Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures: Reported by ACI Committee 350

ACI 350R-89
Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures

Reported by ACI Committee 350
Frank Klein Robert Little Anand B. Gogate
Chairman Chairman, editorial subcommittee Secretary
James P. Archibald Ashok K. Dhingra Gerard B. Hasselwander Predrag L. Popovic
Jon B. Ardahl Donald R. Dressler Dov Kaminetzky Satish K. Sachdev
Paul A. Beckmann, Jr. Donald L. Dube David A. Kleveter Harold N. Schneider
Reginald H. Benton Anthony L. Felder Nicholas A. Legatos Sudhakar P. Verma
Patrick J. Creegan Timothy J. Fowler* Glenn E. Noble Roger H. Wood
This report presents recommendations for structural design, mate- Chapter 3 -- Materials, mixture proportioning,
rials, and construction of concrete tanks, reservoirs, and other struc- and testing, p. 350R-15
tures commonly used in water containment, industrial and domestic 3.1 - Cementitious materials
water, and wastewater treatment works, where dense, impermeable 3.2 - Admixtures
concrete with high resistance to chemical attack is required. Special 3.3 - Water
emphasis is placed on a structural design that minimizes the possibil- 3.4 - Aggregates
ity of cracking and accommodates vibrating equipment and other 3.5 - Mix proportioning
special loads. Design and spacing of joints are considered. Propor- 3.6 - Evaluation and acceptance
tioning of concrete, placement, curing, and protection against chem-
icals are also described. Information on seismic design is included.
Chapter 4 -- Construction, p. 350R-17
Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; cements; chemical attack; coatings; con- 4.1 - Concrete
crete construction; concrete durability; concrete finishing (fresh concrete); con- 4.2 - Placement of concrete
cretes; cracking (fracturing); crack width and spacing; curing; deflection; 4.3 - Joints
earthquake resistant structures: environmental engineering; finishes; floors; 4.4 - Formwork
formwork (construction); foundations; joint sealers; joints (junctions); live 4.5 - Finishes for exposed surfaces
loads; mix proportioning: patching; permeability; placing; protective coatings; 4.6 - Curing
quality control; reinforced concrete; reservoirs; sanitary engineering; sewage
treatment; stresses; structural design; tanks (containers); temperature; torque;
4.7 - Leakage testing
vibration; volume change; wastewater treatment; water-cement ratio; water
supply; water treatment.
Chapter 5 -- Protection against chemicals,
CONTENTS p.350R-20
5.1 - Resistance of concrete and reinforcing steel
Chapter 1 -- Special requirements for 5.2 - Need for protection
environmental engineering concrete structures, 5.3 - Types of protection
p. 350R-1 5.4 - Recommended coatings
1.1 - Introduction 5.5 - Selection of protection system
1.2 - Design and analysis 5.6 - Safety precautions
1.3 - Watertightness 5.7 - Chemicals used in treatment plants
1.4 - Durability
Chapter 6 -- References, p. 350R-21
Chapter 2 -- Structural design considerations, 6.1 - Recommended references
6.2 - Cited references
p. 350R-3 6.3 - Additional references
2.1 - Introduction
2.2 - Principal types of structures
2.3 - Load conditions
2.4 - Types of foundations CHAPTER 1 -- SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
2.5 - Structural considerations ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CONCRETE
2.6 - Structural design STRUCTURES
2.7 - Reinforcement splices
2.8 - Joints 1.1 -- Introduction
2.9 - Impact, vibration, torque, and seismic loads Environmental engineering concrete structures pose
some problems uncommon in other uses of concrete. In
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, plan-
ning, executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing This report supercedes ACI 350R-83.
specifications. Reference to these documents shall not be made *Chairman when ACI 350R-83 was developed.
in the Project Documents. If items found in these documents Copyright 0 1989. American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or
are desired to be part of the Project Documents they should by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any
be phrased in mandatory language and incorporated into the electronic or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound
or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or de-
Project Documents. vice, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyrIght proprietors.
