Centrifugal Compressor 1588467358 PDF

POL
Petroleum Open Learning
Petroleum Gas
Compression
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
3
Petroleum Gas Compression - Unit 3 - Centrifugal Compressors Petroleum Open Learning
(Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series)
Contents Page
Visual Cues
• Training Targets 3.2
• Introduction 3.3 training targets for you to achieve

by the end of the unit
• Section 1 – Basic Theory 3.4
Operating Principles of a Centrifugal Compressor
• Section 2 – Design and Construction 3.11 test yourself questions to see how
Compressor Casing much you understand
Rotating Assembly
Bearings
Diffusers and Diaphragms
Compressor Seals
check yourself answers to let you
see if you have been thinking along
• Section 3 – Auxiliary Systems 3.32 the right lines
Seal Oil System
Lubrication System
Cooling System
Drivers and Couplings
activities for you to apply your new
• Section 4 – The Operation of Centrifugal Compressors 3.42 knowledge
Performance Characteristics
Operating Problems, Alarms and Shutdowns
The Main Operational Checks on a centrifugal Compressor
summaries for you to recap on the
• Check Yourself – Answers 3.55 major steps in your progress
3.
Training Targets
When you have completed Unit 3 of the Petroleum Gas Compression series you will be able to:
• Explain the basic operating principles of a centrifugal compressor.
• Describe the construction a centrifugal compressor.
• Explain the function and operation of the principal components of a centrifugal compressor.
• Describe the layout and operation of the auxiliary systems associated with a centrifugal compressor.
• Explain a basic centrifugal compressor alarm and shutdown system.
• List the common operating checks carried out on a centrifugal compressor.
3.
Introduction
In Unit 1 of this Compressor programme, you saw that a centrifugal compressor is a member of the dynamic branch of the continuous flow
family of compressors.
Dynamic compressors increase the pressure of gas in a different way to that of the positive displacement machines. A reciprocating compressor
reduces the volume of a trapped mass of gas to increase its pressure. A dynamic machine, however, uses the principle of energy conservation
to achieve pressure increase.
There are two main types of dynamic compressor, and these are :
• centrifugal (radial flow) compressors

The Unit is divided into four sections.
• axial flow compressors
Section 1 covers the basic operating theory of a centrifugal compressor.
We are only going to look at centrifugal compressors in this unit. However, in Unit
4 of the compressor programme, we will look at axial flow machines in a little In Section 2, we will look at the design and construction of a typical machine.
more detail.
In Section 3, we will concentrate on the auxiliary equipment
Centrifugal compressors are large capacity, continuous flow machines with a very
smooth output. When run at their optimum speed and loading, they are vibration and
free and have few moving parts.
Section 4 looks at centrifugal compressor performance and operations.
They are capable of delivering very large volumes of gas. In days gone by,
they tended to be used for lower pressure applications than reciprocating
compressors. However, modern machines are capable of delivering gas at
pressures in excess of 700 bar.
3.
Section 1 - Basic Theory

Operating Principles of a The compressor consists of an impeller mounted on a
shaft which can be rotated at high speeds.
Centrifugal Compressor
This assembly is enclosed in a casing which
In the Introduction I said that a dynamic machine uses incorporates a diffuser. Also built into the casing are
the principle of energy conservation to increase the the suction and discharge ports, i.e. the inlet and outlet
pressure of a gas. This means that one type of energy of the compressor.
is converted to another. In this case it is the energy
a gas has due to its velocity which is converted into We will be looking at the components of a compressor
pressure energy. in much more detail in Section 2. For the moment we
will concentrate on this rather simple machine.
The compression of gas in a centrifugal compressor is
a two part process. Look again at Figure 1 and follow the flow of gas
through the compressor from the inlet or suction port to
• In part one, gas enters the machine and it is the outlet or discharge port.
speeded up or accelerated.This increases
the energy of the gas by giving it kinetic Gas enters the compressor through the suction port
energy or energy of motion. A certain amount and is directed to the inlet or eye of the impeller.
of pressure energy is also added at this
time. As the impeller rotates, the gas is forced to rotate with
it, causing the following effects :
• In part two, the gas is rapidly decelerated.
This converts kinetic energy into more Centrifugal force causes the gas to flow from the eye
pressure energy. to the outside or rim of the impeller. As the rim of
the impeller is travelling faster than the eye, the gas
speeds up as it moves outwards.
Look at Figure 1 which shows a simple centrifugal
compressor with its main components.
3.
Figure 2 shows the effect in graphical form. Again, this effect is shown graphically in Figure 3.
The impeller is fitted with blades which act rather like These two forces, the centrifugal force and the lift
airplane wings. These create a lift force which helps force, accelerate the gas and raise the pressure. This
to force the gas from the low pressure at the eye to is the first part of the process.
the higher pressure at the rim.
3.
When the gas leaves the impeller at the rim, it enters As the gas flows through the diffuser, the increase in flow area causes the gas to slow down.
the diffuser. This part of the compressor is a flow This reduction in velocity means that the gas loses its kinetic energy.
channel. It is designed in such a way that the flow
area is gradually increased along its length. Figure 5 shows this reduction in velocity.
The diffuser shown in Figure 1 is called a volute

diffuser. A volute is an increasing spiral shape, as
illustrated in Figure 4. You will recognise the
shape if you look at shellfish such as whelks or
winkles.
Because the total energy of the gas cannot be reduced, the fall in kinetic energy must be compensated
for by a rise in some other type of energy. In this case the pressure energy of the gas is increased.
3.
The next Figure, 6, shows, in graphical form how the

pressure of the gas increases as it flows through the
diffuser.
3.
So, you have now seen how the two parts of the process produce an overall pressure increase from the inlet to
the outlet of the compressor. Figure 7 shows the overall process from inlet to outlet, again in graphical form.
3.
The compressor we have just been looking at is The compression ratio which can be achieved Now, before moving on to the next section, have a
called a single stage compressor. It has one largely depends on the centrifugal force which is go at the following Test Yourself question.
impeller and one diffuser. It will have a capability of developed by the impeller. This in turn depends on
increasing the pressure of gas by a fixed amount. three things:
You will remember from Unit 1 of the compressor
series, that this increase is known as the
compression ratio.
• speed of rotation
Test Yourself 3.2
• impeller shape
To remind yourself of compression ratio, have a go
at the following simple Test Yourself question. • impeller diameter Of the following 10 items, only 5 belong to a
centrifugal compressor. Indicate with a tick in
There is a practical limit to some of these. For the box provided which items are centrifugal
instance, the diameter of the impeller and its speed compressor components.
Test Yourself 3.1
of rotation will determine how fast the rim of the
impeller is travelling. This cannot be allowed to
exceed the speed of sound in the gas it is Impeller
compressing. If it does so, serious damage to the Diffuser
a) If a compressor takes in gas at a machine may result as the sound barrier is broken.
pressure of 25 psia and delivers it at a Piston Rod
discharge pressure of 90 psia, what is Cylinder
In order to achieve greater pressure increases, Shaft
its compression ratio? multiple impellers and diffusers can be fitted inside Crank
one casing. Each impeller and diffuser unit is called Casing
b) If a compressor has the same a stage and such a machine is called a multi-stage
compression ratio as the one in part (a) Blades
compressor. Cross Head
and it takes in gas at 30 psia, what is
its discharge pressure? Clearance Pocket
In a multi-stage compressor, the gas passes
through an impeller, then a diffuser, is then directed
to the eye of the next impeller, and so on.
You will find the answers in Each stage is, in effect, a compressor in its own
Check Yourself 3.1 on page 3.55 right. In the case of a five stage compressor there
are actually five compressors within one casing.
You will find the answers in
Check Yourself 3.2 on page 3.55
3.
Summary of Section 1
In this Section on the basic theory of centrifugal compressors, you saw that the principle of energy conservation
is used to raise the pressure of gas.
You saw that, within the compressor, the gas is first accelerated to give it kinetic energy and some pressure
energy. It is then slowed down and the kinetic energy is converted into more pressure energy.
We looked at a simple compressor made up of the following parts:
• impeller
• shaft
• diffuser
• casing
• inlet port
• outlet port
It was pointed out that a single impeller has restrictions which can limit the amount of pressure increase it can
produce. In order to achieve greater pressure increases, multi-stage compressors should be used.
In the next Section we will look in more detail at the components of a typical multi-stage centrifugal compressor.
3.10
Section 2 - Design and Construction

