Technologies For Printing Sensors and Electronics Over Large Flexible Substrates: A Review

3164 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 15, NO.
6, JUNE 2015
Technologies for Printing Sensors and Electronics

Over Large Flexible Substrates: A Review
Saleem Khan, Leandro Lorenzelli, Member, IEEE, and Ravinder S. Dahiya, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract— Printing sensors and electronics over flexible

substrates are an area of significant interest due to low-cost fab-
rication and possibility of obtaining multifunctional electronics
over large areas. Over the years, a number of printing technolo-
gies have been developed to pattern a wide range of electronic
materials on diverse substrates. As further expansion of printed
technologies is expected in future for sensors and electronics, it is
opportune to review the common features, the complementarities,
and the challenges associated with various printing technologies.
This paper presents a comprehensive review of various printing
technologies, commonly used substrates and electronic materials.
Various solution/dry printing and contact/noncontact printing
technologies have been assessed on the basis of technological,
materials, and process-related developments in the field. Fig. 1. The classification of common printing technologies.
Critical challenges in various printing techniques and potential
research directions have been highlighted. Possibilities of merging
various printing methodologies have been explored to extend are difficult to realize with the conventional wafer-based
the lab developed standalone systems to high-speed roll-to-roll fabrication techniques. The printed electronics on flexible
production lines for system level integration. substrates will enable conformable sensitive electronic systems
Index Terms— Printed sensors, printed electronics, flexible such as electronic skin that can be wrapped around the body
electronics, large area electronics, roll-to-roll, dispersion solution. of a robot or prosthetic hands [20]–[25]. Printed electronics
on polymer substrates has also opened new avenues for
low-cost fabrication of electronics on areas larger than
I. I NTRODUCTION
the standard wafers available commercially. In accordance
P RINTING technologies are aiding and revolutionizing

the burgeoning field of flexible/bendable sensors and
electronics by providing cost-effective routes for processing
with the electronics industry roadmap, the research in this
field is slowly inching towards a merge of well-established
microelectronics and the age-old printing technologies [26].
diverse electronic materials at temperatures that are compatible This is evidenced by development of devices such as, large
with plastic substrates. Simplified processing steps, reduced area printed pressure sensors [5], [27]–[29], radio frequency
materials wastage, low fabrication costs and simple patterning identification tags (RFID) [11], [12], solar cells [30], light
techniques make printing technologies very attractive for emitting diodes (LED) [13] and transistors [14].
the cost-effective manufacturing [16]–[18]. These features Traditional approaches for printing electronics and sensors
of printed electronics have allowed researchers to explore involve bringing pre-patterned parts of a module in contact
new avenues for materials processing and to develop sensors with the flexible (or non-flexible) substrates and transferring
and systems on even non-planar surfaces, which otherwise the functional inks or solutions onto them [6]–[9], [11], [13].
The two major approaches usually followed for development
Manuscript received June 16, 2014; revised November 10, 2014; accepted
November 11, 2014. Date of publication December 4, 2014; date of current of printing/coating system are contact and non-contact
version April 16, 2015. This work was supported in part by the Engineering printing, as shown in Fig. 1 and described later in Section IV.
and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) through the Fellowship In contact printing process, the patterned structures with inked
for Growth-Printable Tactile Skin under Grant EP/M002527/1, in part by
the European Commission under Grant PITN-GA-2012-317488-CONTEST, surfaces are brought in physical contact with the substrate.
and in part by the EPSRC-Flexible Electronic Device Modelling under In a non-contact process, the solution is dispensed through
Grant EP/M002519/1. The associate editor coordinating the review of this via openings or nozzles and structures are defined by moving
paper and approving it for publication was Prof. Zheng Cui.
S. Khan and L. Lorenzelli are with the University of Trento, Trento 38100, the stage (substrate holder) in a pre-programmed pattern.
Italy, and also with the Centre of Materials and Microsystems, Microsystems The contact-based printing technologies comprise of gravure
Technology Research Unit, Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento 38122, Italy printing, gravure-offset printing, flexographic printing and
(e-mail: skhan@fbk.eu; lorenzel@fbk.eu).
R. S. Dahiya is with the Electronics and Nanoscale Engineering Research R2R printing. The prominent non-contact printing techniques
Division, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, include screen-printing, slot-die coating and inkjet printing.
U.K. (e-mail: ravinder.dahiya@glasgow.ac.uk). The non-contact printing techniques have received greater
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. attractions due to their distinct capabilities such as simplicity,
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSEN.2014.2375203 affordability, speed, adaptability to the fabrication process,
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. For more information, see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
KHAN et al.: TECHNOLOGIES FOR PRINTING SENSORS AND ELECTRONICS: A REVIEW 3165
reduced material wastage, high resolution of patterns and three categories: (a) conductors; (b) semiconductors; and
easy control by adjusting few process parameters [17], [18], (c) dielectrics [19], [31], [35]–[37]. Beside these, some
[31]–[34]. Recently, the newly emerging polymeric stamp composite materials, having dual nature as insulator,
based printing methods such as nanoimprint, micro-contact ferroelectric, piezoelectric, piezoresistive, and photosensitive
printing and transfer printing have also attracted properties are also used in thin film printed devices. Hybrid
significant interest, especially for inorganic monocrystalline organic/inorganic materials have also been used to compensate
semiconductors based flexible electronics [19], [30], [33]–[37]. for the slow speed organic based electronic devices [34], [37].
This paper presents a survey of various printed electronics Majority of printable materials are in the form of solutions,
technologies. A few review articles reported in this field which require specific properties to allow proper printing on
previously have reviewed some of the printing technologies variety of plastic or paper substrates. For example, proper
individually [17]–[19], [30]–[37]. For example, the review dispersion of nanoparticles is essential to avoid agglomeration.
paper by Singh et al. [38] focusses on inkjet printing, Further, an acceptable level of chemical and physical stabil-
the one Schift et al. [39] focusses on nanoimprinting, itiesis needed to maintain a balance between Brownian and
Carlson et al. [40] have discussed transfer printing, gravitational motion of the particles. In the following sections,
Perl et al. [2] have presented review on microcontact we discuss the common organic/inorganic materials that are
printing and Søndergaard et al. [41] have discussed R2R suitable and easily processable through printing technologies.
fabrication. Differently from previous reviews, this survey
paper brings together various printing techniques and provides
a detailed discussion by also involving the key electronic A. Conducting Materials
and substrate materials, and the systems. Critical limitations Conducting materials are the main structural blocks of all
of each technology have been highlighted and potential electronic devices as they form the fundamental part of the
solutions or alternatives have been explored. This paper device layers or interconnections. Deposition techniques for
also evaluates printed electronics on the basis of electrical patterned metal structures and interconnects are now at mature
characteristics of the resulting devices or sensors and materials stage with possibility of obtaining structures with controlled
(organic/inorganic) they are made of. Often, the advantages of thickness and resolution. Various printing technologies require
printing technologies eclipse the challenges associated with a different set of parameters such as viscosity, surface tension,
them. As most of the printing technologies share common conductivity and compatibility of the solvents with the under-
processing techniques, the development of a common platform lying materials (in multilayer structures) (see Table II) [30].
is also explored assuming that the limitations of one method Therefore, a careful selection of appropriate conductive
could be overcome by the advantages of the others. material is needed by also taking into account the work func-
This paper is organized as follows: The Section II presents tion of the neighboring materials. Some of these metals have
various printable electronic materials and gives an overview of already secured their place in printing technologies by showing
solution processable conductors, semiconductors and dielectric good dispersing properties in the form of colloidal solutions.
materials (organic/inorganic) along with dry transferrable Properties of these solutions are adjusted according to the
inorganic monocrystalline materials. The substrate materials desired printing technology by using surfactants and volatile
are presented in Section III, where their physical and chemical additives. Amongst the list of metals practiced for printed
behavior to different classes of materials and the constraints in electronics, silver (Ag) based pastes and solutions are the
using them for different applications are also described. The choice of most of the researchers due to its good physical and
Section IV gives a thorough description of various non-contact electrical performance on plastic substrates [31], [33], [35].
and contact printing technologies utilized for deposition and Being counted in the category of precious metals, it cannot
patterning of solution based materials. A comprehensive serve the purpose of low cost flexible electronic devices,
survey of various process parameters, system and materials which is the true essence of printing technology. Besides silver
related requirements with illustrative examples of manufac- solutions, the carbon and copper based inks are also used. But
tured devices and circuits is also presented. This section oxidation of copper based inks after printing do not serve the
also discusses some of the non-conventional stamp printing purpose very well [30], [42].
techniques usually utilized for microcontact printing, nanoim- Mimicking metallic conductivity, crystalline organic con-
printing and dry transfer printing of monocrystalline inorganic ducting materials such as polyacetylene films combined with
semiconductors. Finally, the Section V summarizes the key p-dopants were first reported by Shirakawa et al. Soon after
observations and presents the future research directions. this discovery, the n-type materials were also investigated [43].
All these organic conducting materials are categorized as
intrinsic conducting polymers. Chemical structure of intrinsi-
II. P RINTABLE M ATERIALS
cally conductive polymers can be tailored to get desired elec-
The selection of colloidal solution with specific rheological tronic and mechanical properties [44]. The metallic conductors
properties for printed electronics is at the core of developing having work functions closely matching with the energy
a consistent manufacturing process. In order to achieve levels of p- and n-type semiconductors have already been
the goal of low-cost and lightweight printed electronics, developed. In contrast, for organic conductors, the materials
a large variety of materials (organic and inorganic) have having compatible work function with p-type semiconductors
been explored. These materials could be divided into are mostly reported [36], [44], [45]. Polyacetylene, polypyrrol,
3166 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 15, NO. 6, JUNE 2015
polyphenylene, poly (p-phenylene vinylene), polythiophene TABLE I