350R-1
350R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
all structures, strength and stability are of paramount Environmental engineering concrete structures should
importance. In environmental engineering concrete be designed to minimize leakage. Accordingly, a design
structures, serviceability, in terms of limited deflections method should be used that will eliminate wide cracks
and cracking, durability, and low permeability demand and other potential sources of leakage. Design methods
equal consideration. In these structures, concrete that may be based on strength or working stress theories. In
will be in contact with water or wastewater should: environmental engineering concrete structures, service
a. Be extremely dense and impermeable to minimize load performance is of paramount importance.
contamination of water supplies or the environment. Many current design aids are based on the strength
b. Provide maximum resistance to natural or pro- design method. For strength design of environmental
cessing chemicals. engineering concrete structures, this report includes the
c. Provide smooth surfaces to minimize flow resis- concept of environmental durability coefficients. These
tance. coefficients provide conservative service load stresses
Concrete is particularly suited to environmental en- using Grade 40 and Grade 60 steel and crack control
gineering structures. It will not warp or undergo signif- similar to that historically obtained with working stress
icant dimensional change under service conditions and, design.
when properly designed and placed, is nearly imperme-
able and extremely resistant to corrosion. 1.3 -- Watertightness
Because of the stringent service requirements of en- Environmental engineering concrete structures for
vironmental engineering concrete structures, they the containment, treatment, or transmission of water,
should be designed and constructed with great care. wastewater, or other fluids should be designed and
The quality of concrete is of great importance, and constructed to be essentially watertight, with minimal
close quality control should be performed during con- loss of contained volume under normal service condi-
struction to obtain impervious concrete. tions (see Section 4.7 of this report for leakage testing).
1.1.1 Scope -- This report is concerned with conven- In many industrial applications the United States
tionally reinforced environmental engineering concrete Environmental Protection Agency will require contain-
structures. The recommendations apply to cast-in-place ment and leak detection systems.
and precast concrete construction of tanks, reservoirs, 1.3.1 The ability of a structure to retain liquids will
cast-in-place sewers, manholes, wet-wells, flumes, be reasonably assured if:
junction chambers, pump stations, and other similar a. The concrete mixture is well proportioned and the
structures and appurtenances. The purpose of this re- concrete is well consolidated without segregation.
port is to recommend methods of design and construc- b. Crack width is minimized.
tion permitting the production of structural concrete c. Joints are properly spaced, sized, designed, and
that will satisfy not only the usual structural require- constructed.
ments but also those mentioned in Section 1.1(a), (b) d. Impervious protective coatings or barriers are used
and (c). Emphasis is given to the special steps necessary where required.
to maximize corrosion resistance and imperviousness of e. Adequate reinforcing steel is provided.
concrete and to the special loading conditions of envi- Usually it is more economical and dependable to re-
ronmental engineering concrete structures. sist liquid permeation through the use of quality con-
Recommendations for prestressed concrete are be- crete, proper design of joint details, and adequate re-
yond the scope of this report. Specific recommenda- inforcement rather than by means of an impervious
tions for circular prestressed concrete tanks are con- protective barrier or coating.
tained in ACI 344R. Minimum permeability of the concrete will be ob-
tained by using water-cement ratios as low as possible
consistent with satisfactory workability and good com-
1.2 -- Design and analysis paction. Impermeability increases with the age of con-
Design loads on environmental engineering concrete crete and is improved by extended periods of moist
structures are determined from the depth and unit curing. Surface treatment is important, and surface
weight of the retained liquid and/or solids, the external troweling and use of smooth forms give good im-
soil pressure, and the equipment to be installed. Com- permeability. Air entrainment reduces segregation and
pared to the accurately known liquid and dead loads, bleeding, increases workability, and provides resistance
the superimposed design live loads in tanks and reser- to the effects of freeze-thaw cycles. Because of this, use
voirs generally are small. As discussed in Section 2.9, of an air-entraining agent results in better compacted
special care is required when designing for impact and concrete and permits use of a lower water-cement ra-
dynamic loads caused by mechanical equipment. De- tio. Other admixtures, such as water reducing agents,
sign analysis must be accurate to obtain a true picture and pozzolans are useful when they lead to increased
of the distribution of stresses in the structure and to re- workability and compaction with lower water-cement
sist cracking in areas of maximum stress. Soil bearing ratios. Pozzolans also reduce permeability.