In this Section we are going to look at the component
parts of a centrifugal compressor. We will see how
they are constructed and what their function is in the
operation of the machine.
I have listed below the components which we will
consider.
These are:
• casing
• rotating assembly - consisting of
shaft
impeller
balance piston
• bearings
• diffusers and diaphragms
• seals
Before we proceed, take a look at Figure 8 overleaf,

and identify these components.
3.11
3.12
Of course, a compressor has to be powered by

something. The motor which powers the compressor
is called the main driver or simply, the driver. In
this Section we will not concern ourselves with the
construction or operation of the driver.
However, centrifugal compressors are orientated, or
lined up, relative to the main driver, so it is worth
identifying the orientation at this point. The end of the
compressor nearest to the driver is called the drive
end or inboard end. The end of the compressor
furthest from the driver is called the non-drive end or
outboard end.
Let’s move on to the components now.
Compressor Casing
The compressor casing is used to house the
component parts of the compressor. It may be
either horizontally split or vertically split, depending
upon the design and application.
Horizontally Split Casings

Figure 9 shows a compressor with a horizontally
split casing. The casing is made in two halves
which are then bolted together along a horizontal
join.
The internal assembly of the compressor may be Horizontally split compressors are mainly used in
removed only after the two halves of the compressor lower pressure service.
casing have been unbolted and lifted apart.
3.13
Vertically Split Casings

A vertically split casing consists of a barrel shape
with end caps bolted onto each end of the barrel.
The internal assembly of the compressor may be

withdrawn from the non-drive end of the casing after
the end plate has been removed.
Vertically split casing compressors are often called

barrel compressors. They are mainly used in high
to medium pressure service.
Figure 10 shows a vertically split compressor

casing.
3.14
Rotating Assembly
You will remember that this assembly consists of a
shaft, impeller(s) and a balancing piston. Let’s take
a look at each of these components in turn.
The Shaft
The compressor shaft is the heart of the
centrifugal compressor. It carries the impellers and
balance piston and they all rotate together within the
compressor casing.
Figure 11 indicates the basic shape of the

compressor shaft and the relative positions, on the
shaft, of the various components.
To minimise vibration, the rotating assembly is finely balanced and not allowed to run near any critical
speeds.
Every rotating assembly has a number of speeds, where it will reach a peak of vibration. These speeds are
called the critical speeds.
Critical speeds can be calculated as the compressor is designed and built. The normal running speed of a
compressor is set to avoid being near a critical speed. If any rotating equipment is run at a critical speed,
damage can be caused to bearings within seconds as the vibration causes metal to metal contact.
It is normal practice to go through critical speeds as quickly as possible when accelerating the compressor
to its normal running speed.
3.15
The Impeller
The impellers provide the driving force for the gas
as it flows through the compressor. They are fixed
to the compressor shaft and rotate within the
compressor casing.
The impellers impart kinetic energy to the gas by

increasing its velocity within the compressor casing.
Impellers are available in a variety of designs such

as open, semi-open or closed, and the different
types are shown in Figure 12.
3.16
The open type impeller consists of a number of You will remember from Section 1, that the impeller
blades attached to a shaft. It rotates within the cannot be rotated at too great a speed - a speed
casing of the compressor and the gas is constrained which would result in the outer circumference of the
between the open impeller blades and the casing impeller exceeding the speed of sound in the gas it
wall. is compressing. This is due to the possibility of
damage being caused as the sound barrier is
The semi-open impeller, in addition to the blades, broken and turbulence is created within the casing.
has a disc or hub to which the blades are attached.
The hub stiffens the assembly, and helps confine Remember also that, to overcome this restriction, a
the gas to the blade area. multi-stage compressor may be used to achieve a
given compression ratio.
The closed type of impeller is the most common in
large compressor applications, and this is the one To illustrate this further, if each stage has a
we will concentrate on. compression ratio of 1.35 then a five stage
compressor would have an overall compression
It has blades of course, and also a hub. At the front ratio of 6.75.
of the impeller, however, the blades are attached to
a cover or shroud. The Balance Piston
The shroud also confines the gas to the blade area The last component of the rotating assembly is the
and provides stiffening. balance piston.
Closed impellers are made of forged steel. The In a compressor the pressure at the inlet is
blades may be welded to both the disc and the obviously less than the pressure at the outlet. This
shroud. Alternatively, the blades may be machined difference in pressure across a compressor acts on
from a solid disc and then welded to the shroud. the impellers and shaft to create a thrust force.
The force tends to push the rotating assembly
Figure 13 shows a closed impeller. towards the inlet, or suction end, of the compressor.
A force pushing along the line of the shaft is called
an axial force.
3.17
In Figure 14, we can see how the thrust force which If nothing was done about this, severe damage could
is generated will be imposed upon a single impeller. be done to the machine as the rotating assembly tried
to move axially within the casing.
One way to minimise rotating assembly movement is

to install thrust bearings in the compressor. We will
be looking at how these bearings work shortly.
On a large compressor, the amount of thrust force

developed is extremely high. If a thrust bearing was
the only device installed to prevent thrust forces from
damaging the compressor, then the bearing would
probably be bigger than the compressor itself.
To reduce the effects of the thrust forces and hence

reduce the thrust bearing requirement, a balancing
piston is fitted to the shaft. It is designed to reduce the
thrust forces to an acceptable level.
Figure 15 shows a typical balancing (or balance)

piston assembly which is fitted to the high pressure
end of the rotating assembly.
3.18
The balance piston is a solid drum which is