polyaniline, polyaniline doped with camphor sulfonic acid C OMPARISON OF P OLYMER S UBSTRATES [36], [56]–[60]
and PEDOT:PSS (3, 4-polyethylenedioxythiopene-polystyrene
sulfonic acid) are some of the most commonly reported
hole-injecting polymers used with organic semiconductors.
The PEDOT:PSS has been widely studied for transparent
conducting polymer anodes as it exhibits a very high
conductivity of about 300 S/cm. A detailed description of
these materials is given in [36]. Despite the attractions of
low cost and easy solution processing techniques the organic
conductors have far less conductivities than the conventional
metals such as Ag, which has conductivity of 6.30 × 107 S/m.
Another class of conducting polymers developed for
printing and flexible electronics is based on nanocomposites,
made by mixing of metallic nanoparticles with organic elas-
tomers such as (Poly (dimthylsiloxane) PDMS) [46], [47]. dry printing technique [62], [69]. Si can be solution processed
Conductivity of such composites is based on the percolation by using precursors or nanoparticles, but typically requires
threshold of the fillers. With different ratio of elastomer high annealing temperature (550–750 °C) in inert atmosphere
and nanofillers the flexible and stretchable conductive makes it incompatible with almost all plastic and paper
sheets and patterns have been investigated in [48]. Besides substrates. This is evident from Table I, where glass transi-
metallic nanoparticles fillers, the multi wall carbon nan- tion temperature (Tg) of various plastic substrates are given
otubes (MWCNT)/PDMS composites, reported recently, offer along with other properties. Oxides of transition metals are
a very attractive mechanical and electrical properties for large sometimes used in flexible electronics but through vacuum
area flexible electronics [46]–[50] and touch sensors [27]–[29]. deposition techniques other than printing. ZnO and GIZO
A challenging issue with nanocomposite materials is the can be solution processed and even printed but sintering
proper dispersion of nanofillers in the base polymer, which temperature of 300–500 °C is necessary to achieve optimum
greatly affects the rheological properties of the mixture to be mobility [19], [70]. Very few works have been reported on
printed. The particle agglomeration in such nanocomposites solution processed inorganic semiconductors and their com-
affects the printability and uniformity of the layer after printing patibility with the usual printing techniques [19], [31], [71].
as compared to other printable solutions. To overcome this From printability viewpoint, the solubility and proper
problem and to enhance the final dispersion the nanofillers dispersion of organic semiconductors are the important
are first added to a dispersant solution and then mixed with parameters. Commonly used solution processed organic semi-
the base polymer [48]. Due to unique electrical, mechanical conductors, having acceptable charge transport and mobility
and optical properties, the printable solutions of graphene include regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), poly
(conductivity of ∼1.00×108 S/m) and carbon nanotube (CNT) (triarylamine), poly(3,3-didodecyl quaterthiophene) (PQT),
are also in vogue nowadays for flexible electronics [51]–[55]. poly(2,5-bis(3-tetradecyllthiophen-2-yl) and thieno[3,2-b]
Due to their distinctive properties, graphene and CNTs have thiophene) (PBTTT) [36], [44]. Fullerenes and solution
also garnered recently a significant attention as potential processable derivatives such as phenyl-C61-butyric acid
candidate for the replacement of ITO [31], [35], [36], [44]. methyl ester (PCBM) blended with P3HT are some of the
commonly used electron donor and acceptors in the bulk
B. Semiconductor Materials heterojunction devices [54], [72]. Additionally carbon
nanotubes and graphene are also currently under investigation
Semiconductor materials are critical components for devel- due to their high-mobility [73]. Stability and reliability
oping active electronic and sensing devices. The transduction of organic materials for long time processing is very
of free carriers within the semiconductor dielectric interface is challenging especially the low ionization energies are prone
usually the focal points in development of electronic devices to oxidation which results in slow responses and degradability
and systems. Like conducting materials discussed above for of the devices. Further, developing printable n-type organic
printing technologies, the organic/inorganic semiconducting semiconductor is challenging due to instability which is
materials are also used for printable sensors and electronics. becoming one of the serious obstacles in development of
Inorganic materials have superior properties in terms of organic CMOS devices [74], [75].
performance and stability while solution processable organic
semiconductors are attractive due to low cost processing at
ambient environment and flexibility. Examples of inorganic C. Dielectrics
semiconductors commonly used for flexible electronics are For applications requiring high capacitancein multilayered
Si [61]–[65], oxides of transition metals [66], [67] and chalco- printed structures, thin layers of dielectric materials are
genides [68]. Apart from chemical vapor deposition (CVD) essential for proper insulation to prevent leakage currents
of amorphous silicon for large area flexible electronics, and sometimes to obtain low voltage operation for field
crystalline Si is also used in flexible electronics by employing effect devices. A uniform layer of dielectric is needed to
TABLE II
C OMPARISON OF VARIOUS P RINTING T ECHNIQUES
promote the activation of the medium caused by electric