strength and consolidation information is of great im- Cracking can be kept to a minimum by proper de-
portance to minimize differential settlements that could sign, reinforcement distribution, and spacing of joints.
cause cracking. Cracking caused by drying shrinkage can also be mini-
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES 35OR-3
mized by the proper use of shrinkage-compensating Authoritative texts and several ASCE manuals of en-
concrete, but for the design to be successful, the engi- gineering practice1-3 will be helpful in the first three
neer must recognize the characteristics and properties of phases of design, most of which can be performed be-
shrinkage-compensating concrete as described in ACI fore undertaking the fourth phase. However, structural
223. Some shrinkage will always occur in normal con- advice should be provided during all phases of the de-
crete, and joints and reinforcement should be designed sign and construction of the work. Except as otherwise
to control the effects of shrinkage. Joint design should indicated in this report, structural design should con-
also consider movement resulting from thermal dimen- form with ACI 318.
sional changes and differential settlements. Joints per- For the structural design of circular or rectangular
mitting movement along predetermined control planes reinforced concrete tanks, several helpful publi-
that should form a barrier to the passage of fluids cations 4-6 of the Portland Cement Association are avail-
should include waterstops. Good placement opera- able. Circular prestressed tanks are addressed in ACI
tions, adequate consolidation, and proper curing also 344R.
are essential to control of cracking in environmental The recommendations in the publications just cited
engineering concrete structures. Additional informa- may require adjustments to conform with ACI 318 and
tion on cracking is contained in ACI 224R. this report, and with the applicable local building code.
1.4 -- Durability 2.2 -- Principal types of structures
Durability of concrete in an environmental engineer- Environmental engineering installations generally are
ing concrete structure is the resistance of the structure water or wastewater treatment facilities composed of a
to the deteriorating effects of its environment. In par- number of separate units as shown below:
ticular, the concrete should be resistant to the action of
chemicals, alternate wetting and drying, freezing and Water treatment plants
thawing cycles, and exposure to the elements. Air en- Intake structures Filters
trainment should be used in freezing and thawing ex- Screen chambers Filter pipe galleries
posures. Resistance to chemical attack can be improved Rapid mix chambers Clear wells
by using good quality concrete with types of cement Flocculating basins Pumping stations
that improve chemical resistance and provide a smooth Settling tanks Service reservoirs
surface finish. Care should also be taken to provide Conduits Chemical storage
adequate cover for the reinforcement and to use fit- Chlorination facilities Office building and
tings and embedded items that do not corrode and Clarifiers laboratory
cause damage to the concrete. The filling and patching Industrial and domestic wastewater treatment plants
of tie holes, as recommended in Section 4.5.4.1 of this Grit chambers Pump and blower
report, is necessary to insure long-term durability of the Primary settling tanks stations
concrete. Improved workability, lower water-cement Final settling tanks Gas holders
ratios, corrosion resistance, and increased resistance to Digesters Sludge dewatering
sulfate attack may be derived from the proper use of a Thickeners Sludge disposal facilities
good quality fly ash in the mix. The use of a moder- Aeration basins Chemical storage
ately sulfate-resistant cement such as Type II, V, or certain Sludge holding tanks Office building and
Type K cements, as referred to in part 3.1.2, should also bc Trickling filters laboratory
considered when sulfate-resistant concrete is required. Screening facilities Tertiary filters
Most environmental engineering concrete structures Chlorine contact chambers Composting facilities
will be exposed to the elements, and adequate provi- Channels and tunnels
sions should be made to avoid damage due to floods,
rain, snow, and freezing and thawing. In some cases, The previously listed structures generally may be
adequate durability can be obtained only by use of spe- classified as follows:
cial protective barriers (see Chapter 5). Structures sub- Water or liquid-containing structures, tanks, and
ject to movement of liquids should be resistant to ero- basins
sion. Additional information on durability is contained Conduits, interconnecting channels, and cast-in-place
in ACI 201.2R. sewers
Machine and equipment foundations
CHAPTER 2 -- STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Protective housing, floors, storage rooms, walkways,
CONSIDERATIONS
and stairs
2.1 -- Introduction
The design of environmental engineering concrete 2.3.0 - - Load conditions
structures should be executed in four consecutive or 2.3.1 Dead load -- Many references are available for
overlapping phases as follows: estimating dead loads. ANSI A58.1 is a recommended