attached to, and rotates with the shaft. The high
pressure gas at the discharge of the compressor,
acts on the inboard side of the drum. Low pressure
gas from the suction side of the compressor is fed to
the outboard side of the drum. The pressure
differential across the drum is maintained by having
seals between the drum and the casing.
Figure 16 shows how the low pressure gas from the

suction side is fed to the outboard side of the drum
via a balancing line.
The pressure differential across the drum produces an axial force which opposes the thrust
exerted by the unbalanced forces acting on the impellers.
3.19
Bearings
The rotating assembly of a compressor needs to be
supported within the casing and allowed to rotate
freely. This means that some form of bearing is
required. The bearings used for this application are
usually referred to as the main bearings or journal
bearings.
Also, as you have already seen, a thrust bearing is

required, but let’s look at the journal bearings first.
Look back to the drawing of the shaft. It is Figure 11

on Page 3.15. You will see that there are just two
locations for journal bearings. They are at the extreme
outboard and inboard ends of the shaft.
The bearings can be of several different types, but the
one I will describe is known as a tilting pad journal
bearing.
It is a development of a simple sleeve type journal

bearing which is shown in Figure 17.
3.20
The sleeve type journal bearing consists of a simple

housing forming a sleeve around the shaft. As the
shaft rotates, it causes the film of oil to form a
wedge which holds the shaft and housing apart.
The tilting pad type bearing is a development of

this. It has a number of pads which are located on
fixed pivots attached to the stationary housing.
Figure 18 shows the arrangement of the pads in the

bearing.
As the shaft rotates, the film of oil again forms a

wedge between shaft and pad. In addition, the
tilting pads give the bearing self aligning properties.
These compensate for any slight misalignment of
shaft and bearing. They also tend to distribute
evenly the loads which are created when the
rotating assembly is spinning.
And now, let us take a look at thrust bearings.
3.21
You have already seen how the balancing drum helps to reduce the thrust forces to acceptable levels. The bearing has a collar which is fitted to and rotates
Any residual thrust, however, must be taken up by a thrust bearing. with the shaft. Located in recesses machined into a
fixed or non-rotating thrust surface, are a number of
A typical thrust bearing is shown in Figure 19 and is called a pivoting pad thrust bearing. metal shoes or pads.
The collar rotates against the pads which are free to

pivot. An oil wedge forms between the collar and the
pads, as in the tilting pad journal bearing.
Figure 19 shows a thrust bearing which is capable of

taking up thrust in one direction only. Most thrust
bearings, however, can take up thrust axially in both
directions. This requires two fixed or stationary shaft
thrust surfaces containing two sets of pads.
Diffusers and Diaphragms

From Figure 8 we can see that the diaphragms and
diffusers are non-rotating parts of the compressor.
From Section 1, you will remember that gas leaving

the impeller at the rim enters a flow channel called the
diffuser. In the simple, single stage compressor which
I used as an example, the diffuser was in the shape
of a volute. In a multistage compressor, having a
volute after each stage would be unwieldy. Therefore,
in this case, the flow channels are formed by having
diaphragms, which form part of the casing, and
separate the stages. The adjacent walls of individual
diaphragms form a diffuser passage.
3.22
Figure 20 demonstrates the layout of the

diaphragms and diffusers in a horizontally split.
multi-stage centrifugal compressor.
3.23
The diaphragms also guide the gas through return

passages to the eye of the next impeller.
Although not shown in Figure 20, the diaphragms

also carry labyrinth seals which prevent the back
flow of gas along the shaft from the high to the low
pressure sides of the impellers. We will now have a
closer look at seals.
Compressor Seals
Compressor seals can be divided into:
• internal seals, which are designed to prevent

the movement of gas within the compressor
casing
• external seals, which are designed to prevent

the escape of gas from the compressor casing
to the atmosphere.
Internal Seals
Let us consider internal seals first.
Labyrinth seals are the most common form of

internal seal. They consist of a series of teeth,
across which the gas would have to flow, in order to
escape from a high pressure area into a low
pressure area. Figure 21 shows a labyrinth seal
and how it works.
3.24
In a labyrinth seal the teeth are most commonly The type of seal selected depends upon the job it The most common devices used for external sealing
machined into sleeves which are attached to the has to do. However, because of the imperfect are liquid film seals.
casing or diaphragm, and are a very close fit with sealing nature of a labyrinth seal, it is never used as
the revolving shaft. the external shaft seal when compressing Liquid film seals are commonly used as external
flammable or dangerous gases. seals on high pressure, heavy duty compressors as
They operate by maintaining a minimum gap they provide complete sealing capabilities. There
between the shaft and the seal, and creating Typical uses of labyrinth seals in a centrifugal are, however, other types of seal in use. You will
turbulence in the gas as it passes across each seal compressor are : come across carbon ring seals, mechanical
surface. contact seals and increasingly, dry gas seals. In
• as interstage seals to prevent the flow of high this Unit, we will concern ourselves only with the
This turbulence converts pressure energy into heat pressure gas from the tip of the impeller to its liquid film seal and the dry gas seal.
energy, and pressure is therefore lost across each eye
stage of the labyrinth. Figure 22 on the next page shows a liquid film seal
• to maintain the differential pressure across the and the way in which it works.
The teeth of the labyrinth are machined into soft balance piston
alloys of aluminium or lead. In order to minimise the
gap between shaft and seal they are often allowed • to control the escape of compressor gas into
to rub against the rotating element when being the sealing system of an oil film seal
bedded in.
• to control the loss of lubricating or seal oil
The number of teeth on the labyrinth will vary from along a shaft
as few as two to well over 20. The number used will
depend upon:
External Seals
• the type of gas being compressed
Now let us look at external seals.
• the level of sealing required
When flammable or dangerous gases are being
• the differential pressure across the seal compressed it is important that the gases do not
escape from the compressor. To prevent this from
occurring, the gap between the compressor shaft
and the compressor casing, at each end, is sealed.
3.25
Liquid Film Seals

The liquid film seal uses oil as the sealing medium.
Oil is pumped between the shaft and two tight fitting
sleeves which are anchored to the compressor
casing. The two sleeves form an inboard sealing
element and an outboard sealing element.
The oil flowing across the outboard sealing element

does not come into direct contact with the
compressed gas and is returned directly to a seal
oil reservoir.
The oil flowing across the inboard sealing element

comes into contact with the compressed gas. Some
of the gas may dissolve in the oil, and the oil is
therefore routed to a de-gassing system before
being returned to the seal oil reservoir.
The liquid film seal has no touching parts in its

assembly. It is therefore not prone to wear, and is
very reliable.
3.26
Dry Gas Seals

