Paper or Thesis contains the following parts:

===========================================================
1. Preliminary Parts
1.1 Title Page
1.2 Table of Contents
1.3 List of Tables
1.4 List of Figures

2. Main Body
2.1 Chapter 1 – The Problem
1.11 Introduction
1.12 Background of the Study (Optional)
1.13 Statement of the Problem
1.14 Hypothesis (if any)
1.15 Significance of the Study
1.16 Scope and Limitation of the Study
1.17 Definition of Terms
2.2 Chapter 2 – Review of Related Literature
and Studies
2.21. Related Literature
2.22. Related Studies
2.23 Theoretical Framework
2.24 Conceptual Framework
2.3. Chapter 3- Methodology
 2.31 Research Design
2.32 Respondents or Participant
2.33 Data-Gathering Procedures
2.34 Instruments
2.35 Data Analysis
2.4 Chapter 4. Presentation , Interpretation and
Analysis of Data

2.5. Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendation

2. Bibliographical Entries
3. Appendix
================================================================
The following is a brief discussion of how the content of a thesis is prepared. A
sample is also presented as format and style are important elements to consider
in writing a thesis.

Title Page. This should be a specific and concise statement of the topic and should
refer to the major variables or theoretical issues investigated. Its principal function is to
inform the reader about the study. It includes the following:

1. The exact title of the thesis.

2. Full name of the writer or researcher.
3. The degree for which the thesis is presented.
4. The name of the department and college to which the thesis is submitted.
5. The month and the year thesis is defined.
Points to Consider in Writing the Title Page

1. The title should appear all in capital letters, centered and typed on the 8 th
double-space line from the top of the paper. Recommended maximum length
of 10 to 12 words.
2. The author’s name should be in capital letters and on the 13 th double-space
from the top of the paper.
3. The submission statement should begin on the 21 st double-space line from
the top of the paper. The last line typed on the title page should be one inch
from the bottom of the paper.
4. The title should be specific and concise. As much as possible avoid the use
of “A Study of …”, “An Analysis…”, An Evaluation of..”.
5. The title should not be broad as if to provide an answer that cannot be
generalized from the data or methodology. For example of a broad title:
“Effects of Motivation on Performance”. Instead, this title can be specified as:
“Immediate and Delayed Feedbacks: Effects on Performance of Employees
of Company A.”

Table of Contents. The table of content lists the preliminary parts, the chapter titles,
along with the parts of the body of thesis, bibliography and appendix. The following are
pointers to be considered:

1. The words “TABLE OF CONTENTS” should appear in capital letters typed on

the 8th single-spaced line from the top of the paper.
2. The preliminary parts are listed first followed by the word “Chapter” typed
flush on the left-hand margin and on the right the word “Page”.
3. The chapter number, in Arabic numeral, should be typed first below the page
in the word “Chapter” followed by a period.
4. The first chapter should be listed a triple space below the word “chapter”.
The title of the first chapter should be followed by a double space, other
 chapter titles and major headings should likewise be preceded and followed
by a double space.
5. Chapter titles should be in capital letters.

SAMPLE OF A TITLE PAGE:

THE SIMULATOR AS CONTINGENCY

APPROACH TO POWER SYSTEM
MANAGEMENT

JUAN P. DE LA CRUZ

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Course

(Course)
The Philippine Women’s University
Manila
March, 2009
_______________________________________________________________
SAMPLE TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract …………………………………………………… I
Approval Sheet ……………………………………….……………. iv
Acceptance Sheet …………………………………………..…………. v
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………….….. vi
List of Tables …………………………………………………… vii
List of Figures …………………………………………………… ix

Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM ……………………………………………..…….. 1
Introduction …………………………………………………… 1
Background of the Study ………………………………….….. 3
Statement of the Problem ……………………………………. 8
Hypothesis ……………………………………………………… 8
Scope and Limitation of the Study ……………………….…. 9
Significance of the Study ……………………………………… 11
Definition of Terms……………………………………………… 14
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE …………………………… 18
(Note: Related Literature and Studies Followed
by Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks)
3. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………… 45
Research Design ………………………………………………. 45
Respondents ……………………………………………………. 46
Procedures ……………………………………………………… 46
Instruments ……………………………………………………. 47
Data Analysis …………………………………………………… 48
4. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ………… 50
(Note: Write the appropriate topics based on your statement
of the problem)
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS …… 96
Summary ………………………………………………………… 96
Conclusions ……………………………………………………… 98
Recommendations ………………………………………………102
BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………103
APPENDIX ……………………………………………………………….106
CURRICULUM VITAE …………………………………………………. 112
List of Tables: Tables should be listed separately from the chapter and section
heading. The following are pointers in making the “List of Tables”.