1. Functional design reference for dead loads.
2. Physical plant layout 2.3.2 Live load -- The following are conservative
3. Hydraulic design values for live loads that should be considered in
4. Structural design structural design:
curbs or barriers, should be made to isolate and prevent It is important to observe and record the elevation of
spreading of spilled or leaking chemicals. The structural the groundwater table and any periodic and seasonal
engineer should decide what is a reasonable stacking variations. The maximum and minimum elevation of
height when designing slabs, beams, and other the groundwater table in the plant area should be de-
supporting members. It is recommended that the termined using the 100 year flood and drought criteria
specific live load, including machines, equipment, in each case. A high water table may exert uplift on the
piping loads, and bases for which each part of the floor structures, may lift and damage foundation slabs, and
is designed, be indicated on the drawings and posted in may reduce the bearing capacity of the soil. If the
the area in which it applies. structures are on piles, the use of uplift piles should be
considered. Additional substructure considerations are
included in Section 2.5.
2.4 - Types of foundations
Structures covering large areas may rest on various
soils or rock. The foundation may be:
a. Entirely on granular soil 2.5 - Structural considerations
b. Entirely on cohesive soil Large reinforced concrete reservoirs on compressible
c. Entirely on rock soil may be considered as beams or girders on elastic
d. On any combination of the above supports. Sidewalls of rectangular tanks and reservoirs
The type of foundation may be: can be designed either as cantilever walls fixed at the
a. Piles bottom or as walls supported at two or more edges.
b. Caissons Circular tanks normally resist the pressure of their con-
c. Raft tents by ring tension.
d. Spread or continuous footings Elevation of the groundwater table and flood water
If the foundation of a structure rests entirely on only conditions are basic design considerations, and these
one kind of soil or rock, the design of the foundation loads should be considered in the same manner as in-
and of the structure itself is not difficult. Design prob- ternal liquid loads. The groundwater elevation may be
lems are more complicated when the structure rests on artificially raised locally by leaks from nearby tanks or
more than one kind of soil. Most environmental engi- pipes. Walls supporting both interior water loads and
neering concrete structures, being water or liquid-con- exterior earth loads should be designed to support both
taining tanks and reservoirs, cannot tolerate much dif- the full effect of the interior water pressure and the full
ferential settlement that causes cracks and leakage. effect of the maximum exterior earth pressure without
Therefore, designers of environmental engineering con- considering that one load could minimize the effect of
crete structures should carefully minimize differential the other. Should the reservoir space remain sealed, the
settlement of the foundations and the structures. If surrounding walls and the bottom of the structure must
necessary, slabs may span between grade beams, foun- withstand combined lateral or vertical water and soil
dation walls, and piers. In general, structures should be pressures, and the structure as a whole must resist flo-
designed to minimize differential settlement or de- tation.