The dry gas seal is a recent development which is
becoming increasingly popular as an external
compressor seal.
Figure 23 illustrates the construction and operation

of this type of seal.
The seal consists of :
• a rotating tungsten ring, attached to the

compressor shaft
• a static carbon ring, attached to the casing
The static carbon ring is pushed towards the rotating

tungsten ring by a set of coiled springs. When the
compressor is at rest, the two faces touch to form a
gas tight seal. Each contact face is machined to a
high degree of flatness so that this sealing effect
can be achieved.
3.27
A series of spiral grooves are cut into the face of the Pressure of gas in the sealing dams forces the carbon Now have a go at the following Test Yourself question.
tungsten ring, as shown in Figure 24. When the ring away from the tungsten ring, against the coiled
shaft begins to rotate, gas is pulled into these springs. At this point, the two surfaces are no longer
grooves, and forced towards the centre of the ring. A in contact and, therefore, no frictional heat is being
tiny area of high pressure gas is created at the generated. This means that no cooling is required
inside end of each groove, called a sealing dam. under normal running conditions.
If we were handling a non-flammable gas, some of the

gas being compressed would be used to create the
seal. The small amount of leakage through the seal
could then be vented.
Figure 23, however, shows the seal arrangement used

for flammable or toxic gases.
A labyrinth seal is mounted between the gas being

compressed and the dry gas seal. Nitrogen is injected
into this space at a pressure slightly higher than the
gas being compressed. Some nitrogen may leak back
into the compressor, but no toxic or flammable gas can
escape across the dry gas seal to atmosphere. When
used in this way, the nitrogen is called a buffer gas.
Dry gas seals give a reliable level of sealing without

the ancillary equipment associated with liquid film
seals- tanks, pumps, filters, de-gassers, and so on.
Apart from cost savings, the weight of this equipment
could be as high as seven or eight tons. This will be a
very important factor on an offshore production facility,
and the use of dry gas seals in this environment is
expected to increase.
3.28
Test Yourself 3.3

Read through the following statements and fill in the missing words from the list given below:
1. In a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. split casing, the casing is made in two halves which are

bolted together.
2. At a rotating assembly’s............................... speed it will reach a peak of vibration.
3. In a closed impeller the blades are attached to both the................... and the.........................
4. The thrust force acting on the rotating assembly is taken up by two items. They are the
..................... and the ...................................
5. The ........................guide the gas through the return passages to the eye of the next
impeller.
6. The most common internal seal is the............................seal.
LIST OF WORDS
HUB, DIFFUSERS, CRITICAL, SHROUD, THRUST BEARING,

LABYRINTH, BALANCING PISTON, HORIZONTALLY.
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.3 on page 3.55
3.29
In the Section we have just worked through, we looked at the component parts of a centrifugal
compressor.
These items are : From there we moved on to look at the rotating Next we looked at diaphragms and diffusers.
assembly which consists of a shaft, one or more These are the non-rotating parts of the compressor
• casing impellers and a balancing piston. The impellers are which reduce the velocity of the gas leaving the
mounted on the shaft and rotate with it. You saw that impeller, thus raising its pressure. They also guide
• rotating assembly (shaft - impeller-balance there are a number of basic types of impeller open, the gas from the outlet of one impeller to the inlet
piston) semi-closed and closed. The balance piston is also eye of the next.
mounted on the shaft and its function is to reduce
• bearings the thrust forces which can act on a centrifugal Finally we considered seals. You saw that they
compressor. I pointed out that it does this by using a are either internal or external seals. The labyrinth
• diffusers and diaphragms pressure difference across it to counteract the main types are commonly used as internal seals.
thrust.
• seals Liquid film seals are most often used for external
Bearings were the next thing we considered. We sealing purposes, although dry gas seals are
looked at journal bearings and thrust bearings. Journal becoming increasingly popular. Both types were
You saw that the casing can be horizontally split or bearings are used to support the rotor and allow it considered in detail. You should be aware,
vertically split and I illustrated the difference between to rotate freely. Thrust bearings are used to prevent however, that other designs maybe used as
the two. movement of the shaft in an axial direction. In both external seals.
cases the tilting or pivoting pad type bearing was
illustrated.
3.30
Before moving on to Section 3, where we will be

looking at auxiliary systems, take some time to try
the following Test Yourself.
Test Yourself 3.4

State whether the following components
are part of : 1. Inboard element ...................
a) the rotating assembly 2. Labyrinth teeth ...................
b) the sealing system 3. Impeller rim ...................
c) the casing and non-rotating assembly 4. Diffuser ...................
5. Thrust collar ...................
6. Diaphragm ...................
7. De-gasser ...................
8. Journal bearing ...................
9. Balancing piston ...................
10. Inlet port ...................
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.4 on

page 3.56
3.31
Section 3 - Auxiliary Systems

In this, the third section of the Unit, we will be looking Figure 25 also shows how the oil flows through the
at the auxiliary systems associated with centrifugal seals. Note how part of the oil in each seal flows
compressors. These are: outwards past the outboard sealing element. This oil
does not come into contact with gas and, therefore,
• seal oil system can flow directly back to the seal oil reservoir. The oil
which flows inwards past the inboard sealing element
• lubrication system becomes contaminated with gas. In order that this oil
can be used again it must be cleaned. It is therefore
• cooling system routed to a de-gassing system before returning to the
reservoir.
• driver and coupling
(We will talk about the reference line very shortly).
Seal Oil System
Let’s start with the seal oil system.
As we saw in the last Section, high pressure, heavy

duty compressors are often fitted with liquid film seals.
These are designed to prevent any gas from leaking to
the atmosphere from the shaft ends.
Look at Figure 25. This is a simplified view of a

compressor which shows the liquid film seals at each
end of the shaft. Each seal will be the same type as
the one illustrated in Figure 22 on Page 3.26.
3.32
3.33
The system which supplies the oil to the seals consists

of the following items.
• a seal oil reservoir
• one main and one auxiliary seal oil supply

pump
• filters
• coolers
• a header tank
• seal oil traps (de-gassing system)
Take a look at Figure 26 which shows the seal oil

system in simplified form.
3.34
The oil is pumped from the reservoir via the filters

and coolers to the header tank.
Lubrication System consider the two as separate systems.
A typical lubrication system would consist of the

We can now move on to the lubrication system.
A pressure reference line takes gas from the seals following components :
and feeds it to the header tank. Variations in this
All rotating machinery must have a lubrication
gas pressure at the seals are, therefore, mirrored in • an oil reservoir
system of some form or another. Compressors are
the tank.
no exception. The lubricant, in this case oil,
• a main and auxiliary pump
performs the following functions:
However, the oil pressure at the seal must always
be greater than the gas pressure there, otherwise • coolers
• separates moving parts
gas will escape. This is achieved by always
positioning the header tank above the compressor, • filters
• removes heat generated by friction
and maintaining the seal oil at a fixed level in the
tank with a level controller. The seal oil pressure, The system layout is shown in Figure 27, overleaf.
• reduces metal wear
therefore, will always exceed the gas pressure at Take a look at this now and identify the
the seal by an amount equal to the static head of oil. components.
• protects metal surfaces from corrosion
From the header tank the oil flows to the seal.
The lubrication system normally provides a flow of
As you have just seen, some of the oil then flows
oil to the journal and thrust bearings of the
outwards between the shaft and the outboard
compressor. In addition, it provides lubrication for
sealing element to the reservoir. The rest flows
the main driver, gear box and other accessories.
across the inboard sealing element, to the reservoir
via the de-gasser
Most lubricating oils, usually abbreviated to lube
oils, are refined from crude oil. However, to give
Follow carefully the layout of the seal oil system in
them their special properties, chemical additives
Figure 26 and ensure that you are familiar with the
may be mixed with them.
components and the method of operation.
Each compressor will have a lube oil which is
As you look at Figure 26, remember the comment I
specified for that particular machine. Care must be
made on Page 28 about the weight of a liquid film
taken to ensure that no other lubricant is used, in
seal system - that it could easily reach several tons.
order to prevent the possibility of damage to the
compressor.
It will be clear why lighter systems, such as dry gas
seals, often prove more popular in an offshore
In some compressors, the lubrication system may be
environment.
combined with the seal oil system which we have
just been looking at. Here, however, we will
3.35
The lube oil is pumped from the reservoir through