field or other transduction phenomena. Inorganic materials,
such as silica, alumina, and other high permittivity oxides
often used in electronics on flexible substrates are usually not
printable [17]–[19], [31]–[33]. Low cost organic dielectric
materials that are available in large quantities and can be
dissolved in various solvents and solution can be printed
easily as compared to inorganic counterparts. In most of the
printed electronics, semiconductor/dielectric interface is of
prime importance for the high performance and stability of the
devices. Self-assembled monolayers are sometimes used for
modification of the dielectric surface. Some of the commonly
used organic dielectric materials in printed electronics are
poly (4-vinylphenol) (PVP), poly (methyl methacrylate), Fig. 2. Glass transition temperatures of commonly used plastic substrates in
Polyethylene Terephthalate, Polyimide, Polyvinyl alcohol printed sensors and electronics.
and Polystyrene. [17], [18], [31]. Besides dielectric layer in
electronic devices, solution processed organic dielectric mate-
rials are also used for final encapsulation of printed devices. Plastic materials are the potential candidates for applications
requiring high degree of bendability, transparency and
III. S UBSTRATES FOR F LEXIBLE S ENSORS emissive properties. Plastic materials provide a reasonable
AND E LECTRONICS tradeoff between physical, chemical, mechanical and optical
It is the flexibility of the polymer substrates, which is performance as described in Table I. In addition, the
providing grounds for low cost high-speed manufacturing of central idea of the low cost flexible electronics (e.g. R2R
devices over large areas using various printing technologies manufacturing) is feasible with plastic substrates. The main
in a R2R production line. To replace planar rigid substrates, issue in use of plastic substrates is the lower glass transition
the flexible substrates are required to possess properties such temperatures (Tg ) (Fig. 2), which limits its utility to organic
as dimensional stability, thermal stability, low coefficient materials. Polymer substrates are divided into three main
of thermal expansion (CTE), excellent solvent resistance groups [56], [57] i.e. semi-crystalline, amorphous and solution
and good barrier properties for moisture and gases. There cast amorphous. Semi-crystalline polymers used in flexible
are three types of substrates that could be employed electronics include polyethylene terephthalate (PET), heat
for flexible electronic devices: thin glass, metal foils and stabilized PET, polyethylene napthalate (PEN), and heat
plastics [56], [57], [76]. Thin glass is bendable but the intrinsic stabilized PEN and polyetheretherketone (PEEK). Amorphous
brittle property limits its utility in flexible electronics. Metal polymer substrates include polycarbonate (PC) and Polyether-
foils on the other hand can sustain very high temperatures sulphone (PES), which are non-crystalline thermoplastics that
and provide a window for inorganic materials to be deposited can be melt-extruded or solvent casted [77]. Some of the
on it but the surface roughness and high cost of the materials amorphous group that cannot be melt processed include such
hinder its use for flexible electronics. as modified polycarbonate (PC), Polyethersulphone (PES),
polyarylate (PAR), polycyclic olefin (PCO) or medical packaging. In nutshell, to replace planar substrates,
polynorbonene (PNB) and polyimide (PI). These substrate the polymer substrates should mimic their properties such as
materials are discussed in detail in [36], [56], and [57]. dimensional stability, thermal stability, low CTE, excellent
The semi-crystalline polymer substrates with Tg higher than solvent resistance and good barrier properties for moisture,
140 °C (e.g. heat stabilized PET and PEN) generally tend to air and gases [56], [57], [76].
have high melting points, which allows the polymers to be
melt processed without significant degradation [56]. Except IV. P RINTING T ECHNOLOGIES
polyimide, which can be yellow as well as transparent, all The development of thin film devices either by the use
other polymeric substrates given in Table I meet the optical of printingor coating of hybrid organic/inorganic materials
clarity requirements. The effect of thermal stress and mismatch is one of the many ways explored to simplify processing
between the CTE of substrates and the deposited material are steps, facilitate location specific deposition and enhance the
critical for efficient performance of the electronic devices. production speed. The chemical solution or nanoparticles of
Due to this CTE mismatch, the deposited layers become functional materials are used in the form of colloidal solution
strained and crack under thermal cycling. For example, in in most of printing technologies. These solutions are deposited
the temperature range from room temperature up to Tg , the directly on rollable substrates using controlled dispensing
CTE for flexible substrates such as PEN and PET, the typical processes or coated on substrates using controlled pressures
is 18-20 ppm and 20-25 ppm respectively. This means if and speeds [34], [71], [95], [96], [118]. The key benefit of
material with different CTE (e.g. amorphous polymers have printing techniques is the reduction in material wastages, as
CTE 50ppm/°C below Tg ) deposited on top of these substrates the solution is printed on the defined location in single step
can expand 3 times, above the Tg value of the substrates, and the residual solution is collected back for subsequent use.
ultimately causing undesirable mismatch in the fabricated These dispensing and coating processes have led to promising
structures vis-à-vis original layout [56], [78]. A low CTE results especially with organic materials, as organic thin
(typically < 20ppm/°C) is desirable to match the thermal film transistors (TFT), OLEDs, sensors, solar cells, RFID
expansion of the substrate to the subsequent layers which are tags, printed batteries and capacitors have been demonstrated,
deposited on top of it. summarized in Table III [16]–[18], [31], [32]. An important
Applications such as RFID, sensors, active matrix benefit of printing technologies is that they enable production
backplane, OTFTs and OLEDs etc. also affect the choice of large area electronics and sensors by R2R manufacturing
of substrate. While substrate related tolerance is acceptable in a cost effective way.
in some applications but the requirements are stringent for Printing technologies are divided into two broad categories,
others. For display applications, optical clarity is important as shown in Fig. 1. The non-contact and contact-based pattern-
where a total light transmission (TLT) of > 85% over a ing discussed in this section follow the classification given
wavelength range of 400-800nm are required [10], [36], [56]. in Fig. 1 and the state of the art, the pros/cons and the
This is only required for light emission through substrates challenges of these printing techniques are discussed below.
in bottom-emission and electrophoretic displays, whereas for
top-surface emission of light, optical clarity of the substrate is
not essential. The physical forms of the substrates i.e. flatness, A. Non-Contact Printing Technologies
light weight, ruggedness, conformable, rollable/foldable and 1) Screen Printing: Screen-printing is the most popular
ease of handling are some of the features that affect their and matured technology for printed electronics as it has
selection. Similarly, the Tg is of paramount importance been practiced in electronics industry for quite some time
as it limits the use of materials (organic/inorganic) due to now to print metallic interconnects on printed circuit boards.
incompatibility in terms of processing temperature. It is faster and more versatile in comparison to other
Upper processing temperature (Tm) is another important printing tools, as it adds simplicity, affordability, speed
parameter that should be considered in addition to dimen- and adaptability to the fabrication process. The results
sional stability due to thermal stresses. As in traditional paper from screen-printing can be reproduced by repeating a few
printing, a wide range of chemicals and surfactants are used steps and an optimum operating envelope can be developed
to adjust the properties of the solution for efficient transfer quickly [18], [31], [72], [118]–[120].
of the ink from system to substrate [56], [57]. Some of these Two different assemblies of screen printers i.e. flatbed and
polymer substrates (amorphous) are poor resistant to solvent rotary are used for R2R manufacturing described in Fig. 3(a-b)
absorption as compared to semi-crystalline polymers. This respectively [18]. Screen printer has simple setup comprising
issue is very critical for sensors application where a slight of screen, squeegee, press bed, and substrate, as shown in
modulation in transducer values can affect the whole process. Fig. 3. In flatbed, the ink poured on the screen is squeegeed
Humidity has a major effect on the polymer material used to move across the screen resulting in its transfer through the
for flexible substrates affecting the resistivity to a significant stencil openings to the substrate beneath it. For optimization of
value. Absorption of water adds to the increase in weight the materials and processing steps, flat bed screen-printing is
of the substrate and also alters the dielectric constant for a powerful tool for small laboratory systems. Flatbed screens
the capacitive sensors. To overcome this issue, a thin barrier can be substituted by rotary screen for continuous processing
coating of transparent oxides is applied on the surfaces of in which the web of the screen is folded while the squeegee
polymer substrates, especially for sensors used in food and and ink are placed inside the tube.
TABLE III
C OMPARISON OF E LECTRICAL C HARACTERIZATION R ESULTS OF S AMPLE D EVICES D EVELOPED
W ITH D IFFERENT P RINTING T ECHNOLOGIES AND M ATERIALS
lower viscosity inks will simply run through the mesh rather
than dispensing out of the mesh [34], [92]. Without giving
any consideration to proper tuning of the ink properties and
mesh count, the nominal values of 50-100µm are common
print resolutions and wet thicknesses of a few microns. The
possibility of printing relatively thick layers could enable
printing of low-resistance structures, also with conducting
polymers, by compensating the high volume resistivity with
a thicker layer [31].
In addition, a compromise between surface energies of
substrates and surface energies of the inks is important for
high-resolution line widths [92], [93], [97]. The reduced
surface energies of the substrates reduce the wettability of
the solution, which results in improved line resolution. If the
critical surface tension of a substrate is lower than the surface
energies of inks, good resolution can be achieved even with
low viscosity inks. Although high viscous inks are required
to minimize ink flow on the substrate, the low viscosity is
desirable to dispense the solution through the mesh to realize
structures with fine edges and resolution. In this scenario,
Fig. 3. (a) The flatbed Screen printing with planar substrates under screen
and squeegee for solution dispensing. (b) Rotary screen printer with moving the low viscosity inks are preferred as the wettability of the
substrate (web) between cylindrical mask and impression cylinder. substrate can be controlled by adjusting the surface energies
of the substrate. The low viscosity inks possess high degree
Relatively high speeds can be achieved by rotary screen of flowability, which reduces the chances of mask blockage,
as compared to flatbed, but the screens for rotary setup are and leads to even edges of printed lines and, smooth surface
expensive and very difficult to clean [18], [121]. Although of the printing films [92], [93].
a very simple process, the print quality and characteristics Material, strength and number of meshes in screen also
are affected by various factors such as solution viscosity, play a major role in high-resolution patterning, as screen
printing speed, angle and geometry of the squeegee, is developed by using different sizes of mesh openings and
snap off between screen and substrate, mesh size and several materials ranging from polyester to stainless steel. The
material [91], [118], [122]. The paste viscosity and surface technological development in the screen mesh is made by
tension of the substrate are important for complete dispensing modifying the silk strength by using materials such as nylon,
of the paste through the screen mask. Screen printing tech- polyester and stainless steel. The increase in the strength of
nique is usually compatible with the high-viscosity inks as the the mesh wire material used in the screen mask and the mesh
Fig. 5. (top) Scheme of pressure sensors array. (bottom) Screen-printed

piezoresistive sensors array using MWCNT/PDMS nanocomposites.
Fig. 4. Screen printed pressure sensors on large flexible polyimide films. patterns and protective polymer layers are also screen-
(a) Inside view between two PI films, including a resistance layer, posts, and printed [91], [94], [120]. Screen printing of cobalt hydroxide
electrodes. (b) Flexible sensor with bump structures on the top film [5].
has been reported for obtaining supercapacitors [126]. The
Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography is used in a
count result in improved printing quality. For printing stability simulated R2R process for monitoring the structural properties
during mass production, a screen made of stainless steel mesh of moving screen printed interdigitated electrodes [127].
with three times more in strength than conventional stainless Unlike many other manufacturing techniques, the
steel mesh has also been developed [122], [123]. screen-printing does not require high capital investment.
The feasibility of screen-printing for flexible electronics Accompanied by some supplemental methods such as
has been demonstrated through a number of printed sensors, inkjet technology, vapor deposition and laser processing,
electronics devices and circuits. For example, all screen printed screen-printing is employed in most of the production lines
TFTs have been demonstrated in [119], [124], and [125]. of printed electronics. Using the supplemental technologies
Screen printing was claimed to be used for the first time often results in cost reduction [123], [128]. Despite these
to develop OLEDs by investigation the process and solution attractions, screen-printing also poses a few challenges for
parameters i.e. viscosity of the solution and mesh count of developing all layers of a flexible device. These include, high
the screen [122]. Multilayer high-density flexible electronic wet thickness of the film, exposure of the ink to atmosphere
circuits, connected through micro via holes with embedded and the dry out of the ink on the mask that deteriorates the
passive and optical devices, have been realized by using mask designs of the screen [72]. However, the advantages
advanced screen printing processes [118]. Screen-printing is such as high definition and high precision of multilayer
also used for patterning to develop shadow masks for fabri- structures add to the figure of merits of the screen printing
cation of organic TFT. Screen printed electrical interconnects techniques as compared to other deposition techniques for
for temperature sensor on PET substrate are reported in [93]. large-scale production.
The large area flexible pressure sensor shown in Fig. 4 2) Inkjet Printing: Inkjet printing is the rapidly emerging
is fabricated by utilizing two polyimide films as top and technique for direct patterning of solution based materials
bottom films and connecting the electronic circuits through deposition. Materials in the form of colloidal or chemical
micro via holes. Fig. 5 shows all screen printed pressure solution are deposited through a micrometer sized inkjet
sensors developed by using piezoelectric Poly(vinylidene- nozzle head. A number of mechanisms for actuation of
fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (PVDF-TrFE) and piezoresistive inkjet nozzle head have been developed. Among these,
multi wall carbon nanotubes (CNT) in Poly(dimethylsiloxane) the most prominent techniques are thermal, piezoelectric
(MWCNT/PDMS) nanocomposite materials [27]–[29]. All and electrohydrodynamic inkjet systems. Droplets (often
structures of metal plates, interconnects and sensitive materials called Drop-on-Demand (DoD)) of very small dimensions
are deposited by using screen-printing technology. All struc- are ejected at the corresponding pulse generated by either
tural features of a humidity sensor including the interconnect thermal or piezoelectric actuators used in the inkjet nozzle
Fig. 6. (a) Schematic diagram of the piezoelectric inkjet head, with