1. The words “LIST OF TABLES” should appear in capital letters.

2. Two spaces below the page heading, type the word “LIST OF TALBES”.
3. The table titles in the list of tables should have only the first letters of
principal word capitalized.
4. Table titles should be single-spaced within individual title and double space
between titles.
5. Tables included in the appendix should be included in the list of tables.

SAMPLE LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF TABLES

No. Page

1. Types of Projects Supported

by Non-Government Organizations
in Metro Manila …………………………………..……… 75

2. Mean Performance of Workers

Of Selected Factories in Quezon City ……………….. 92

______________________________________________________________
 List of Figures. Titles of picture, graphs, charts, and other illustrative materials
are all included in the list of figures. Points in making of figures are almost the
same as the list of tables.

SAMPLE LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIGURES

No. Page

1. A Theoretical Model for Analyzing

Socialization Indicators ………………………………… 34

2. Power System Operating States ……………….……… 89

The Problem
Oftentimes, a student is bewildered as to what topic he is explore. As starters,
let’s ask ourselves the following questions:

1. What could be the need of the time?

2. What area or field am I interested in?
3. What researches have been done in this field or area?
4. What else need immediate solutions? What are the situations surrounding it?
5. Will I be able to handle this competently?

These questions will give you some sources of topics or problems to explore be it in
your office, community of field of study. The following can help you decide as sources of
problems or topics.

1. Make some preliminary readings such as books, articles, journals and research
reports. In this process, you can do the following: a) write the bibliography, b) do the
note-taking using index cards
2. One notes and inquiries have been properly taken and in substantial amount, a
working outline of the research paper can be started.

Some Problem Energizers

To be aware of a problem, the following situations may exist:
1. When a difficulty exits. What could be causing the difficulty?
2. When a new problem arises an old problem.
3. When a thinker is stimulated by what he reads.
4. When an individual or group has the urge to achieve and contribute
something to society.
5. When an individual likes to exercise resourcefulness, ingenuity and
creativeness.
What is a good research problem? A good research problem possesses
the following characteristics:

1. It tells what one is looking for.

2. It gives direction to the processes involved in analysis and interpretation.
3. It has boundary lines. One could glean limitations.
4. It is short but clear.
5. It shows the goals of the study.
6. It engulfs enough aspects to be handled.
7. Characteristics and the status sought re spelled out clearly.
8. It should be eye-catching and functional.
9. The problem must have a practical value.
 So that the problem becomes clear, it should be defined. The following
pointers will help you define a problem:

1. Analyze and make clear every single important word of the problem.
Know the meaning of terms used
2. Break down the problem into constituent parts.
3. Know the scope.
4. Investigate the need for studying the problem.
5. Make initial assumptions or hunches.

Once the problem is clear to you, you are now ready to write Chapter 1. The
following are the subtopics for chapter 1:

1.1 Introduction. The text ordinarily begins with an introduction. It

should lead the readers into the origin of the problem-how it came
into the fold of interest of the writer, an account describing the
circumstances which suggested the research. It may include a
justification of the selection or choice of the study.
1.2 Background of the Study. This is a detailed account of the
background of the study-the description of the focus of the study or
research locale.

1.3 Statement of the Problem. The problem studied must be shown as

one which arose from a situation of need or unresolved difficulties.

a. It is stated in interrogative form.

b. It consists of one main statement followed by two or
more specific problem.
 SAMPLE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Illustration 1
1.3 Statement of the Problem

This study will look into the effect of the use of simulator as a
contingency approach to power system security management in the
Luzon Grid.

Specifically, it will seek answers to the following questions:

1. How do the operators respond to power system problems using the

a) simulator and b) conventional method?

2. Are there significant differences in the responses of the operators to

system problems using the a) conventional method and b) the
simulator?