coolers which reduce the temperature of the oil
to its correct operating value. From there it passes
through filters which remove any dirt particles. The
cooled, clean oil then flows under pressure to each
bearing through pipework, grooves and channels.
After performing its lubricating job, the oil flows back
to the reservoir under gravity. The system pressure is
maintained by having a pressure controller in the line
between the filters and the compressor.
Note that a header tank is incorporated into the

system. Under normal running conditions the tank is
kept topped up with oil from the main feed line. A small
amount of oil will overflow back to the reservoir.
If the main lube oil pumps fail, the compressor will shut
down. When this happens, the bearings are lubricated
using a gravity feed from the header tank. This ensures
that there will be no damage caused to unlubricated
bearings during the time that the compressor is rolling
to a halt.
Before moving on to the next part of Section 3,

in which we will look at cooling systems, try Test
Yourself 3.5.
3.36
Test Yourself 3.5

Indicate if the following statements are true or false. If false give the correct answer.
a) The external seals of a high pressure compressor are usually labyrinth seals.
b) In a seal oil system a pressure reference line takes gas from the seals and feeds it to a
header tank.
c) In a seal oil system the oil which comes in contact with the gas is routed to the reservoirs via
the filters.
d) Lubricating oil helps to remove heat generated by friction.
e) In a typical lube oil system the filters remove dirt particles from the oil.
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.5 on page 3.56
3.37
Cooling System
Compression generates heat. It is often necessary
to cool the compressed gas for safe and efficient
operation of the plant. In many installations, there
may be a number of compressors working in series.
If the hot, compressed gas from the first compressor
were passed directly to the suction of the next
machine, overheating and damage could occur.
In such a situation, an aftercooler may be installed

downstream of each compressor.
Figure 28 shows a typical aftercooler for a

centrifugal compressor, and its position in the
system.
3.38
Large compressors will consist of two or more sets

of impellers mounted on a common shaft. In order
to reduce the temperature increase within such a
machine, the gas may be discharged after the first
set of impellers, cooled, and directed to the suction
of the next set.
In this case, the gas passes through an intercooler

as it flows between the two sets of impellers.
This arrangement is shown in Figure 29.
3.39
Drivers and Couplings In some instances, it may be necessary for the

compressor to run at a variable speed, even though
In the final part of this Section, I want to have a brief the driver may be a constant speed machine such
look at drivers and couplings. as an electric motor. In these instances, a variable
speed fluid coupling may be fitted between the main Test Yourself 3.6
Centrifugal compressors used in oil and gas field driver and the gearbox to permit this.
operations are normally driven by gas turbines
or electric motors. These are connected to the In this short piece on drivers and couplings I have not In the following list of components, some belong
compressor by means of drive shafts and couplings. tried to describe the components in detail. However, it to the compressor auxiliary systems, some do
is important that you know the terminology associated not. If not, to which system do they belong?
Some drivers, which rotate at high speeds, may be with them.
coupled directly to the compressor. However, it is 1. Impeller
often necessary to incorporate some kind of speed
increasing gearbox between driver and compressor. 2. Lube oil cooler
Couplings are used to connect two shafts together and 3. Coupling

transmit the rotary motion of one to the other. Great
care is taken to align the driver shaft to the compressor 4. Driver
shaft. However, due to variations in loading and
possible uneven heating of materials and equipment, 5. Balancing piston
small misalignment conditions can occur.
Before I summarise this Section, attempt 6. Diaphragm
Because of this a flexible coupling is required. Test Yourself 3.6.
You should not misunderstand the word ‘flexible’. 7. Intercooler
A compressor coupling may be over 10 inches in
diameter, and appear to be far from ‘flexible’ when 8. De-gasser
handled.
9. Reservoir
10. Thrust collar
You will find the answers in Check Yourself

3.6 on page 3.56
3.40
In this Section on auxiliaries, we have looked at seal oil systems, lubricating systems, cooling
systems, drivers and couplings.
Starting with seal oil systems, you saw that the oil is pumped from a reservoir, through coolers and
filters, to a header tank. The level in the tank maintained the correct oil pressure on the seal.
Some of the oil, which becomes contaminated with gas, is cleaned in a degassing system before
being used again. The rest of the oil goes straight back to the reservoir.
Turning our attention to the lubricating system, you saw that the system is very similar to the seal
oil system. Again, coolers and filters are used and the oil is continually circulated round the
system and back to a reservoir. The lube oil not only lubricates the compressor bearings, but also
the driver and gear box.
A cooling system may be required to reduce the temperature of the gas for safe and efficient
operation. You saw that this system may take the form of an intercooler, or an after cooler.
Finally, in the Section, we had a brief look at drivers and couplings. The compressors may be
driven by electric motors, or gas or steam turbines. They may be directly coupled or be driven via
a gear box. Couplings connect the shafts of the driver and compressor. These couplings are
called flexible couplings which are capable of taking up any small misalignments between the
shafts.
In the final Section of this Unit on centrifugal compressors, we will take a look at compressor
operations.
3.41
Section 4 - The Operation of Centrifugal Compressors