PZT actuator [1]. (b) Schematic description of Electrohydrodynamic inkjet
system. Electric field is generated between nozzle and counter electrode [15].
(c) Description of an Electrospray system with complete setup [19]–[21].
head [38], [98], [112], [129]. The Fig. 6(a-b) shows the mecha-
nism of droplets actuation through piezoelectric and electrohy-
drodynamic setups. In electrohydrodynamic printing, solution
is ejected by generating a high electric field between the
nozzle and a counter electrode. A stable cone jet is the primary
requirement of electrohydrodynamic inkjet system. The type Fig. 7. (A) GaIn24.5 based liquid alloy directly printed on coated paper by
of applied voltage defines the mode of ink ejection from the a dispenser printer and optical images for various conductive wires on coated
paper: (1) Manufacturing process of printed electronics. The inset shows
nozzle. DC voltage results in an intact jet while AC voltage the regular bending circuit; (2) Metal conductor lines covered with silicone
at different frequencies and functions define the drop-on- rubber; (3) Multi-layer structure or electrical nodes; (4) Three dimensional
demand mode of the system. An intact jet can be utilized for structure of printed conductor on paper; (5) Galvanical annulus wire attached
with LED. (B) Optical images for printed functional components on coated
continuous patterning of solution as well as drop-on-demand paper: (1) Inductance coil; (2) RFID antenna; (3) Demonstration of flexibility
similar to thermal and piezoelectric nozzle heads [130]. of printed electronics [12].
Another interesting feature of electrohydrodynamic printing
is the spray coating of colloidal solutions shown in Fig. 6(c). using inkjet printing and vacuum drying process [95].
Thickness in the range of nanometers can easily be achieved Complementary circuits composed of pentacene and a xylene
just by increasing the electric field value along with the carboxylic diimide derivative of p- and n-channel TFTs are
distance between nozzle and substrate. A very fine layer of also fabricated on flexible foils. Staggered configuration of
conductor, semiconductor and insulator can easily be deposited TFTs is followed for development of a flexible CMOS device,
by adjusting the conductivity and viscosity of the solutions to by printing both the n- and p-type organic materials separately
obtain a stable cone jet. This technique has been successfully using inkjet technology. The misalignment between energy
utilized in fabrication of a range of electronic devices and levels due to the wide band gap of organic materials results
in biological systems [71], [131]–[133]. Besides electrospray in large barriers for charge injection, causing in reduced
deposition, some researchers are also exploring “Aerospray” performance of the circuit [99]. Resistors, capacitors and
for thin film deposition and patterning of electronic inductors are developed using inkjet printing on polyimide
materials [134], [135]. substrate with various functional inks [96]. Inkjet in
Inkjet printing has been used to fabricate TFT consisting of comparison to flexography, spin coated and gravure printing
ZnO and PVP as the active device region and gate dielectric generally results in rougher and far less uniform morphologies
respectively [136]. A high performance n-channel transistor with only partial uniform coverage of the channel region [83].
with uniform amorphous C60 Fullerene is developed by Fig. 7 shows pictures of different patterned structures and
Fig. 9. (a) Schematic of a Gravure printing system. (b) Gravure printed

structures on flexible substrate [4].
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic view of the slot-die roll coating of the active
layer (yellow) and the semitransparent anode (blue) on top of a flexible stand-off between slot die and moving substrate, and speed
cathode-coated substrate (pink). (b) Photograph of a roll coater depositing
the active layer. (c) Close-up photograph of the slot-die head during coating of of the substrate in the second step [86], [87]. The solution
an active layer stripe. (d) Photograph of a slot-die–coated LEC, illustrating the is poured from top through a via-opening shown in Fig. 8(a),
bidirectional light emission and the device conformability. (e) Light emission and substrate mounted on the rotating cylinder Fig. 8(b). This
from a semitransparent slot-die–coated LEC following >6 months storage in
a glove box [13]. type of coating is favorable for large areas, but pattering of
high resolution structures is difficult to obtain. That is why
this technique is usually practiced for large area devices i.e.
devices realized by using inkjet printer on a paper substrate. light emitting diodes and solar cells. Fig. 8(d) shows image
Chemical stability, solubility in common solvents, inexpensive of a slot-die-coated light emitting electrochemical cell.
solution and low temperature processing are some of the key An operating envelope is usually developed for an optimized
requirements of inkjet printable materials alongside excellent process by using the maximum and minimum coating speeds.
charge transport properties in ambient conditions. The operation is affected by various coating defects such
Development of colloidal solution for proper ejection of as dripping, air entrainment, ribbing, start-up and shut-down
droplets on a targeted area by keeping an acceptable quality periods of coating cycle. Inefficient control of the printing
of the printed circuits is challenging due to the influence of process results in wastage of the coating solution and also
evaporation rate of the solvents and orientation of the active affects the shape of the patterns on the substrate by introducing
particles. Slow speed due to limited number of nozzles and the edge effects [88]–[90]. Increased fluid viscosity, slot gap,
possible clogging renders to the complexities of the inkjet coating gap and decreased dip lip length reduce the size of the
system. Low throughput due to slow speed of inkjet printing coating bead, which consequently shortens the time required
process is a challenge for becoming an industrial production to reach steady state condition [89]. The stability issues related
technique for printed electronics instead of its very promising with this process makes it challenging to adapt this method
results on laboratory scale. Low pattern resolution in the for printing electronics on flexible substrates.
range of 20-50 µm and more, adds to the issues of inkjet
system due to the spreading of solution on target substrate
and chaotic behavior of droplets during the time of flight. B. Contact Printing Technologies
Necessary modifications to the viscosity, concentration and 1) Gravure Printing: Gravure printing utilizes direct
solvent system are needed for proper ejection of the droplets transfer of functional inks through physical contact of the
without blocking the nozzle. Spreading of droplets, bulging engraved structures with the substrate. It is capable of
out of the ink after sintering due to hydrophobic substrates, producing high quality patterns in a cost-effective manner
shape, thickness and morphology of the dried droplets has to typical of a R2R process. The gravure printing tools consist
be controlled [34], [121]. Different techniques for controlling of a large cylinder electroplated with copper and engraved
wetting/dewetting of printed patterns on flexible substrates with micro cells, as shown in Fig. 9. The microcells
are already under investigation and techniques like modifying are engraved either by using electromechanical means or
surface properties of substrates by plasma treatment [137], using laser [18], [33], [121], [141]. Engraved cylinder is
localized micro-plasma treatment [138], tailoring adhesion and electroplated with chrome to protect it from wear and tear
cohesion of ink particles within and with substrates [139], and during the ink transfer and contact with the substrate. Engraved
adding gelating polymers [140] have been developed. cells are filled with the ink either by using a reservoir beneath
3) Slot Die Coating: Slot die coating is a direct way of rotating gravure cylinder or through a nozzle dispenser from
developing R2R process whereby solution is coated on the top, as shown in Fig. 9(a). A doctor blade is used for removing
substrate by dispensing as shown in Fig. 8. Slot die coating extra ink from the rotating cylinder. Ink is transferred through
process can be divided into two steps, a uniform flow of capillary action onto a rollable substrate when it comes in
the coating solution achieved (Fig. 8(a)) in the first step between the engraved and impression cylinders. Surface prop-
is followed by adjusting the operating variables like the erties of the substrate are also modified to facilitate the transfer
of ink from the cells. Solution properties and cell width/depth

