Name ____________________________________________ Date ___________ Section_______

ACTIVITY 26

Finding the Expansion Rate

and the Age of the Universe
Learning Goals
In this activity, you will analyze the distances to galaxies and the velocities at which they are reced-
ing from us. By the end of this activity you will be able to:
1. Determine a value for the Hubble constant through analysis of measurements of the angular
sizes and redshifts of galaxies.
2. Estimate the corresponding age of the universe and compare it with the age of the Sun and the
Milky Way.
3. Explain why Hubble’s law implies that the universe is expanding.
4. Summarize how our view of the universe has changed as the value of the Hubble constant has
improved.

Step 1—An Analysis of a Sample of Galaxies

The graph of the velocity of each galaxy in kilometers per second versus its distance in mega-
parsecs gives us enough information to find the best-fit slope and thus Hubble’s constant. Once
you have found Hubble’s constant, it is just a matter of taking its inverse and adjusting the units
to find the age of the universe. We will start with a closer look at a sample of galaxies. Look for
similarities among the galaxies and among the features of their spectra in Table 26.1.

TABLE 26.1
Images, spectra, identifications, redshifts, recessional velocities, and
distances to 18 galaxies.

VELOCITY DISTANCE
GALAXY IMAGE GALAXY SPECTRUM GALAXY ID REDSHIFT
(km/s) (Mpc)

NGC 1357 0.006651 1,994 25

(continued)
119
120 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe

TABLE 26.1
Continued.

VELOCITY DISTANCE
GALAXY IMAGE GALAXY SPECTRUM GALAXY ID REDSHIFT
(km/s) (Mpc)

NGC 1832 0.00646 1,937 32

NGC 2276 0.00806 2,417 26

NGC 2775 0.00451 1,353 20

NGC 2903 0.00186 556 10

NGC 3034 0.00073 219 12

NGC 3147 0.00935 2,804 22

 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe 121

TABLE 26.1
Continued.

VELOCITY DISTANCE
GALAXY IMAGE GALAXY SPECTRUM GALAXY ID REDSHIFT
(km/s) (Mpc)

NGC 3227 0.00365 1,093 17

NGC 3368 0.00301 903 15

NGC 3623 0.00254 762 8

NGC 3627 0.00234 703 9

NGC 4775 0.00624 1,572 24

NGC 5248 0.00384 1,152 13

(continued)
122 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe

TABLE 26.1
Continued.

VELOCITY DISTANCE
GALAXY IMAGE GALAXY SPECTRUM GALAXY ID REDSHIFT
(km/s) (Mpc)

NGC 5548 0.01627 4,878 83

NGC 6181 0.00791 2,372 41

NGC 6217 0.00456 1,366 22

NGC 6643 0.00497 1,489 21

NGC 6764 0.00805 2,412 24

km/s, kilometer per second; Mpc, megaparsec.

 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe 123

1. Recall Hubble’s tuning fork for the classification of galaxies. What is the general classifica-
tion for the galaxies of Table 26.1?

2. Astronomers often use the concept of a standard ruler—objects that look similar most likely
are approximately the same actual size—for determining relative distances to objects. Why is
it important to have all of the galaxies we are examining here be of the same or very similar
type?

3. We can add additional criteria to increase confidence that these galaxies can be used as
standard rulers. Examine the spectra for the galaxies. There are strong features—emission
and absorption—that can be seen at similar wavelengths in each spectrum. Describe some of
these emission and absorption lines.

4. The images of the galaxies shown in Table 26.1 were taken by the same large, ground-based
telescope using the same instruments and equipment, and so are all at the same scale. Each
image measures 0.12 degrees on each side. Figure 26.1 shows enlarged images of two galaxies
that look very similar: (a) is NGC 3368 and (b) is NGC 3147. List two possible reasons why
they are not the same angular size. Can you determine which of those reasons is the right
one? Explain.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 26.1
124 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe

Step 2—Finding the Hubble Constant and Calculating the Age

of the Universe
5. Figure 26.2 shows the spectra for the two galaxies of Figure 26.1. Examine the spectra for
these two galaxies. The spectra for NGC 3147 are (a) and (b). The spectra for NGC 3368
are (c) and (d). These spectra highlight the regions around the absorption lines (historically
called calcium H and K lines) for the singly ionized calcium atoms in the stars in these gal-
axies and for the Balmer line H-alpha seen in emission, perhaps coming from star-forming
regions. Which galaxy is farther away? How do you know?