In this, the final Section of the centrifugal
compressor unit, we will be looking at the operation of
the compressor.
I have divided the Section into the following topics:
• compressor performance characteristics
• operating problems, alarms and shutdowns
• operational checks
Let’s start by considering the performance

characteristics.
Performance Characteristics
The performance of a centrifugal compressor can
be shown on a set of operating curves. These are
graphs prepared individually for each compressor.
They show the range of flows, heads, efficiencies
and speeds within which a particular compressor is
capable of operating. In other words, they indicate
the performance of the compressor under different
operating conditions.
Figure 30 is a simple graph which shows a single

operating curve for a specific compressor.
3.42
You can see that: You will notice three other lines on Figure 30, marked
as:
• the vertical axis gives the actual compression • optimum efficiency
ratio (or head) as a percentage of the design
compression ratio • approximate surge limit
• the horizontal axis gives the inlet flow (capacity) • stonewall (choke) line
as a percentage of the design capacity
We will look at all of these in some detail later.
The solid line curve which passes through the design
point shows the relationship between head and inlet In fact, the performance of a compressor is usually
flow when the machine is running at 100% of its design expressed by a family of curves. The shape and
speed. position of the curves depend on a number of things.
These include the design, size, speed and the number
The design point for any compressor is the point at of impellers.
which the machine is :
• running at 100% of its design speed
• compressing 100% of the design capacity or

inlet flow
A typical set of curves is shown in Figure 31, overleaf.
• producing 100% of the design compression
ratio
At this point the compressor is operating at 100%

efficiency. As you can see from the operating curve,
any changes to the speed, flow or pressure will remove
it from this point.
3.43
In Figure 31, the curves represent the relationship

between head and flow for a number of different
speeds.
The efficiency of the machine at various heads, flows

and speeds is indicated in the graph as a series of
ellipses representing lines of constant efficiency. You
will also see that optimum efficiency at varying
speeds is represented by a single line running through
the ellipses.
The machine is capable of operating at conditions

anywhere within the envelope of the curves. This
means that the compressor is able to operate at
conditions away from its design point, but at a reduced
efficiency.
The boundaries of this envelope to the left and right

are labelled approximate surge limit and stonewall
(choke) line. I will have more to say about these lines
shortly.
The upper boundary of the envelope is determined by

the maximum speed at which the impeller is capable of
rotating. This in turn depends on its size and
construction.
The lower boundary is not really a problem for the

compressor. If the surge and stonewall lines were
extended down, they would meet at the point of zero
flow and zero head. So the compressor could operate
at much lower speeds. This lower limit is usually
determined by the minimum speed at which the driver
can be operated.
3.44
Let’s now look at the two boundaries of the compressor performance curves shown in Imagine that the compressor is running at constant
Figures 30 and 31. speed at Point 1 on the curve. This means that it will be
delivering a certain pressure (P) with a corresponding
These are the approximate surge limit and stonewall. First of all, surge limit. inlet flow (F). Everything is normal.
Compressor Surge Supposing, however, that there is a sudden increase in

downstream resistance which reduces the inlet flow to
The surge limit is the minimum flow for a given speed at which the compressor can maintain Point 2 on the curve.
stable operation. At inlet flow rates to the left of this line, the operation of the machine
becomes unstable. Don’t forget that, if the compressor is running at a
constant speed, the pressure and flow values must lie on
We can analyse a compressor characteristic curve to see how surge in a compressor occurs. the curve.
Take a look at Figure 32 which shows a curve of discharge pressure against inlet flow for a At this point the compressor will continue to operate in a
constant speed. You should note that I have deliberately exaggerated the shape of this stable manner. Even though there is a pressure increase
curve in order to make the following explanation of surge more easily understood. in the downstream pipework, the compressor discharge
pressure has risen to overcome this.
Now look at Figure 33
3.45
Supposing, now, that the compressor is operating at In major cases of surge there are complete reversals of The effects of compressor surge are well known and
Point 3 on the curve which is right at the peak. flow which result in a massive shunting of the rotating predictable. Because of this, all high pressure
assembly. Each cycle may occur over twice per second compressors are fitted with anti-surge control
Now, if there is a reduction in flow due to an increase and on every cycle the whole rotating assembly (which loops which prevent the situation from occurring.
in downstream resistance, the operating point moves may weigh in excess of two tons) shunts inside
to Point 4. the compressor casing as the thrust forces change The anti-surge control loops operate by controlling
direction across the compressor. the flow of gas through the compressor to a pre-set
This point is in a region where the compressor actually minimum.
produces less pressure than at Point 3. The machine Each shunt can throw enormous stresses on thrust
now cannot produce the pressure necessary to bearings, journal bearings, seals and shaft
overcome the downstream resistance. couplings.
When this condition occurs, the flow momentarily The ultimate result of compressor surge is the rapid
reverses its direction so there is no forward flow. The backward and forward movement of the rotating
operating point now moves to Point 5. assembly, and the resulting vibration may:
With no flow through the machine, the discharge • destroy internal labyrinth seals
pressure is reduced. This then allows the gas flow rate
to build up again towards Point 6. • destroy journal and/or thrust bearings
But, at that flow rate, the pressure delivered by the • seize the rotating assembly in its bearings
machine is less than that required to overcome the
downstream resistance. The operating point then • stall the main driver
moves along the curve towards Point 3 again and,
once beyond there, the cycle is repeated. • shatter the shaft coupling and/or gear box
The cycling I have just described causes oscillations of • shatter the impellers and/or the compressor
the gas flow in the compressor and pipeline, which is casing
known as surge.
3.46
Figure 34 is a drawing of a simple anti-surge controller which re-cycles gas from the You can see from the drawing that the anti-surge controller is
discharge of the compressor back to the suction line. connected to a control valve. The valve is in a pipeline which
is connected between the compressor suction and discharge
lines outside the machine.
The controller senses and compares the rate of gas flow into
the compressor, and the pressure rise across it. If the flow rate
at a given pressure rise is less than the setting of the controller,
the control valve is opened. This allows enough gas to flow
from the discharge to the suction of the compressor to keep the
suction flow rate above the surge value.
Note that the recycled gas is cooled in a heat exchanger. This

is to prevent a rapid increase in temperature as hot discharge
gas is fed to the suction and further heated as it is compressed
again.
In view of the damage which may result from surge, most

centrifugal compressors are fitted with an approaching surge
alarm and an anti-surge shutdown, in addition to an
anti-surge controller. These systems work as follows :
The anti-surge controller should normally prevent surge from

occurring. If it fails to operate, then the approaching surge
alarm will be activated.
The approaching surge alarm will alert the operator to the fact
that the anti-surge controller has not managed to rectify the
situation. If the situation is not corrected then the anti-surge
shutdown is activated.
The anti-surge shutdown device is set to activate just before the

point at which the compressor will enter surge. When this
safety device operates, the compressor will be stopped.
3.47
Stonewall or Choke Operating Problems, Alarms

and Shutdowns
You will remember that the second boundary line
on the compressor performance graph was called
the stonewall (choke). Figures 30 and 31 both Test Yourself 3.7 Just like any other machinery or process plant,
compressors are protected from malfunction or
show this. damage by instrumentation systems. These
a) List 3 possible consequences of surge systems will generate alarms and compressor
Stonewall is the point at which the flow rate through shutdowns if dangerous situations should arise.
the compressor approaches the speed of sound in in a compressor.
Let’s have a look at some of these situations now.
the gas it is compressing. As this occurs, the shock
waves generated result in a choking effect, which
prevents the gas from building pressure. b) What measurements are compared by Excessive Compressor Speed
an anti-surge controller?
The symptoms that the compressor is approaching If the compressor is being driven by an electric
a stonewall condition are a rapidly falling discharge motor, rotational speed is normally fixed and normal
head coupled with very little extra flow. c) What determines the lower speed limit running speed cannot be exceeded.
of a centrifugal compressor?
Stonewall limits the maximum flow which the If the compressor is being driven by a steam or gas
machine can achieve at a given speed. turbine, normal running speed could be exceeded
which might result in severe damage to the system.
In these cases the compressor, and the main driver,
are normally protected by :
• a speed governor on the main driver which is