signed to accommodate settlement as beams on elastic The soil reaction on an elastic slab is quite different
supports. Adjacent structures with different loading from the soil reaction on a more rigid slab. Walls can-
and function may have to be separated physically by tilevered from a flexible slab on yielding compressible
expansion joints and/or double wall construction. soils present a problem of mutual influence of soil and
Design of foundations on granular or other elastic or structure.
compressible soils should take into account not only the Spanning a bottom mat between parallel sidewalls is
variations in compressibility of soil materials and the not always a simple task. Increasing the thickness of the
different thicknesses of the soil layers but also the vari- mat counteracts uplift with increased concrete weight
ations in loading caused by alternately filling and and reduces required reinforcement. However, this ap-
draining adjoining tanks, basins, or reservoirs. proach has economic limitations. Inverted beams or
Soil conditions should be explored with test borings, crosswalls over the mat could reduce mat spans to per-
and soil samples should be analyzed to determine soil mit economically acceptable thicknesses.
resistivity and sulfate content. A minimum of four test All water-containing structures should be assumed to
borings should be made for the first 10,000 ft2 (929 m2) be empty for buoyancy and external pressure stress cal-
of plant area and at least two additional borings for culations. The effect of possible alternate gravity tank
every additional 10,000 ft2 (929 m2). In addition, it may loads and uplift should be investigated. In some cases,
be desirable to locate extra test borings at major con- uplift on the bottom mat could be limited by: (1)
centrated load locations, such as center column foun- standpipes that automatically would bleed water into
dations of large diameter clarifiers or heavy equipment the tank when a certain groundwater elevation is ex-
foundations. Investigations by, and consulation with, a ceeded; (2) installing automatic pressure relief systems
geotechnical engineer is recommended. in the base slab or sidewalls where applicable; or (3)
In cases of irregular rock foundations or unusual lowering the groundwater table with perforated drain
bearing strata, additional test borings may be required. pipes and collection systems. Depending on soil condi-
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES 350R-7
tions, uplift piles or drilled anchors also may be used in small-diameter bars for main reinforcement rather than
appropriate soil/rock conditions to resist uplift pres- an equal area of larger bars. Maximum bar spacing
sures. should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). Section 10.6.4 of
When none of these methods is practical, the use of ACI 318R provides guidance for limiting bar sizes.
an alarm system may be considered. The alarm system The amount of shrinkage and temperature reinforce-
should alert the operator when a dangerous ground- ment that should be provided is a function of the dis-
water elevation is reached so that action may be taken tance between the joints that will dissipate shrinkage
immediately to start filling the tanks to balance the and temperature stresses in the direction of the rein-
uplift. At least two independent alarm systems should forcement. In addition, the amount of shrinkage and
be provided and tested at frequent intervals. temperature reinforcement is a function of the particu-
Tanks below grade normally are tested for water- lar concrete mix and other properties, the amount of
tightness before backfilling, and where appropriate, this aggregate, the member thickness, its reinforcement, and
condition should be considered in the structural design. the environmental conditions of the site. These factors
Large-diameter tanks expand and contract apprecia- have been considered in applying the analysis method
bly as they are filled and drained. The connection be- developed by Vetter8 to environmental engineering con-
tween wall and footing should either permit these crete structures, and the recommendations contained in
movements or be strong enough to resist them without the remainder of this section are based on this work. 9
cracking. When the wall is not interconnected to other Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement should not
structures or tanks and free to move, the joint detail at be less than the ratios given in Fig. 2.5 except when
both the floor and roof should be carefully designed shrinkage-compensating concrete is used. Contraction
and constructed. and construction joint spacings of up to 75 ft (22.9 m)
The analysis of rectangular wall panels supported at have been used successfully with shrinkage-compensat-
three or four sides is explained in detail in References 6 ing concrete and 0.3 percent reinforcement. When
and 7, which contain tabulated coefficients for design. shrinkage-compensating concrete is used, construction
When the wall panels are rectangular and the dimen- details should be developed in accordance with ACI 223
sional ratios exceed those given in the coefficient ta- recommendations. Consideration may be given to re-
bles, the tables still may be of some use. The end reducing the amount of shrinkage and temperature rein-
gions of the rectangular wall panel can be designed forcement shown in Figure 2.5 when details are devel-
based on the coefficients for the closest aspect ratio in oped in accordance with ACI 223 recommendations
the table. Determine end moments at wall intersec- and non-shrinkage compensating concrete is used.