NGC 3147 – Calcium K (3933.7Å) and H (3968.5Å) NGC 3147 – Hydrogen α (6562.8Å)
1.0 2.0

0.8
1.5
Relative intensity

Relative intensity

0.6
1.0
0.4

0.5
0.2
Ca K Ca H H α

0.0 0.0
3900 3950 4000 4050 4100 4150 6500 6550 6600 6650 6700 6750 6800
Wavelength (Ångstroms) Wavelength (Ångstroms)
(a) (b)

NGC 3368 – Calcium K (3933.7Å) and H (3968.5Å) NGC 3368 – Hydrogen α (6562.8Å)
0.8 1.2

1.0
0.6
Relative intensity
Relative intensity

0.8

0.4 0.6

0.4
0.2
Ca K Ca H 0.2 H α

0.0 0.0
3900 3950 4000 4050 4100 4150 6500 6550 6600 6650 6700 6750 6800
Wavelength (Ångstroms) Wavelength (Ångstroms)
(c) (d)

FIGURE 26.2
 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe 125

6. Check the redshift values for these two galaxies, as given in Table 26.1. Approximately how
much farther away is the more distant galaxy from the closer one?

7. Now compare the distances to these two galaxies as determined by the standard ruler
method. Did you discover an inconsistency between the relative distances obtained from the
redshifts of NGC 3147 and NGC 3368 and the relative distances calculated by the standard
ruler method? Which comparison is likely to be more accurate? Why?

Figure 26.3 shows the graph of the measured recessional velocities versus the measured distances
to the 18 galaxies in this sample. The line b is the approximate best fit to the data; lines a and c
were obtained by ignoring a couple of outliers in the measurements. The equation of the line is
in the form y = mx + b, where y equals the velocity, x is the distance, and the slope, m, will be the
value of the Hubble constant. The y-intercept, b, equals zero.

Hubble’s law using 18 galaxies a b c

5000

4500

4000
Recessional velocity (km/sec)

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Distance (Mpc)

FIGURE 26.3
126 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe

8. Why must the y-intercept be equal to zero? (Hint: What is at zero distance from us, and how
fast is it moving?)

9. Calculate the slope of the best-fit line, b, and round off the number to two significant digits
(for example, 75.4839485 would be 75). Then calculate the slopes of the steepest allowed fit,
a, and the flattest allowed fit, c.

Slopes: Best-fit line b: _____________ km/s/Mpc

Steepest allowed a: ______________ km/s/Mpc
Flattest allowed c: _______________ km/s/Mpc

10. Which line will give the youngest age for the universe? _________
11. Which line will give the oldest age for the universe? _________

We can now calculate the age of the universe based on these data. If the universe has been
expanding at a constant speed since its beginning, its age would simply be the inverse of the Hub-
ble constant, 1/H0. However, the units of the Hubble constant, kilometers per second per mega-
parsec (km/s/Mpc), need to be converted so that the inverse has units of time.
Example: Let’s say you find a Hubble constant of 75 km/s/Mpc, then:

1
____________
s · Mpc
= 0.0133 ______
75 km/s/Mpc km
s · Mpc · Mpc
0.0133 ______ = 1.33 × 10–2 s_____
km km
s · Mpc km = 4.12 × 1017 s
1.33 × 10–2 ______ × 3.09 × 1019 ____
km Mpc
1 year
4.12 × 1017 s × __________ = 1.3 × 1010 years
3.16 × 107 s
This is 1.3 × 1010 years, or 13 × 109 years, which is 13 billion years.
12. Now, carry out the analysis for your value of H0. First, find the inverse of your value of H0.
Inverse: ___________________
 ACTIVITY 26 ● Finding the Expansion Rate and the Age of the Universe 127

13. Second, multiply the inverse by 3.09 × 1019 km/Mpc to cancel the distance units.
Age: ____________________ sec

14. As you now have the age of the universe in seconds, divide this number by the number of
seconds in a year: 3.16 × 107 s/yr.
Age: _____________________ years

15. Quantitatively (use ratios) compare your maximum age for the universe to the age of the
Sun (5 billion years) and to the age of the oldest stars in the Milky Way (approximately 12.5
billion years). Comment on your findings.

16. The long-standing view of the universe before Edwin Hubble’s observations was that every-
thing was standing still. Discuss how your analysis either supports or refutes this claim.

When Hubble made his first observations, he determined a Hubble constant of 500 km/s/Mpc.
During the years 1950 to 1960, there were serious disagreements about the value for the Hubble
constant. One group stated that it was 60 km/s/Mpc; another group said it was closer to
100 km/s/Mpc. The current results from the Planck mission give the best estimate of the Hubble
constant: 67.8 ± 0.77 km/s/Mpc (see http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/bb_tests_exp.html).
17. Summarize how our knowledge of the universe has changed with the more exact value of
today.