ratio play major role in gravure printing along with other
system parameters [121]. The low viscosity inks (Table II)
are often used to prevent ink bleed out from the gravure cells.
The low viscosity ink also speeds up the process, and allows
emptying of the cells achieving better line resolution [142].
Smoothness, compressibility, porosity, ink receptivity,
wettability, viscosity, solvent evaporation rate, drying, doctor
blade angle and pressure, impression pressure, printing speed
and uniformity of the gravure cylinder diameter are few of the
parameters defining the printed results on flexible substrates.
Experimental results show that the rate of ink transfer
increases with increase in the surface energy and contact angle
of the lower plate due to the strong adherence of ink to the
substrate [143]. For efficient transfer of the ink, proper ratio of
the cells width and depth (usually 7-8) is required [4]. This in
turn facilitates uniformity and critically avoiding the crossover
of neighboring pattern lines. Keeping the cell spacing at a
proper ratio (usually between 1.06-1.4) [4], results in a fairly
uniform lines otherwise increasing the ratio results in scalloped
lines on the targeted substrates, which greatly degrade the
print quality. The maximum acceptable inconsistency in the
cell size and spacing is less than 1 µm. Optimum dimensions
of the features on gravure cylinder are required which not
only promises of less drop spacing but also has an adequate Fig. 10. (a) Schematic circuit diagram for 13.56-MHz-operated 1-bit
RF tag. (b-1) R2R gravure-printed antennas, electrodes and wires using silver-
cell emptying capability [4]. The effect of shear force in the ink. (b-2) Printed layers of dielectric ink at selected spots. (c) Gravure
printing mechanism also has significant importance in gravure printer with two printing units. (d) Image of printed 13.56-MHz-operated
printing. The amount of transferred ink is enhanced as a 1-bit RF tags [11].
result of decrement in the internal angle between the printing
direction and the pattern-line direction, which increases the
shear force. Experiments have shown magnifying dependence
of the transferred ink on the angle between printing direction
and the pattern-line direction [80]. If the line width is very
narrow and the effect of the sidewalls is not negligible, it can
be assumed that the sidewalls disturb the transfer ink more
significantly along the cross direction than in the pattern-line
direction [80].
Fig. 10 shows scheme of a fully gravure printed
13.56-MHz 1-bit RF tag obtained by printing conductive
patterns and dielectric layers as precursors at different stages
of the gravure system. Gravure printing based bottom gated
TFTs, ring oscillators, solar cells, LEDs and sensors have been
reported in literature [4], [33], [75], [121], [142]–[144]. Printed
lines showed overlay printing registration accuracy (OPRA) of
Fig. 11. Schematic of a typical micro-gravure-offset printing process. Plate
±10 µm. Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are used cylinder picks up the solution and transfers it to the blanket cylinder, which
as semiconducting layer in all gravure-printed TFTs reducing ultimately transfers the solution onto the substrate moving between impression
electrical fluctuations by controlling the OPRA and edge wavi- and blanket cylinders [9].
ness of conductive patterns [4], [73], [75], [80], [144], [145].
Major obstacle that gravure printer is facing, is of printing
lines with high resolution i.e. less than 20 µm [121]. The printing technology. Achieving the goals of getting small
inability to produce uniform structures with sharp edge pattern channel lengths, enhancing printing resolution with proper
lines [Fig. 9(b)] restricts the utility of gravure printing to circuits design in order to avoid parasitic capacitances and
fabrication of such layers in electronic devices, which do gate overlaps are restricted by the limitations of the existing
not require patterns of very high resolution. For this reason, technology [33], [75], [146].
gravure printing has been used for fabrication of organic 2) Gravure-Offset Printing: Gravure-offset printing is an
flexible LEDs and photovoltaic devices. The frequent advanced version of gravure printing in which an extra elastic
replacement of gravure cylinders after continuous use in blanket (Fig. 11) is used to avoid damages to the cylinder due
roll-to-roll (R2R) system adds to the maintenance cost of to direct contact with the substrate [18], [147]. This elastic
blanket picks up the ink from the grooves of the cylinder and
transfers it to the targeted surface. Printing velocity, pressure
and blanket’s thickness are some of the process parameters
that affect consistency of the printing results. Dependence on
the printing speed and blanket’s thickness are more dominant
parameters due to the minimal contact time between ink and
the blanket [80], [121], [143].
Electronic devices like TFT, resistors, RFID, sensors
and solar cells have been developed with gravure-offset
printing [73], [144], [145]. An overlay accuracy of ±50µm is
maintained during the entire printing process. Non-availability
of proper printed inks for high frequency operations Fig. 12. Flexographic printing. Annilox cylinder picks up the ink from
(>13.56MHz) diodes, adds to the complexities of solution chamber, transfers it to the plate cylinder having raised structures,
the development of gravure-offset printed electronic which ultimately transfers the ink onto the substrates running between the
plate and the impression cylinders [8].
systems [11], [79], [81]–[83].
Reliability of the gravure-offset printer is very critical
for its application in printed electronics [82]. Several forces
are involved in transfer of the ink including adhesive force High concentrations of solutions are desired for good
between the blanket and the ink, cohesive force within the conductivities (in case of metallic inks), however this leads
ink, adhesive force between the ink and gravure and adhesive to high viscosities which do not fall into the operating
force between ink and substrate. Surface energies of the envelope of typical flexographic printing [8], [84], [148].
blanket along with roll speed and pressure play important role Patterns with resolution between 50-100µm are reported in
in the strong adhesion between solution and the substrate. literature and with proper control of process parameters and
Proper manipulation of all these forces is important to pick substrate surface properties, this could be reduced to around
and dispense the solvent on polymer substrate. Nearly 100% 20µm [8], [84], [148]. Flexographically printed films are
transfer of ink is desirable as any open holes or missing of reported to be uniform and slightly less smooth than the
dispense could possibly result in broken patterns and hence spin-coated/gravure printed films [83]. However, flexographic
result in failure of the printed features [143]. Fast rolling printing is susceptible to film instability and dewetting, which
speed and non-uniform pressure may affect the print quality facilitate many defects such as open lines, overlapped lines and
and reliability of the printing process [81]. The wave-like edge waviness effects. Controlling the waviness of the print
edges of printed patterns and blank areas are attributed to edges is very important especially in the case of antennas and
fast rolling speed and non-uniform pressure. Another issue RF performance. These issues can be resolved by controlling
related to this is the lifespan of the blanket, which is shortened load pressure and cells aspect ratio.
by the continuous absorbance of the solvent. This results in Being dependent on the picked-up ink by the printing
reduced ink viscosity and affects the final pattern widths on the cylinder with engraved trenches (like in the gravure printing),
substrates by spread out during the set process. A successful flexography is an inconvenient way of getting continuous
printed device needs all the subsequent layers to be smooth printing patterns in case if any of the cells is blocked or eroded
and evenly deposited with defect-free layers [83]. by continuous operations. Also due to the inclusion of flexible
3) Flexographic Printing: Flexographic printing is used for plate for transferring ink onto substrate, the actual pattern lines
high speed runs of printed electronics and is more attractive tend to diverge from the targeted resolutions as the patterns on
than gravure and offset for high resolution patterns [18]. the flexible or polymer plate deform due to applied pressure.
A wide variety of ink (solvent-based, water-based, electron- This is a bottleneck in the way of creating narrower pattern
beam curing inks, UV curing inks and two part chemically lines on flexible substrates for high-resolution devices and
curing inks etc.) can be printed by flexographic printing with structures [8], [10], [34], [84], [148]. An optimum range of
a rubber or polymer plate having raised patterns that are width and thickness is needed for the printed patterns to
developed by photolithography and are attached to a cylinder decrease the ohmic losses and also increase efficiency of
as shown in Fig. 12. On contact with the inked areas of the printed devices [97]. For thick film deposition through
the annilox cylinder, these raised patterns on plate cylinder flexographic, several printing passes with similar parameters
(Fig. 12) serve to print on the substrate running between are required, which also minimizes sheet resistance. Repeating
print/plate and impression cylinders. This results in uniform the same procedures need proper alignment of the equipment
thin layers and offers improved pattern reliability and sharper for subsequent layers which adds to the complexities of
edges than gravure printing. Annilox roll primary controls the the system [85]. The current technology limits the highly
quantity of ink to be transferred to the plate and to the substrate desirable features such as high switching speed and reduced
subsequently. The annilox volume i.e. size and frequency supply voltage that are needed for many applications. These
of engraved cells strongly affects the printed network tracks limitations result in degraded device parameters like charge-
and sheet resistance. Filling the engraved annilox requires a carrier mobility, parasitic capacitances and overlay precision
delicate balance between mixture of nanoparticles and carrier registration accuracy [75]. Challenges to be overcome for fine
fluid. patterning are surface irregularities and pores, nonuniform
Fig. 13. Microcontact printing (µCP) steps: (a) prepolymer poured on a

photo-lithographically structured master, (b) curing of prepolymer and peeling
off the elastomer stamp, (c) the stamp is cut in smaller pieces, (d) the stamp
is inked by soaking it in an ink solution, (e) printing ink by contacting the
stamp with a suitable surface, and (f) patterned substrate [7]. Fig. 14. SEM image of 100nm wide Au lines by µCP using heavy-weight
dendritic thioethers as inks and octadecanethiol as backfilling agent [2].
films, ragged lines and non-availability of suitable functional enough in order to release the inked material from the stamp.
materials [149]. Therefore, the surface chemistries of the stamp and substrate
4) Micro-Contact (µCP): For microcontact printing (µCP), are very important for efficient transfer. A proper ratio of
a conformal contact of patterned elastomeric stamp with height to width of the feature is required to avoid collapsing of
target surface is the key requirement for successful transfer stamp during peeling or capillary action during inking [106].
of structures. Proper control and alignment of the stamps In order to make conformal contact with the substrate, the
on micrometer scale is required. Microcontact printing has stamp must be flexible enough and also must have sufficient
the ability to produce multiple copies of 2-dimensional mechanical strength to maintain the topographical features
patterns by using patterned stamp developed through master during the printing process. The interaction of stamp, ink and
mold [7], [102]–[104]. Poly(dimthylsiloxane) (PDMS) is the substrate needs to be optimal to guarantee efficient delivery of
frequently used elastomer due to its extraordinary properties ink only in the areas of contact. Fig. 14 shows SEM image of
as compared to other elastomers such as Polyurethanes, 100nm wide gold (Au) patterns developed by using µCP [2].
Polyimides, and cross-linked Novolac resin. Properties The flexible nature of stamp prohibits for going down for
which distinguish PDMS from rest of the elastomers include sub-micron features as the small features tend to collapse
conformability to large area, deformable to conform onto and larger noncontact areas tend to sag upon contact with
nonplanar surfaces, elasticity for easy release, low surface free the substrate. Polar molecules are difficult to print due to the
energy, chemical inertness, homogeneous, isotropic, optically hydrophobic nature of PDMS stamp, as a result insufficient
transparent and durability for multiple uses [7], [104]. ink is picked up by the stamp to transfer onto substrate [7].
Microcontact printing is an effective technique for preparation Challenges in µCP include diffusion of SAM-forming
of substrates and patterning a wide range of materials, which molecules to areas not contacted by the stamp, broadening
are sensitive to light, and etchants. The master mold on a of features and blurring of feature edge. Furthermore,
silicon wafer is often prepared with standard photolithography µCP requires precise adjustment of the surface energies
as shown in Fig. 13. Features are then replicated by pouring for efficient transfer either by chemical modification or
in the elastomer, which takes the shape of patterned mold topography for the direct transfer from mold to the first or
Fig. 13(b-c). Photolithography is used for high resolutions and subsequent substrates [2], [34], [151]. Swelling of the soft
complex structures by incorporating microfluidic channels. polymer used for transferring micrometer-scaled patterns is
Computer controlled milling machine is also used to develop another issue encountered in µCP, which often results in
master molds for microcontact printing in order to make increased feature sizes. Excess ink can also enhance diffusion
route for researcher having no facilities of clean room of the imprinted molecules on the surface accompanied by
environments [7], [150]. Surfaces like silicon, thick layers of diffusion of non-covalently-bound molecules after printing.
SiO2 , PMMA and polypropylene are reported to be scribed by Deformation of the PDMS stamps due to their elastomeric
milling machine of which glass and PMMA could be scribed nature, such as pairing, buckling or roof collapse of structures
more satisfactorily than other materials [150]. Review of the during contact with the surfaces is a problem that results in
evolution of microcontact printing over past few years categor- distorted patterns. Contamination of the patterns, influence
ically discussing the improvements made to the technique, new of reproduction of the pattern upon force application, peeling
variations and new applications are discussed in detail [151]. the stamp from the master are also some of the main
The low surface energy due to flexibility of siloxane chain obstacles in stamp development, which gets complicated with
and low intermolecular forces between the methyl groups nanometer-scale corrugations [2], [106], [151].
enhances the peeling and printing of the materials by PDMS 5) Nano-Imprinting (NI): NI is used to pattern materials by
stamp. The targeted substrate’s surface energy must be high mechanical and physical deformation of wet layer using hard
to mechanical molding of the polymer material, NI is very