tions. The remaining middle portion of the wall is then Concrete sections 24 in. (610 mm) or thicker may have
designed as a one-way span or cantilever. As an alter- the minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement
native, an elastic analysis can be used. at each face based on a 12 in. (305 mm) thickness.
Vertically reinforced walls supported at top and bot- Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement should be
tom also are used frequently. These are particularly ad- spaced not greater than 12 in. (305 mm) on center, di-
vantageous when a rectangular tank is relatively nar- vided equally between the two surfaces of the concrete
row or when the tank is supported on piles. It may be
desirable to design the side wall of a tank for two con-
ditions: as a cantilever wall and as one supported at top
and bottom. The reason for the double design is that
such sidewalls, when the tank is constructed in an ex-
cavated area, will often be backfilled before the top
support is constructed. It should be noted that expan-
sion joints in tank floors will eliminate the continuity
between the opposite walls. Therefore, the designer
should carefully investigate sliding, including the re-
duction of friction due to bouyancy from leakage.
Reinforced concrete walls at least 10 ft (3.0 m) high
that are in contact with liquids should have a minimum
thickness of 12 in. (305 mm). Usually, the minimum
thickness of any minor structural member in environ-
mental engineering concrete structures is 6 in. (152 0 10 2b i5 3b 5b 60
mm). A minimum of 8 in. (203 mm) will be required Length between shrinkage-dissipating joints in feet
where a 2 in. (51 mm) concrete cover is desired. How-
ever, when waterstops are used and the positioning of
reinforcement might adversely affect proper place-
ment, a greater thickness should be considered. It 2.5--Ratio of shrinkage and temperature rein-
forcement for concretes made with ASTM C 150 and C
should be noted that the shear key problem discussed in 595 cements. The minimum temperature and shrinkage
Section 2.8.4 is particularly severe in thin walls. For steel should be #4 bars; maximum spacing should be 12
crack control, it is preferable to use a large number of in. (305 mm) on center, each face
Table 2.5 - Minimum concrete cover for structures. The design engineer should establish the de-
reinforcement sign criteria for a specific concrete structure within the
Slabs and joists: limitations of the ACI or local building codes based on
Top and bottom bars for dry conditions: the special requirements of environmental engineering
#14 and #18 bars 1 % in.
#11 bars and smaller +!I in. structures.
Formed concrete surfaces exposed to earth, water, or weather, Environmental engineering concrete structures gen-
and over or in contact with sewage and for bottoms bearing on
work mat, or slabs supporting earth cover: erally belong to the category of structures for which
#5 bars and smaller 11/2 in.
#6 through #I8 bars 2 in. minimal cracking is a paramount requisite. Leakage
into potable water or out of contaminated water facili-
Beams and columns:
For dry conditions: ties must be avoided to protect the public health.
Stirrups, spirals, and ties 1% in. Therefore, experienced designers of environmental en-
Principal reinforcement 2 in.
Exposed to earth, water, sewage, or weather: gineering structures have established somewhat more
Stirrups and ties 2 in. conservative allowable stresses for such reinforced con-
Principal reinforcement 2% in.
crete structures.
Walls: The strain of the reinforcing bars under stress will be
For dry conditions:
#11 bars and smaller ‘? in. transferred to the adjoining concrete. Low stress in re-
#14 and #18 bars I% in.
Formed concrete surfaces exposed to earth, water, sewage, inforcement at service loads will tend to minimize the
weather, or in contact with ground: amount of cracking.
Circular tanks with ring tension 2 in.