Illustration 2
1.3 Statement of the Problem
This study described the reasoning abilities of children ages
4 to 12 and the factors that affected similarities and differences.
Specifically, it sought answers to the following problems:
1. To what extent do children age 4 to12 years reason out?
2. Are there significant differences in reasoning abilities of children in terms of
differences in
a. sex?
b. socio-economics status?
c. age?
_________________________________________________________________

1.4 Hypothesis. Hypothesis are conjectural statements of relationship between two

or more variables. The hypothesis should be stated in null form because only null
hypotheses can be tested using statistical test. Only problems stated in hypothetical or
yes-no questions such as : Are there significant differences…., effect….,
relationship…, influence…, can be transformed into null hypotheses. Null hypotheses
are statements of no bias or difference.

SAMPLE STATEMENT OF NULL HYPOTHESIS

1.4 Null Hypothesis

(Based on the Statement of the Problem in 1.3, Illus. 1

and 2, the following are the null hypotheses):

Illus. 1 # 2
There are no significant differences in the responses of
Operations on system problems using the a) simulator
b) conventional method.

Illus. 2 # 2
There are no significant differences in the reasoning abilities of
children when grouped according to the following variables:
a. sex
b. socio-economic status
c. age

___________________________________________________________________

Significance of the Study. This part is usually required of a research so that the
research can be justified to the final report, however, the significance does not have to
be stressed by the researcher. The study should justify itself. This section should state
why the problem investigated is important, and what significance the results have. It
should include a statement on relevance to felt needs, the potential contribution of the
research to new knowledge, and policy implications and other possible uses of the
results.

Scope and Limitation of the Study. Limits of the study need to be properly defined.
The scope is expected to indicate a reasonable area of study which is large enough to
be significant but narrow enough to permit careful treatment. The scope of the problem
should be stated specifically. The nature of any subjects treated, their number, the
treatments they received, any limitations that exist in the reference population,
instruments or research design should be stated.

Definition of Terms. Many terms are subject to a variety of interpretations. Such

terms should be defined operationally according to the precise meanings they are
intended to convey and according to how these terms are used in the study. Clear
definitions should be stated for important variables, especially if these are to be
measured by means of specific instruments or a combination of devices. For clear
presentation, include conceptual and operational or working definitions, e.g. Middle
class is conceptually defined as a category of persons within a society. Operationally, it
is a group of persons whose average annual income is P 10,000.00 – 24, 000. 00;
customer is conceptually defined as any person who buys a particular item at a given
specific store, but operationally, it can be defined as a person who buys any item in a
particular store at least three times a day.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

The purpose of this chapter 2 is to tell what research has or has not been done
on the problem and to explain or clarify the theoretical rationale of the problem. It
provides a general picture of the research topic. The following are important points. To
remember in reviewing the literature and other related studies:

1. Only studies which are related in purpose, method, or findings to the current
study should be included in the review. The discussion of such studies
should be in the form of a brief critical analysis of the purpose, method of the
study, principal findings, and conclusions.
2. Clarify the interrelationship of the studies reviewed. Point out weakness and
strengths of each study.
3. Point out how each of the studies reviewed relates to the problem at hand.
Summarize the review and provide a transition from the past studies to the
 present one. The latter should be shown to relate with or evolve from earlier
work.
4. In the text, only the last names of the authors are given. In the case of
citations of different works by person with the same surname, initials should
be included with the last names for proper identification.

The content presentation of this chapter can be subdivided into three parts such
as: a) review of literature, b) review of related studies and c) the writer’s own
paradigm or conceptual framework based on a theoretical framework. Another
way of presenting the review is by presenting a review of foreign and local works
and or discussion of literature and studies by concepts or topics.

The Conceptual framework

From a review of literature, the researcher can now formulate a conceptual

scheme for his research which is a tentative or theoretical explanation of the
phenomenon or problem he is going to investigate. Usually, all the interrelatedness of
variables used in the study are presented in the framework or figure. Arrows show the
relationship of these variables which are written inside a geometric figure such as a
square, a rectangle or a triangle. The following illustrates this concept:
______________________________________________________
IV DV

Supervisor’s
Performance,
Job Rotation Adaptability
Program Fexibility
Productivity

Figure 1. Effects of Job Rotation Program on

Selected Variables

__________________________________________________________
Methodology
This chapter 3 presents the research design, the sampling technique, data-
gathering procedures, instruments, and statistical treatment of data/data analysis.