challenging and entirely different from traditional fabrication
techniques, embarking into new challenges and obstacles
which are difficult to overcome [39]. The effect of spatially
confining materials to nanoscale dimension give rise to
physical, electrical and chemical changes in properties that
differ significantly from those of micro and macrostructures.
Advantages claimed for developing NI technologies include
high patterning resolution, high pattern transfer fidelity,
3-D patterning, large area, ability to reduce the fabrication
steps, high throughput and low cost. But the challenges for
NI technology overshadow these advantages. The critical
challenges for NI include overlay alignment, template
fabrication, defect control, high yield, and seeking especially
suitable application fields [155]. Defect density and mask
damage due to contact and low wafer throughput are few of the
major complications in overcoming the challenges of this tech-
nology [6], [17], [152], [154]. Defect densities are very high
and due to mechanical instabilities of the polymers leading to
vertical and lateral collapse of features, this replication tech-
nique has very limited commercial applications. Coefficient
of thermal expansion of the master and polymer replica has
Fig. 15. Scheme of noimprinting. (1) The spin coated Pd benzylthiolate film influence while removing the replica from master damaging
imprinted using a Si mold. (2) The molten precursor flow into and fill the
channels in the Si mold. (3) After demolding, Pd benzylthiolate patterns on the fragile nanostructures. Time required i.e. 10-15 min
the substrate are heat treated at 250 °C for 1 hour to obtain Pd patterns (a). per replication for heating and cooling cycles, is longer than
Hierarchical patterning using a different Si mold with smaller feature sizes other soft printing techniques [153]. The thin layer of residue
kept at right angles to the imprinted Pd benzylthiolate patterns. (b) Second
MD-NIL leads to hierarchical Pd benzylthiolate patterns. (c) Transfer tacking- left on the mold features for soft cushioning to prevent the
(d) using (2) as a mold and (3) as a substrate placed at right angles with respect nano features from deteriorating upon contact with the soft
to orientation of Pd lines, Pd benzylthiolate lines can be (e) transfer stacked by polymeric material. In order to support alignment, fidelity and
MD-NIL and (f) heat treated to get Pd crossbars. Polycarbonate (PC) transfer-
(g) using (3) as mold and PC as substrate, imprinting by subjecting PC to throughput with low defect densities in the printed patterns,
glass transition (Tg), (h) following cooling, demolding led to PC carrying Pd a uniform thick residual layer is preferred but that renders
lines, (i) which as heated on a hot plate to embed the Pd lines underneath PC the technology less critical for precise dimension control.
surface [6].
The temperature budget of about 125 °C is challenging
for some of the plastic substrates with low glass transition
temperature, which can create dimensional instabilities.
or soft mold followed by different temperature processes. The residual layer to be removed via etching is very
The principle of nanoimprinting is simple shown in Fig. 15. undesirable as it is costly, hard-to-control, complicated to
The system consist of a mold with nano-scale patterned integrate into mass production line and might be harmful for
structures on the surface that is pressed into a solution an underlying organic layer. Several issues i.e. introducing
cast (Fig. 15(2)) on a substrate at a controlled temperature soft gate dielectrics and misalignment of the stamp during the
and pressure. As a result, thickness contrast into the casted imprint process need to be taken care off before transferring
layer is created. A thin residual layer of polymeric material NI process to a R2R manufacturing unit [156]. Particle related
is intentionally left underneath the mold protrusions, and defects are one of the key concerns for nanoimprinting, since
acts as a soft cushioning layer that prevents direct impact the particle can amplify the defect to become much larger
of the hard mold on the substrate and effectively protects than the particle itself [100]. Fig.16 shows large area three
the delicate nanoscale features on the mold surface [152]. stacks hierarchical structures with a primary mold of 2 mm
The two most crucial process steps that influence the gratings and secondary mold of 250 nm gratings successfully
pattern quality and throughput are resist filling and demold developed by using nanoimprinting [6]. TFT having channel
characteristics. A controlled pressure is needed not to destroy lengths ranging from 5 µm to 250 nm are reported to be
the imprint patterns [6]. Diverse NI approaches are developed fabricated on Si and PEN foils. Designing on flexible and
i.e. thermal, photo, ultraviolet (UV), step-and-flash and wavy foils, showing in-plane uncertainties and a high sensi-
roller nanoimprinting. In UV-NI transparent polymers are tivity to thermal as well as pressure changes, remains a big
considered to be the best alternatives for developing reliable challenge [2], [100], [101], [106], [156].
mold. Common mold materials are quartz or silica molded by 6) Transfer Printing: In order to get fast flexible elec-
electron beam lithography (EBL) method [105], [152]–[154]. tronics, a new technique recently developed, i.e. Trans-
Molding of polymers have some advantages as, they fer Printing of silicon microwires and structures is getting
can replicate nanostructures over large area, materials are great interest for the future trend of successful, fully flexi-
inexpensive and compatibility with low cost processes. Due ble electronic devices and sensors. In this printing process
Fig. 17. (a) Conformal contact of polymeric stamp with the Si wires.
(b) Pick-up of wires by peeling-off the stamp. (c-d) Wires transferred to final
substrate.
the resulting high carrier mobilities make it a distinguished

candidate in the current scenario of large area electronics
as well.
A conformable PDMS stamp is used to pick up the free
standing microstructured silicon from top of Si wafers after
etching and transferred with controlled orientation to flexi-
ble substrate. Fig. 17 shows the processing steps involved
in realizing Si microwires and their transfer to secondary
substrate. The PDMS stamp is peeled back retrieving the
Si ribbons with fast speed enhancing the kinetic control of
adhesion [159]. Rate dependent adhesion and printing of the
solid structures with high peel velocity (typically 10 cm/sec)
and low stamping velocity (∼1 mm/sec) respectively has been
investigated [40]. The mechanics of kinetic dependence of
switching of adhesion has its origin in the viscoelastic response
of the elastomeric stamp. Adhesiveless stamping like this
is very valuable for wafer-based microstructures printing, to
operate it from moderate to high temperatures [109].
Nanostructures through bottom-up approach are also being
explored. The main challenges in the bottom-up approach of
fabricating microstructures relate to control of dimensions,
uniformity, the doping levels, crystallographic orientation and
purity of the material. Also for scalable integration over
large areas, producing well-arranged arrays of these structures
are challenging [160]. Besides deploying nano/microstructures
onto secondary substrate by the usual dry transfer printing
through PDMS stamp, solution based printing by casting the
microstructures in a solution are also practiced. Although
manufacturability of wet transfer (through fluidic transfer) of
structures is unclear as the doping levels and uniform surfaces
Fig. 16. (a) Optical image of large area Pd structures with a primary mold are not well recognized [161].
of 2 mm gratings and secondary mold of 250 nm gratings. SEM and AFM Based on the active area needed and subsequent alignment
images of Pd hierarchical structures - before heat treatment (left). Widths of
primary lines are 2 mm and secondary lines are 160 nm with corresponding defines the methodology for either using strips or membranes
heights of 180 nm and 40 nm, respectively. (b) SEM image of the transfer of Si in the transfer printing process for flexible electronic
stacked 2 mmPd lines and (c) after heat treatment. (d) Transfer stacked 3rd devices. Although both the approaches have pros and cons
stack in a tilted view; inset shows magnified image and (e) after heat treatment.
A 250 nm grating stacked over another 250 nm grating [6]. in relation to alignment and ease in undercutting of the
structures due to the exposed area for etchants both for
Si and BOX. The backside surface quality is acceptable in
the conventional photolithography technique is used to get the flipped transferred NMs but the non-uniformity of the
micro and nano wires of Si on the wafers itself and then doping profile on the backside is the main limitation. Solid
transferring them onto flexible substrates through a PDMS source diffusion has the issues of large feature sizes and
stamp [109]–[111], [157], [158]. Very well developed man- driving the dopants in larger depth in NMs increasing sheet
ufacturing and processing technologies for electronic grade resistance. Instead ion implantation is employed which gives
silicon constituting high levels of purity, surface smoothness, good results [110]. Simple integrated circuits like NMOSFET,
control over crystallinity, doping concentration and type, and CMOS inverters, sensors, three and five stage ring oscillators
and differential amplifiers are reported to be developed on

