DEFORMATION

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Stress (Gerilme) is a force exerted against an object/rock.

Deformation (Deformasyon): is a general term used for change in

volume or shape (or both) of rocks

Tectonic forces exert different types of stress on rocks in different

geologic environments: confining stress or confining pressure,
directed stress (compressive, tensional and shear).
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Confining stress or
confining pressure, occurs
when rock or sediment is
buried (a). Confining
pressure merely
compresses rocks but does
not distort them, because
the compressive force acts
equally in all directions.
Burial pressure compacts
sediment and is one step in
the lithification of
sedimentary rocks.
Confining pressure also
contributes to
metamorphism during
deep burial in sedimentary
basins.
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları 3
Directed stress acts most
strongly in one direction.
Tectonic processes create
three types of directed
stress: Compressional,
extensional, and shear.
Compression squeezes
(compresses) rocks together
in one direction. It frequently
acts horizontally,
shortening the distance
parallel to the squeezing
direction. Compressive
stress is common in
convergent plate
boundaries, where two
plates converge
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları 4
Extensional stress
(tensional stress) pulls
rock apart and is the
opposite of tectonic
compression. Rocks at a
divergent plate boundary
stretch and pull apart
because they are subject
to extensional stress.
Shear stress acts in
parallel but opposite
directions. Shearing
deforms rock by causing
one part of a rock mass to
slide past the other part, as
in a transform fault or a
transform plate boundary.
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları 5
Stress and possible types of deformation. (a) Compression (Sıkıştırma), causes
shortening of rock layers by folding or reverse faulting, (b) Tension/extention
(Genişleme) lenghtens rock layers and causes normal faulting, (c) Shear
stress (Makaslama) causes deformation by displacement along closely spaced
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planes (faulting).. Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
STAGES OF DEFORMATION
When rock is subjected to directed stress (directed forces) it passes through
two stages of deformation, namely: elastic deformation and plastic
deformation.
The relation existing between stress and strain is commonly expressed in
graphs known as stress-strain diagrams. The stress is plotted on the
ordinate (vertical axis), where as the strain is plotted on abscissa (horizontal
axis).
At first stage the deformation is elastic; that is, if the stress is withdrawn, the
body returns to its original shape. There is always a limiting stress, called the
elastic limit; if this is exceeded, the body does not return to its original shape.

Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları 7
If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the deformation is plastic; that is, the
specimen only partially returns to original shape even if the stress is removed.
When there is a continued increase in the stress, one or more fractures
develop, and the specimen fails by rupture.
Based on stages of deformation there are two types of substances:
(a) Brittle substances/materials, (b) Ductile substances/materials.
Brittle substances are those that rupture before any significant plastic
deformation takes place.
Ductile substances are those that undergo a large plastic deformation
before rupture.

Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları 8
Curve A is the stress-strain diagram of a brittle substance. It deforms elastically
up to a stress of 20,000 lb/in2 and has shortened one-half of one percent; it than
fails by rupture.
Curve B is ideal plastic/ductile substance. It behaves elastically at first. After
proportional elastic limit the specimen deforms continously without any added
stress.
Curve C represents a more normal type of plastic behavior.
Curve D represent a very common type of plastic deformation.
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları 9
 The most important
characteristics of sedimentary
rocks are bedding. Bedding
forms because sediment
accumulates layer by layer.
Nearly all sedimentary beds
were originally horizontal
because sediment accumulates
on nearly level surfaces.

horizontal bed

To describe the orientetion

of beds with respect to
horizontal plane we use
terms strike and dip.

Inclined bed 10
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 direction of dip

strike

angle of dip

The surface of a bed on above diagram is inclined plane and water surface is
horizontal plane. Strike of bed (Doğrultu) is the direction of a line formed
by the intersection of a horizontal plane and inclined plane. It is
determined by measuring the angle between north and intersection line.
Dip is a measure of an inclined plane’s deviation from horizontal (it is angle
between hor.plane and inclined plane measured on a vertical plane).
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
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 DEFORMATION AND GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
Deformation and its synonym strain refers to changes in the shape or
volume of rocks. During deformation rocks might be crumpled in to folds,
(plastic/ductile deformation) or they might be fractured (brittle deformation).
Any of these features resulting from deformation is referred to as geologic
structures.
Ductile deformation - Folds (Kıvrımlar) and Folding
Folds are planar features formed by bending of beds. Up-Arch shaped folds
are named anticline, down arched folds are named sycline

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 13
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Diagram illustrating axis (eksen), axial plane (eksen düzlemi) and limbs/flanks
(kanat) of an syncline and anticline. 14
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 Youngest rock units
exposed at the centre of
Oldest rock units exposed at syncline
the centre of anticline

Symmetric folds

Anticline Syncline

Surface and cross-sectional views of symmetric folds. Identifing eroded

anticlines and synclines by strike, dip and relative ages of folded rock layers.
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Surface and cross-sectional views of an asymmetric anticline. Axial plane
is inclined and dip amount of limbs are different 18
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Surface and cross-sectional views of an overturned fold. Notice the special
strike and dip symbol to indicate overturned beds.
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Surface and cross-sectional views of the recumbent fold. Axial plane is
nearly horizontal 20
zig-zag fold
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
(a) A plunging fold. (b) Surface and cross-sectional views of plunging folds. The
long arrow at the center of each fold is the symbol used to depict plungin anticline
and synclines. The arrow at the end of the line shows the direction of plunge.

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
View of eroded, double plunging anticline.
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Geologic map (upper), surface and Aerial photographs of plunging
cross sectional view (lower) of anticline and sycline.
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plunging anticline and sycline. Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 Oldest exposed rocks Youngest exposed rocks

A dome (a) and a basin (b). Notice that in a dome oldest exposed rocks
are in the center and all rocks dip outward from a central point, whereas
in a basin the youngest exposed rocks are in the center all rocks dip
inward a central point.

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 A monoklinal. A fold with one
limb. They are mostly controlled by
faults which dis not penetrate to
the surface.

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 29
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Stress and possible types of deformation. (a) Compression (Sıkıştırma), causes
shortening of rock layers by folding or reverse faulting, (b) Tension/extention
(Genişleme) lenghtens rock layers and causes normal faulting, (c) Shear stress
(Makaslama) causes deformation by displacement along closely spaced planes
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(faulting).. Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 Brittle Deformation

FAULT is a
structural plane
along which
considerable
amount of
movement is
visible.

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 32
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Fault Fault zone Shear zone

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 Normal Fault
Dip amount of fault plane: > 45o, <90o din general: 60o

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
 Reverse Fault
Dip amount of fault plane: > 45o,
Low angle reverse fault: ~30o named as Thrust fault

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları
 Thrust Fault

Nappe

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları
 Doğrultu-atımlı Fay
Movement vector is paralel to the strike of fault and perpendicular to
the dip of fault plane.

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları
 Oblique-slip fault
Movement vector is oblique to the strike of fault.

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Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Ders Notları