Research Design. This section discusses the research method used, how the
method is used or will be used in the study as to the samples chosen, data to be
gathered and the missing data that will be provided. It has two basic purposes, to
provide answers to the research questions and to provide control over other variables.
Research methods are: historical, experimental (pre, true, quasi), descriptive,
ethnographic, etc.

Respondents. This section discusses the samples or subjects or participants

that will be included in the study--the population where these participants will be taken,
the size of participants, and the sampling technique used: a) probability sampling or b)
non-probability sampling techniques. The following questions will guide the researcher
in presenting this section:

1. Who are the respondents/participants/subjects?

2. Where will they come from?
3. How will they be selected? What sampling technique will be used?
4. How many will be included? Is it enough to represent the population?

Data-Gathering Procedures. Procedures followed in conducting the study

should be explained in complete detail. Technique, devices and procedures followed
should be described. In the case of experiments, it should include instructions given to
the participants, the formation of groups, the experimental manipulations, and control
features in the design. Remember that this section tells the reader what you will do or
what you did and how you did it. Any errors or weaknesses in the procedures that have
been discovered during the conduct of research should be pointed out, and any
consequent limitations upon the research results should be fully noted.

Instruments. This is a description of the adoption, construction, and

administration of instrument. Instrument includes questionnaires, interview guides, use
of documents and other observational techniques, rating scale and attitude scale.
Apparatuses, devices, and laboratory equipment used should be described. In case of
complex or custom-made equipments, a drawing or photograph is recommended.
Included in the discussion are the scoring procedures and validation of the
instruments.

HOW TO MAKE A QUESTIONNAIRE:

First, you have to decide whether it is structured or unstructured, open or close

questionnaire. Structure questionnaire contains definite, concrete and directed
questions whereas unstructured may have partially completed questions or statements.
The closed form consists of a question or statement to which a person responds by
selecting one or more choices already given such as “yes” or “no”, write a short
response or check an item from a list of suggested responses. The open form calls for
a free response in the respondent’s own response. No clues are provided.

POINTS TO CONSIDER IN CONSTRUCTING A QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. It has clear and complete direction.

2. Each item (question) deals with single idea in simple terms.
3. It is reasonably short, though comprehensive enough to secure all relevant
information.
4. It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, clearly duplicated and free
from typographical errors.
5. They are worded that is easy to tabulate and interpret the responses.
6. Questions are presented in good psychological order proceeding from
general to specific responses.
7. The offending, annoying or embarrassing questions have to be avoided as
much as possible.
8. Descriptive adjectives, and adverbs have to be avoided (i.e. frequently,
occasionally, rarely)
9. Double negatives are also avoided (i.e. Don’t you disapprove of this form of
discipline?)
10. Putting two questions in one question is also avoided.
11. Allow code numbers for all possible responses to permit easy tabulation of
responses.

SCHEDULE: A schedule is a set of questions which are asked and filled in

by an interviewer in a face to face situation with another person.

CHECK-LIST: A check-list is a simple laundry-list of device consisting of a

prepared list of items. It is a type of questionnaire in the form of a set of
categories for the respondent to check.

Rating Scale: (Likert Scale Questionnaire, Attitude Scale)

Rating is a term applied to expression of opinion or judgment regarding
some situations, objects, or traits. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of
values. Rating scales or techniques are devices by which such judgments may
be quantified. It is very useful in assessing quality -especially when quality is
difficult to measure objectively. For example, “How good was the performance?”
This question calls for a judgment or opinion and to measure it, one must
indicate the degree or amount. A description of the different degrees of quality
must be indicated by the following:

Excellent Very Good Good Average Poor

 In constructing a rating to measure quality of performance, etc. the
researcher must look for the indicators or areas. For example, if you want to
measure performance, you should ask these questions:

1. How will I measure performance? The answer will decide on the

description of performance. Answer: Excellent, Very Good, Good,
Average, Poor.
2. What areas of performance will I measure? Is it teaching, clerical
work, decision-making, etc. – calling for a quality measure. Is it
productivity which gives amount or number of items (e.g. number of
units) – calling for a quantitative measure, if so, then device a scale
range like:
46 & above Excellent
41.45 Very Good
36.40 Good
31.35 Average
30 and below Poor

Statistical Treatment of Data. This section discusses the statistical tests used
to answer all the specific problems. Discussion should include what the problem is,
what appropriate test can be used, and how data will be analyzed.