a flexible polyimide substrate using transfer printing of
Si micro ribbons [111], [157], [162], [163]. Thermoelectric
energy harvesters by transfer printing of arrays of alternately
doped Si wires have also been reported in literature [158].
Flexible TFT with 1.5µm channel length was developed
on plastic substrate showing very high frequency ranges
in GHz. Radio frequency (RF) characterization under bending
conditions showed slight performance enhancement with
larger bending strains [116], [164]. Device performance can
further be enhanced by using strained silicon channel [117].
A single-pole through switch containing two PIN diodes
were realized and transferred to polymer substrate, by doing
selective doping of 200-nm thick and 30um wide SiNM on
SOI wafer. Fig. 18(a-f) shows images of printed multilayer of
Si platelets, large area negative index metamaterial, epidermal
electronics, LEDs, LED display and flexible integrated
circuits transferred to secondary substrates through dry
transfer technique respectively.
The rigid microstructures on flexible electronics experience
tensile and compressive strains during bend into convex and
concave shapes. The employment of these structures onto
flexible substrates strongly depends on the failure mechanisms
like interfacial slippage and delamination. The dimensions
and mechanical properties of micro/nanoscale semiconductor
wires, ribbons, bars, or membranes determine their bending
mechanics. A practical design rule might be that the silicon
strain must remain below 0.1%, which leads to a degree of
bendability of r ∼ 2.5 cm for polymer substrate, which is still
sufficient for many devices and applications [37], [107], [108].
Skinniness size of the Si nano membranes (SiNM) permit the
planar-type structure to have very high level of mechanical
bendability [165]. Rigorous necessities of active circuitry for
large-area RF systems that could operate in L-band and even
higher are required for flexible electronics applications [166].
Successful development of technology protocol for transfer-
ring Si based structures can complement the slow speeds
of organic materials which could balance the total cost of Fig. 18. Schematic illustrations and optical microscope images of steps
manufacture of flexible devices. Challenges of misalignment of for forming releasable single crystal silicon MOSFETs on bulk wafers
and their deterministic assembly on foreign substrates by transfer printing:
neighboring strips movement during undercutting, registration (a) fabrication of single crystal silicon MOSFETs with thermal gate oxide
of pre-doped regions, gate dielectric materials at low tempera- and metallization for source/drain and gate electrodes, (b) uniform deposition
tures and surface related issues for the stamps are very critical of a layer of SiNx followed by etching of trenches between the devices, (c) wet
anisotropic undercut etching using TMAH, (d) manipulation of MOSFETs by
to be controlled [40]. transfer printing, (e) SEM images of devices completely and partially undercut
(inset). (f) 150 MOSFETs fabricated in this manner after transfer printing onto
a substrate of ultrathin PET with thickness of 2.5µm [14].
C. Roll to Roll (R2R) Printing
The ultimate goal of above technologies is to obtain fast and investigation of the optimal and matching processing condi-
efficient production line by merging various printing schemes. tions is desired for the new arrangement which is not at all
In highly optimized laboratory processes, better performance obvious, especially when considering that there are bound-
is achieved by developing a close relationship between the ary conditions (i.e. materials, solvents, multilayer processing,
processing methods, materials, solvents, substrates and drying overlay registration accuracy, drying temperature, speed, etc.)
conditions. Printing processes matured at lab level, need to be involved in fast R2R processing [3], [11], [18], [128].
transferred to large scale fast production lines with the same R2R as a commonly shared platform has the potential
level of performance. Merging different printing techniques for a continuous and high throughput process for deposition
into a single production line is rather a challenging task, as of diverse materials on large substrate rolls (often called
very precise control of the process and material parameters “web”) [3], [128]. Beside instrumentation and hardware for
need to be tuned especially when the substrate is moving control system, R2R line is equipped with several rollers over
with very high speeds as 5-50m/min (see Table II). Therefore, which the web (flexible substrates) passes with controlled
TABLE IV
S UMMARY OF N ON -C ONTACT P RINTING T ECHNIQUES AND C HALLENGES
Fig. 20. Image of a Roll-to-Roll (R2R) setup in a clean room environment

Fig. 19. Schematic Illustration of Typical Roll-to-Roll system where different with different printing process units installed in the production line [3].
deposition, patterning and sintering modules are installed [10].
tension. As described in Section III, these webs are the patterned structures, which has become possible due to
backbone of a R2R system, and should be accurately con- the rapid development of stable R2R systems with more
trolled during passage through different rollers and processing patterning tools. Rectenna, solar cells and RFID vapor sensors
sections. Two main rollers unwind/rewind installed at the ends, developed through R2R fabrication on a PET substrate are
are dedicated for the release and collection of the web from reported [11], [79], [167], [170]. The combination of slot-die
the processing section of the R2R manufacture line [3], [10]. coating and laser direct writing on a R2R setup is reported very
Fig. 19 shows schematic of a typical R2R system. Processing recently for development of piezoresistive strain sensors [171].
sections installed on a typical R2R line include tools for Recent advances in the large-scale integration of arrays for
deposition, patterning and packaging based on the structural electronic and sensor applications involve the contact printing
requirements of the device. Gravure, offset, flexography, of single crystalline inorganic-nanowire (NW) at defined
rotary screen-printing and nanoimprint techniques are among locations in R2R fashion [169]. High-quality graphene film
the favorable candidates for R2R configuration and have been by R2R CVD and transfer process is also reported [172].
explored in detail [18], [34], [167]–[169]. Fig. 20 shows image Significant progress has been made in design, technical and
of a R2R system in clean room environment. process capabilities of printing technologies in recent years.
R2R fabrication is more attractive for organic/polymer Much more work needs to be done before the field is ready
based thin film devices and have been explored extensively to be scaled up for R2R process technology [128], [168].
for solar cells, organic/polymer light emitting diodes, and Organization of the different film forming techniques
display devices [10], [18], [167]. Beside these applications, according to the distinct categories of coating and printing
focus is also towards development of sensory devices and is not straightforward. It is critical to develop a mechanics
TABLE V
S UMMARY OF C ONTACT-P RINTING T ECHNIQUES AND C HALLENGES
model to eliminate the gap between the conceptual design,

materials and the process parameters [3]. One of the main
challenges is how to model the effects of material, structure,
and process together and optimize them to make reliable
multilayered flexible sensors and devices with acceptable
performance. Some of the other challenges are those that
relate to the cost and performance of flexible circuits, panel
size, process throughput, substrate distortion, barrier layer
technology and yield of the process on which R2R technology
is based [18], [128], [167], [169], [171]. Despite the vigorous
attractions of large area flexible sensors and electronics, this
new technology must overcome significant technical and
process challenges in order to gain ground for practical high Fig. 21. Graph showing maximum values reported for speed of printing and
volume applications [128], [169]. print resolution based on the data from Table II.
Fig. 21 and Fig. 22 summarize the common features of
various printing technologies. Fig. 21 shows the comparison shows the common material’s properties, i.e. viscosity and
of printing speeds and capability of print resolution that could surface tension of the solutions used in printing technolo-
be achieved by each printing technology. Whereas Fig. 22 gies. Table IV and Table V summarizes qualitatively the
materials holds a great promise for the high-performance

