4.1.2 Fibre and Yarn Properties

4.1.
2 Fibre and yarn properties

As it is explained earlier, for a given ballistic materials all the fabric and projectile geometry, material
properties,boundary conditions and friction should be coupled for better performance and all play a role in
determining ballistic performance. Even though the effectiveness of the ballistic impact performance of the materials
depends with various parameters, different studies have also investigated the influences of fibre and yarn properties
on the ballistic response.
The effect of different configuration patterns of fibres on the trauma penetration depth and ballistic impact
resistance for laminated composites such as Personal Armour System for Ground Troops (PASGT) helmet were
investigated using a powder gun with 9 mm full metal jacket bullet (level NIJ 0106.00 IIIA) and fragment
simulating projectiles at various impact velocities [267].
The study has investigated and compares the ballistic behaviours of the 19 layers of aramid composite, plain-woven
kenaf composite and hybrid-laminated composites. The hybrid-laminated composites absorbed more penetration
energy compared to kenaf/PVB composites, and they absorb over three-quarters of the initial impact energy of the
bullet through plastic deformation.
Moreover, arranging woven kenaf layers alternately with Kevlar 29 fabric layers provides lower energy absorption
than placing woven kenaf layers together and Kevlar 29 layers separately for the same hybrid volume and thickness.
The effects of high-modulus organic fibres (X-500) against the ballistic protection were investigated for the ballistic
protection by involving three different samples made with yarn having different physical properties used in fabric,
felt, and laminate form.
Sample with most ductile property showed considerable promise with a ballistic resistance significantly greater than
normal for a material of such modest tensile strength [268]. While developing woven fabrics for the ballistic
material, apart from fibre and fabric properties, the yarn’s physical properties play their parts. This was discussed in
terms of number of multifilaments and which is strongly influenced by the ballistic mechanism [269].
As the number of multifilament fibres within the fabric increases, it facilitates energy dissipation from a high-speed
ballistic projectile, and plays the key role in optimizing the ballistic properties of any given fabric. One of the studies
also investigated computationally the effects of the statistical yarn strength distribution characteristics on the
probabilistic fabric impact response with the help of five different strength distributions with differing mean
strengths and distribution widths [149].
The result revealed that yarn strength distributions could be major determinants of fabric probabilistic penetration
behaviour. As it is predicted, decreasing yarn mean strength led to reductions in fabric V50 velocity, while
increasing the standard deviation in yarn strengths led to an increase in the standard deviation of the probabilistic
velocity response. Involving yarn-gripping systems in the fabric production can also increase the inter-yarn friction,
which by turn plays a great role in absorbing impact energy in ballistic performances.
This has been proved both experimentally and numerically on yarn gripping effects while impact energy absorption
of three different variations of the plain woven fabric (leno insertion, double weft and weft cramming) made of
Dyneema (UHMWPE) fibre to increase yarn–yarn friction [270].
The fabric energy absorption has been found increased using better yarn–yarn coefficient of friction due to the fact
that, certain evels of yarn–yarn friction help to distribute the load not only on primary yarns to be damaged at an
early stage, but also to secondary yarns and enable more materials to be involved in energy dissipation.
Moreover, numerical simulations on the influence of yarn material properties on the ballistic performance of high-
strength plainweave Kevlar KM2 fabric was carried out [271]. By clamping the two edges to correlate the model
with experimental test, the result shows that ballistic performance depends upon friction, elastic modulus and
strength of the yarns, where friction improves ballistic performance by maintaining the integrity of the weave pattern
since yarns material properties have a significant influence on the effect of friction.
Yarn Poisson’s ratio, transverse and shear modulus have also shown a different role on the ballistic impact
behaviours of the final ballistic materials [272]. Experimental investigation and numerical validation were carried
out to study such effects using a crimped yarn and a complete two-dimensional Kevlar plain-weave fabric.
Based on both impact cases, the result shows that Poisson’s ratio and transversal modulus shows a negligible effect,
whereas, yarn shear modulus were found an important parameter that mainly influences the ballistic performance of
a two dimensional plain-woven fabric.
A finite-element method (FEM) with a series of transient non-linear dynamic analyses were used to investigate two
different yarn models ((a) the warp and weft yarns are represented using first-order three-dimensional solid elements
and (b) a membrane model in which the same yarns are represented using second-order membrane elements on their
ballistic performances of single-ply plain-woven balanced square textile-fabric armour on the yarn-level [273].
The analysis was carried out based on different yarn–yarn and projectile–fabric frictional conditions and under
different far-field boundary conditions applied to the edges of the fabric. Based on the result, the roles yarn–yarn
and projectile–fabric friction play in the impact process as well as the effect of the far-field boundary conditions
applied to the edges of the fabric.
Another concept also revealed that the application of coating mechanism on the fibre and yarn surface with some
chemical would increase the ballistic performances of its corresponding fabric with superior distribution of ballistic
energy compared to fibres that were not coated due to its ability to favour the formation of different forms of
frictional behaviour [274][275][276].

4.1.2 Fibre and Yarn Properties

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2 Fibre and yarn properties

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