Before moving on, have a go at Test Yourself 3.7. set to control the compressor at a maximum
of 100% normal running speed
• an electronic speed sensor on the main

driver which will shut down the compressor if
its rotational speed exceeds 105% of normal
running speed
You will find the answers in

Check Yourself 3.7 on page 3.57
3.48
• a mechanical trip which flies out from the shaft The results are varied but may include: The liquid which is separated from the gas,
of the main driver and trips the fuel supply, accumulates in the bottom of the drum. If this liquid
if the rotational speed of the compressor • The compressor may slow down or stop and level rises beyond a certain point, there is a danger
exceeds 110% of normal running speed the main driver may stall of it being carried over with the gas. To prevent this,
a low liquid level is maintained in the vessel by level
Ingress of Liquids • The strain on the gear box may cause it to fail control instrumentation. Any further rise in level,
or burst perhaps through a level control malfunction, will
Ingress of free liquids into the compressor can be trigger an alarm at a pre-set value. If the level still
extremely dangerous. The liquids could be in the • The compressor shaft may be bent by the continues to rise, the instruments will cause a
form of mist or droplets, or in the form of larger sudden and uneven forces which occur. This shutdown of the compressor plant.
slugs. bending of the compressor shaft may often
result in a compressor casing failure
If liquids enter a centrifugal compressor in mist or
droplet form, there may be erosion of the impellers, • The seal system may fail due to an over
diaphragms and casing. pressuring of the system
This erosion may create a loss of efficiency, or The most common result is that considerable
problems of vibration as the impellers become damage to the compressor’s shaft, shaft coupling, Figure 35, on the next page, shows a simple layout
unbalanced. impellers and casing will occur. of compressor and knock out drum.
In extreme cases, the erosion will result in both In order to prevent liquids entering the machine, all
impeller and casing failure. centrifugal compressors are fitted with suction
knock-out drums. These are pressure vessels
If the liquids are in the form of slugs when they enter located in the pipework leading to the suction of the
the compressor then, as liquids are both compressor. They are designed to separate any
incompressible and denser than gases, the effects free liquid from the suction gas stream.
are likely to be sudden and dramatic.
3.49
3.50
temperature alarms and shutdowns.

Vibration In addition to the alarms and shutdowns which I
have just described, other alarms may be fitted to
If the compressor starts to vibrate, the rotating the compressor. These are called inhibit alarms.
impellers could rub against the casing. This could Test Yourself 3.8 They are fitted to prevent the compressor being
started under conditions which may be detrimental
damage the machine, and in severe cases, cause
catastrophic failure. to the machine. Once the machine is running,
however, the inhibit alarm will not cause a
The vibration could be caused by surge, corrosion Describe with the aid of a simple sketch an shutdown.
products being deposited in the compressor, erosion anti-surge controller.
of impellers, or misalignment of the driver and I have included below, as examples, a few inhibit
compressor. alarm situations :
To protect the compressor, vibration monitors are • An inhibit which will not allow the compressor
installed at various points on the machine. At pre- lube-oil pump to start until the lube-oil
determined vibration levels, the monitors will initiate temperature is at a pre-set level.
alarms, followed by shutdowns.
You will find the answer in • An inhibit which will not allow the compressor
Check Yourself 3.8 on page 3.57 to start until the lube-oil temperature is at a
pre-set level.
Surge
• An inhibit which will not allow the compressor
We looked at the problem of surge a little earlier in to start until the lube-oil reservoir is full.
this Section. Check that you remember what protects
the machine in the case of surge by attempting Test • An inhibit which will not allow the compressor
Yourself 3.8. Lube Oil Pressure and Temperature to start unless the suction valve is open.
If the pressure on the lube oil system is too low, the

compressor will not be lubricated properly.
Excessive wear on bearings would then occur. To
prevent this, pressure sensors initiate an alarm,
followed by a shutdown, if the pressure falls below a
set value.
Similarly, if the lube oil gets too hot, it will become

too thin and lose its lubricating properties.
Temperature sensors will initiate high lube oil
3.51
The Main Operational Checks on a Check that the valves in the suction and We should check that:
discharge pipelines and the anti-surge system
Centrifugal Compressor are in the correct position, i.e., open or closed. • there is sufficient lube-oil in the reservoir
We have looked at how the system is controlled, We have to make sure that the compressor has an • any lube-oil added to the system is of the
and what alarm and shutdown systems are uninterrupted supply of gas to the suction. We also correct type and grade
commonly installed. Now we can look at how the have to make sure that the gas is able to flow away
compressor should be operated. from the compressor to where it is intended to go. • main lube oil pumps are running and header
The anti-surge line should also be checked to tanks are full
The golden rules for operating a centrifugal ensure that the control valve is fully open when the
compressor are: compressor is being started. • lube-oil flows are within normal limits
Before Starting the Compressor Check that dependent systems are operational • auxiliary lube oil pumps are available for use
Check that the compressor is purged of all air We have to check that the compressor is not going Check that the seal oil system is operating
to shut down because of a lack of gas, or because correctly
If the compressor is not completely purged of air, the main driver has run out of fuel, or for any other
the gas/air mixture may burn or explode when the reason which is not directly related to the We should check that:
compressor is started. compressor itself.
• there is sufficient seal oil in the reservoir
Check that the suction line and compressor Check that the discharge valve is in the correct
casing is free from liquids position • any seal oil added to the system is of the
correct type and grade
Liquids are incompressible. If we try to compress Some centrifugal compressors are started up with
them, the pressure increase maybe so high that the the discharge valve closed and allowed to go • main seal oil pumps are running and header
compressor is damaged. through a re-cycle stage before they are put on line. tanks are full
The high rotational speeds of centrifugal Check that all relief valves are operational • seal oil flows are within normal limits
compressors also means that they develop high
torque when starting. Trying to spin a casing full of Check that the lube-oil system is operating • auxiliary seal oil pumps are available for use
liquid may stall the main driver during the start correctly
sequence.
3.52
Check that the lube-oil and seal oil cooling • A high vibration shutdown by-pass. As the If you are involved in compressor operations
medium is available compressor starts up it may pass through two you should become completely familiar with the
or more critical speeds which will cause high equipment under your control. Your specific
We should check that: vibration. Unless the high vibration shutdown operating procedures should be followed, and
is by-passed, the compressor will be shut safe working practices adopted at all times.
• the lube-oil and seal oil coolers are operating down as it passes through these critical
correctly speeds.
• the temperatures are being properly When the Compressor is Running