printed electronic systems. Advances in dry transfer printing
of inorganic materials could complement the organic materials
based solutions. A possible approach is to employ stamp
printing techniques for high-mobility semiconductor material
(both solution and solid state) deposition and exploiting
conventional printing technique for interconnects and
metallization. However, due to resolution limits of current
printing tools the full potential of printing has not been
realized. Printing of high-mobility materials with resolutions
comparable with the current micro/nanofabrication tools will
be a significant step towards cost-effective high-performance
Fig. 22. Graph showing maximum values reported for viscosity and surface
tension required for printing techniques based on the data from Table II.
electronic systems. The hetero-integration, involving devices
based on both organic and inorganic materials, is another
interesting area that could lead to stable electronic systems
mechanism, process requirements, materials and critical lim- with good mechanical, chemical and electrical properties.
itations of non-contact and contact printing technologies The printed devices and circuits demonstrated in labs
reported in literature. Main features of all the printing tech- often use standalone printing technologies. For large scale
nologies are highlighted to explore the possibilities of merging production, there is a need to scale or merge these printing
different techniques to develop a common manufacturing plat- technologies on R2R production lines without sacrificing the
form where limitations of one technology can be overcome by chemical, physical or electrical characteristics of the device.
using another. Attractive features of high-resolution patterning The large area electronics through R2R production lines is
and deposition of diverse materials by nanoimprint techniques foreseen to play a major role in the cost-effective manufactur-
can be harnessed by integrating them with the fast printing and ing of nonconventional electronic devices and systems. Various
coating tools for advancement of a R2R manufacturing system. mechanisms and challenges summarized in Table IV for each
Similarly, the development of soft polymeric stamps can of the printing technology highlight the possible alternatives
provide a route to common platform for developing an for developing a universal printing platform where limitations
optimized transfer printing protocol with photolithography, of one can be overcome by another while maintaining the
which could finally be implemented in fast R2R manufacturing optimum process parameters and solution properties. Develop-
track to achieve the real goal of low cost large area flexible ment of an efficient platform by assembling different coating,
sensors and electronics. printing and patterning tools to develop a very robust process
protocol will result in high throughput and low cost devices.
Following the trends of paper printing industry, the
V. C ONCLUSION manufacturing cost of plastic electronics is expected to
Printed sensors and electronics have attracted greater reduce [128], [173], [174] by the fast speed printing of
interest as printing enables low cost fabrication. The electronic components at defined locations [33]. The cost-
increased number of research articles and demonstration of effectiveness of printing technologies and employing them for
printed sensors and electronics in a number of applications flexible electronics will enable new classes of applications,
reflects the keen interest of the researchers in their quest and dramatically change the electronics industry landscape.
to fulfill the promise of large area electronics on flexible Printed electronics and sensing will also have a major societal
substrates through cost-effective printing technologies. In this and economic impact with skilled labor from print industry
paper, we have presented a comprehensive overview of various gradually developing printed electronics.
technologies that have been employed so far for the printed
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[152] L. J. Guo, “Nanoimprint lithography: Methods and material require- Saleem Khan received the master’s degree in
ments,” Adv. Mater., vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 495–513, 2007. electronic engineering from Jeju National University,
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cated by polymer molding,” in Dekker Encyclopedia of Nanoscience ing sciences with a specialization in lasers and
and Nanotechnology. New York, NY, USA: Taylor & Francis, 2004, optoelectronics from the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Insti-
pp. 2657–2666. tute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi,
[154] S. Gilles et al., “UV nanoimprint lithography with rigid polymer Pakistan. During his master’s course, his research
molds,” Microelectron. Eng., vol. 86, nos. 4–6, pp. 661–664, 2009. interests were in the development of flexible thin-
[155] L. Jiang and L. Chi, Strategies for High Resolution Patterning of film electronics on plastic substrates employing elec-
Conducting Polymers. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech, 2010, p. 656. trohydrodynamic inkjet printing. He is currently
[156] C. Auner et al., “High-performing submicron organic thin-film pursuing the Ph.D. degree at the University of
transistors fabricated by residue-free embossing,” Organic Electron., Trento, Trento, Italy, and his research is based within the Microsystems
vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 552–557, 2010. Technology research unit at Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento, under the
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“The silicon Schottky diode on flexible substrates by transfer method,” printing routes for flexible electronics manufacturing using transfer printing
Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 102, no. 2, p. 021106, 2013. of Si micro/nanostructures on plastic substrates.
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Solid-State Device Res. Conf., Venice, Italy, Sep. 2014, pp. 86–89.
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of silicon derived from bulk wafers,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 88, no. 21,
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ribbons, platelets and bars generated from bulk wafers,” Adv. Funct.
Mater., vol. 17, no. 16, pp. 3051–3062, 2007. Leandro Lorenzelli received the Laurea degree
[161] E. Menard, R. G. Nuzzo, and J. A. Rogers, “Bendable single crystal in electronic engineering from the University of
silicon thin film transistors formed by printing on plastic substrates,” Genoa, Genoa, Italy, in 1994, and the Ph.D. degree
Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 86, no. 9, p. 093507, 2005. in electronics materials and technologies from the
[162] J.-H. Ahn et al., “Bendable integrated circuits on plastic substrates by University of Trento, Trento, Italy, in 1998. During
use of printed ribbons of single-crystalline silicon,” Appl. Phys. Lett., his Ph.D. course, his research activity concerned
vol. 90, no. 12, pp. 213501-1–213501-3, May 2007. the development of electrochemical CMOS-based
[163] D.-H. Kim et al., “Materials and noncoplanar mesh designs for microsensors. In 1998, he joined as the staff of
integrated circuits with linear elastic responses to extreme mechan- the Microsystems Division, Institute for Scientific
ical deformations,” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 105, no. 48, and Technological Research (IRST), Trento, and
pp. 18675–18680, 2008. was involved in the realization of microsystems for
[164] Z. Ma et al., “Fast flexible electronics based on printable thin mono- biomedical, environmental, and agro-food applications. Since 2005, he has
crystalline silicon,” ECS Trans., vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 137–142, 2011. been responsible for the Microsystems Technology research unit at Fondazione
[165] H.-C. Yuan, G. Qin, G. K. Celler, and Z. Ma, “Bendable high- Bruno Kessler-IRST. His main scientific interests are in the processing
frequency microwave switches formed with single-crystal silicon technologies for bioMEMS and microtransducers.
nanomembranes on plastic substrates,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 95, no. 4,
pp. 043109-1–043109-3, Jul. 2009.
[166] H.-C. Yuan, G. K. Celler, and Z. Ma, “7.8-GHz flexible thin-film
transistors on a low-temperature plastic substrate,” J. Appl. Phys.,
vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 034501-1–034501-4, Aug. 2007.
[167] R. Søndergaard, M. Hösel, D. Angmo, T. T. Larsen-Olsen, and
F. C. Krebs, “Roll-to-roll fabrication of polymer solar cells,” Mater.
Today, vol. 15, nos. 1–2, pp. 36–49, 2012.
[168] K. Jain, M. Klosner, M. Zemel, and S. Raghunandan, “Flexible
electronics and displays: High-resolution, roll-to-roll, projection litho- Ravinder S. Dahiya (S’05–M’09–SM’12) is cur-
graphy and photoablation processing technologies for high-throughput rently a Senior Lecturer and an EPSRC Fellow
production,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 93, no. 8, pp. 1500–1510, Aug. 2005. in Electronics and Nanoscale Engineering with the
[169] Z. Fan et al., “Toward the development of printable nanowire University of Glasgow, Glasgow, U.K. He received
electronics and sensors,” Adv. Mater., vol. 21, no. 37, pp. 3730–3743, the Ph.D. degree from the Italian Institute of Tech-
2009. nology, Genoa, Italy, and the University of Genoa,
[170] R. A. Potyrailo, A. Burns, C. Surman, D. J. Lee, and E. McGinniss, Genoa, the M.Tech. degree from the Indian Institute
“Multivariable passive RFID vapor sensors: Roll-to-roll fabrication of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India, and the
on a flexible substrate,” Analyst, vol. 137, no. 12, pp. 2777–2781, B.Tech. (Hons.) degree from Kurukshetra University,
2012. Kurukshetra, India. He was with the Netaji Sub-
[171] H. Lee et al., “Silver nanoparticle piezoresistive sensors fabricated by has Institute of Technology, New Delhi, the Italian
roll-to-roll slot-die coating and laser direct writing,” Opt. Exp., vol. 22, Institute of Technology, Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento, Italy, and the
no. 8, pp. 8919–8927, Apr. 2014. University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K.
[172] T. Kobayashi et al., “Production of a 100-m-long high-quality graphene His research interests include flexible and printable electronics, tactile
transparent conductive film by roll-to-roll chemical vapor deposition sensing, electronic skin, and robotics. He has authored over 90 papers, one
and transfer process,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 102, no. 2, p. 023112, book, and holds one patent. He received the Marie Curie Fellowship and
2013. the EPSRC Fellowship. He has worked on many international projects and
[173] J. Kalowekamo and E. Baker, “Estimating the manufacturing cost of is currently coordinating a European Commission-Funded Initial Training
purely organic solar cells,” Solar Energy, vol. 83, no. 8, pp. 1224–1231, Network on Electronic Skin.
2009. Dr. Dahiya is on the Editorial Boards of the IEEE S ENSORS J OURNAL
[174] F. C. Krebs, T. Thomas, and M. Jørgensen, “Upscaling of polymer solar and the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS . He was the Guest Editor of
cell fabrication using full roll-to-roll processing,” Nanoscale, vol. 2, four Special Journal Issues. He was a recipient of the University Gold Medal
no. 6, pp. 873–886, 2010. in 1999, and two Best Paper Awards at the IEEE conferences.

Technologies For Printing Sensors and Electronics Over Large Flexible Substrates: A Review

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3164 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 15, NO.

Technologies for Printing Sensors and Electronics

Abstract— Printing sensors and electronics over flexible

P RINTING technologies are aiding and revolutionizing

polyphenylene, poly (p-phenylene vinylene), polythiophene TABLE I

promote the activation of the medium caused by electric

Fig. 5. (top) Scheme of pressure sensors array. (bottom) Screen-printed

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic diagram of the piezoelectric inkjet head, with

Fig. 9. (a) Schematic of a Gravure printing system. (b) Gravure printed

of ink from the cells. Solution properties and cell width/depth

Fig. 13. Microcontact printing (µCP) steps: (a) prepolymer poured on a

to mechanical molding of the polymer material, NI is very

the resulting high carrier mobilities make it a distinguished

and differential amplifiers are reported to be developed on

Fig. 20. Image of a Roll-to-Roll (R2R) setup in a clean room environment

model to eliminate the gap between the conceptual design,

materials holds a great promise for the high-performance

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