Presentation of Data
Data are presented in a) textual form, b) tabular form and c) graphical form.
In writing a thesis, it is always advisable to present a textual presentation accompanied
by a table or figure for a clearer understanding of readers. The following is a
discussion on how to write the text, how to make and present tables in the text and
how to make and present figure in the text.
Writing the text

1. Writing should be double-spaced, when quoting exact word or phrases. It

should be:
a. part of the paragraph (double-space) if it will not consume more
than three times.
b. written with indention and single-spaced if it can consume more
than three lines (see example below).

SAMPLE TEXT
________________________________________________________________

The concept of modernity needs to be defined if we are to analyze and

interpret the responses of women in our sample. It is associated with the process of
modernization which has been directly and simply defined as “the growing ratio
between inanimate source of power” (Levey, 94:45). However, this definition
sacrifices explanatory power to the principle of parsimony. Thus, Berger (1977)
proposes:

Modernization must be seen in close relation to economic

growth more specifically, to the particular growth processes
by technology …. We could refer to distinguish between the
technological impact on the economy the other processes
dependent on the technology… This means that there is no such
thing as a modern society… only societies more or less advanced
in a continuum of modernization (p. 24).

It is not the purpose to review modernization in this country on a micro

level. This is a modest attempt whether women have acquired some of the
constellations that rise from modernization (Manalang, 1977). From the
perspective of the sociology of knowledge, consciousness view society as a
dialectic between objective giveness and subjective meaning (Berger, 1977).
 2. When citations are made, use the “author-year on text” citation. The sample
text gives you a complete pointers in citing authors for borrowed words or
ideas.
a. When author is part of the sentence Author (year)
b. When exact words or phase are quoted
text quotes (Author, Year: page)

3. A bibliographical entries should be prepared at the end of chapter 5,

Summary, conclusions and recommendations.
4. Follow the following steps in presenting the data for chapter 4:
a. Write the topic based on the statement of the
Problems in chapter one. Each problem is considered one topic for
discussion. If it is in null form, then follow the steps in hypothesis testing – state
the null hypothesis, compute the statistic but present only the statistical table,
state the level of significance, degress of freedom, and the decision to reject or
accept the null hypothesis. Finally, make your conclusion and interpretation.

Tables

A table usually accompanies a textual presentation. This is presented in the text

– put on top or middle of the page. Remember to put the table after you have already
mentioned it in the text. Don’t put the table first and then the text after. Think
of the appropriate headings for your table and its title located on top (center). Smaller
tables with fewer data can be put on the same page with the text. If you need a bigger
table with large amount of data, this table can be put alone in one separate page
written in horizontal direction.
SAMPLE TEXT AND TABLE

Table 13 shows the frequency of respondents who use the simulator

to assess the security network of every department. It shows that only 12%

Table 13

Users of Simulator to Assess

Security of the Network Department

________________________________________________________
: Using the : Using the :
Department : Simulator : Conventional : Total
: f % : f % :
_________________________________________________________

Control : 2 12 : 15 88 : 17

Planning : 8 100 : 0 0 : 8

_________________________________________________________

Total : 10 15 25
_________________________________________________________

of the operations control department use the simulator. On the other hand, all or 100%
of the employees of the operations planning department use the simulator.
_________________________________________________________
Figure

A figure may be a graph, a drawing, or map. This usually is put alone in one
separate page with the title written below the graph. The following is an example of a
figure.
______________________________________________________________

Age JOB Performance

Work Experience
Position Rotation
Educaitonal Productivity
Attainment Scheme
Incentives
Salary Leadership

FEEDBACK

Figure 6. A Model to Evaluate the Effect

Of Job Rotation Using the System Approach
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 BIBLOGRAPHY

Drew, C. and Hart, A.(1996). Designing and Conducting Research. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.

Kerlinger, F. Foundations of Behavioral Research (2005). New York: Holt, Rinehart

And Winston.

Koul, L Methodoloy of Education Research (2004). New Delhi; Vikas Puslishing

House PVT LTD/

Srivastava, P. (200). Advanced Research Methodology. New Delhi: Radha

Publication.