maintained
• Check that the pressures, levels, flows and
Check that no current alarm or shutdown temperatures are within operational limits.
conditions exist These checks must be made at regular
intervals, at least once every two hours.
In addition to the alarm and shutdown instrumentation
(including inhibit alarms), centrifugal compressors are • Check that the lube-oil and seal oil levels
often fitted with various by-passes which allow them to are maintained. If it becomes necessary to
start up. The most common bypasses are: top up the systems with oil, the following
points should be noted:
• An anti-surge shutdown by-pass. Surge is
a function of low flow, and the anti-surge Always use the correct type of oil for each system.
shutdown operates when the flow through the
compressor is low. Before start-up there is, Always ‘top up’ the system with clean and dust free
of course, no flow. Therefore, the anti-surge oil of identical grade.
shutdown must be by-passed during start-up,
to prevent it shutting down the compressor I have described a few checks that an operator of
due to the temporary, low flow conditions compression plant should carry out as part of his
which exist at this time. routine duties. The list is by no means exhaustive
and is certainly not meant to be taken as an
operating procedure.
3.53
In the final Section of this Unit on centrifugal compressors, we have concentrated on the operation
of the system.
The section was split into three parts: • Finally we had a look at some of the
operational checks which should be carried
• In the first part we looked at compressor out before a compressor is started and when
performance characteristics. You saw that the machine is running.
the performance can be illustrated by a set
of operating curves. These curves show the Now that you have completed Section 4, you
range of heads, flows, efficiencies and have come to the end of Unit 3 of the
speeds within which a compressor can compression programme. I must emphasise
operate. once again that this unit is not meant to take
the place of specific manufacturers
We studied a set of typical curves and used guidelines or operating instructions. It is
them to explain surge and stonewall. You intended to give you a good basic grounding in
saw how a compressor is protected against the design, construction and operation of
surge by an anti-surge system. centrifugal compressors.
• We then went on to consider some Now, go back to the Training Targets and satisfy
operating problems, alarms and shutdowns. yourself that you have met those targets .
We looked at some typical problems and
saw how a compressor is protected against
the damage that they can cause.
3.54
Check Yourself - Answers
Check Yourself 3.1 Check Yourself 3.2 Check Yourself 3.3

The items marked with a tick are centrifugal 1. In a HORIZONTALLY split casing,
a) Compression ratio
compressor items. The others belong to a the casing is made in two halves
discharge pressure
reciprocating compressor. which are bolted together.
= suction pressure

Impeller √ 2. At a rotating assembly’s
90 psia = 3.6
= 25 psia CRITICAL speed it will reach a
Diffuser √ peak of vibration.
Piston Rod 3. In a closed impeller the blades are
b) Discharge pressure attached to both the HUB and the
Cylinder SHROUD

= Suction pressure x Compression ratio
Shaft √ 4. The thrust force acting on the

= 30 psia x 3.6 rotating assembly is taken up by
Crank two items. They are the

= 108 psia BALANCING PISTON and the
Casing √ THRUST BEARING
Blades √ 5. The DIFFUSERS guide the gas
through the return passages to
Cross Head the eye of the next impeller.
Clearance Pocket 6. The most common internal seal is
the LABYRINTH seal.
3.55
Check Yourself 3.4 Check Yourself 3.5 Check Yourself 3.6

a) FALSE 1. Impeller NO - Rotating assembly
The external seals are usually liquid
1. Inboard element (b) film seals or other, equally efficient types. 2. Lube oil cooler YES
2. Labyrinth teeth (b) b) TRUE 3. Coupling YES

3. Impeller rim (a) c) FALSE 4. Driver YES
The oil which comes into contact with
4. Diffuser (c) the gas is routed via the DE-GASSERS to the 5. Balancing piston NO - Rotating assembly
reservoirs.
5. Thrust collar (a) 6. Diaphragm NO - Non rotating assembly
d) TRUE
6. Diaphragm (c) 7. Intercooler YES
e) TRUE
7. De-gasser (b) 8. De-gasser YES
8. Journal bearing (c) 9. Reservoir YES
9. Balancing piston (a) 10. Thrust collar NO - Rotating assembly
10. Inlet port (c)
3.56
Check Yourself 3.7 Check Yourself 3.8

Using a sketch similar to that in Figure 34, your description should have been as
a) Any three of the following : follows :
An anti-surge controller compares the inlet flow to the compressor

- destroy internal labyrinth seals with the pressure rise across the compressor. If the inlet flow rate is
too low for a particular pressure rise the controller opens a valve in a
- destroy bearings line between compressor suction and discharge.
- stall main driver This allows gas to flow from the discharge to the suction side of the
compressor to keep the suction flow rate above that at which surge
- shatter coupling and/or gear box will occur.
- shatter impeller
b) Inlet flow rate, and pressure difference between suction

and discharge.
c) The minimum speed at which the driver can be operated.
3.57
3.58

Centrifugal Compressor 1588467358 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Centrifugal Compressor 1588467358 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Centrifugal Compressor 1588467358 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POL

Petroleum Open Learning

• Introduction 3.3 training targets for you to achieve

• Explain the basic operating principles of a centrifugal compressor.

• Describe the construction a centrifugal compressor.

• Explain a basic centrifugal compressor alarm and shutdown system.

• List the common operating checks carried out on a centrifugal compressor.

• centrifugal (radial flow) compressors

Section 1 - Basic Theory

The diffuser shown in Figure 1 is called a volute

The next Figure, 6, shows, in graphical form how the

We looked at a simple compressor made up of the following parts:

Section 2 - Design and Construction

• rotating assembly - consisting of

• diffusers and diaphragms

Before we proceed, take a look at Figure 8 overleaf,

Of course, a compressor has to be powered by

Let’s move on to the components now.

Horizontally Split Casings

Vertically Split Casings

The internal assembly of the compressor may be

Vertically split casing compressors are often called

Figure 10 shows a vertically split compressor

Figure 11 indicates the basic shape of the

The impellers impart kinetic energy to the gas by

Impellers are available in a variety of designs such

One way to minimise rotating assembly movement is

On a large compressor, the amount of thrust force

To reduce the effects of the thrust forces and hence

Figure 15 shows a typical balancing (or balance)

The balance piston is a solid drum which is

Figure 16 shows how the low pressure gas from the

Also, as you have already seen, a thrust bearing is

Look back to the drawing of the shaft. It is Figure 11

It is a development of a simple sleeve type journal

The sleeve type journal bearing consists of a simple

The tilting pad type bearing is a development of

Figure 18 shows the arrangement of the pads in the

As the shaft rotates, the film of oil again forms a

And now, let us take a look at thrust bearings.

The collar rotates against the pads which are free to

Figure 19 shows a thrust bearing which is capable of

Diffusers and Diaphragms

From Section 1, you will remember that gas leaving

Figure 20 demonstrates the layout of the

The diaphragms also guide the gas through return

Although not shown in Figure 20, the diaphragms

• internal seals, which are designed to prevent

• external seals, which are designed to prevent

Labyrinth seals are the most common form of

Liquid Film Seals

The oil flowing across the outboard sealing element

The oil flowing across the inboard sealing element

The liquid film seal has no touching parts in its

Dry Gas Seals

Figure 23 illustrates the construction and operation

The seal consists of :

• a rotating tungsten ring, attached to the