All others 2 in. The structural design recommendations herein are to
be regarded as minimum provisions for general use.
Footings and base slabs:
At formed surfaces and bottoms bearing on Any special structural features, unusual loading com-
concrete work mat 2 in. binations, or unusual exposure conditions may require
At unformed surfaces and bottoms in contact 3 in.
with earth special design precautions more conservative than the
Top of footings -- same as slabs minimum provisions. In particular, the designer should
Over top of piles 2 in.
consider the structural effects of joint spacings and de-
tails, and construction sequences.
Special design considerations regarding details and
section. The reinforcement in the bottom of base slabs specifications should be given to the possible hazard-
in contact with soil may be reduced to 50 percent of the ous and corrosive effect of oxygen, ozone, hydrogen
value given in Fig. 2.5. sulfide, and methane gases in closed tanks. This is es-
Minimum concrete protective covering of reinforce- pecially important when habitable spaces are located
ment should be as shown in Table 2.5. above the tank.
Environmental engineering concrete structures nec- 2.6.2 Design requirements - Reinforced environ-
essarily cover large areas, and the covering of filter beds mental engineering concrete structures must be de-
and tanks may pose problems. In roof design the engi- signed for both strength and serviceability.
neer should take into consideration exposure to a hu- 2.6.3 Methods - Two methods of structural design
mid, possibly corrosive, interior atmosphere and should for reinforced concrete sections generally are accepted
allow for movement joints in walls. The latter can be in practice, and both are applicable to environmental
accomplished by carrying the joints through the roof. engineering concrete structures. These methods are
Supports designed to permit sliding of concrete on con- presently described in detail in ACI 318. They are (1)
crete frequently result in problems such as spalling of strength design, using factored loads u, specified steel
the supporting ledges on beams, walls, and slabs and and concrete strengths f, and f,‘, and capacity reduc-
are not recommended. tion factor 4; and (2) working stress design (alternate
Superstructures of environmental engineering struc- design method, ACI 318, Appendix B), using service
tures, other than tanks, are not discussed in detail be- loads and reduced allowable working stresses.
cause they are frequently similar to conventional struc- 2.6.4 Special limitations - Both methods require
tures. In some facilities, the gases generated may be special limitations for application to environmental
toxic and also present an explosion hazard. Additional structures to assure resistance to leakage of liquids and
ventilation, pressure venting, gas alarms, and provision long life under conditions of exposure in environmen-
for explosion venting may be required. Where build- tal service.
ings or equipment rooms are located over the tops of For additional design information when using con-
tanks or digesters, the tanks may require gas-proofing crete made with shrinkage-compensating cement, see
by means of liners and/or the installation of gas detec- Chapter 3 of ACI 223.
tion equipment. 2.6.5 Strength design - The load factors prescribed
in ACI 318 may be directly applied to environmental
engineering concrete structures with one adjustment.
2.6 - Structural design The load factors for both the lateral earth pressure H
2.6.1. General - ACI 318 contains general require- and the lateral liquid pressure F should be taken as 1.7.
ments for reinforced concrete building structures that The factored load combinations for total factored de-
are also valid for environmental engineering concrete sign load U, as prescribed in ACI 318, should be in-
Bar sues # $# 71 and# 8 wtth 2 in. cover

(Z/f,)3
s= -
6.57 12.5
lk 1; 19 20 21 t2 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Allowable service load stress, f,, ksi Allowable service load stress, f,, ksi
Fig. 2.6.7(a)-Bar spacing for flexural crack control (#3 Fig. 2.6.7(b)-Bar spacing for flexural crack control
through #5 bars) (#6 through #8 bars)
creased by sanitary durability coefficients for environ- tions and-crack width are applicable to environmental
mental engineering concrete structures as follows: engineering concrete structures. For flexural reinforce-
a. In calculations for reinforcement in flexure, the ment located in one layer, the quantity 2 should not
required strength should be 1.3 U. exceed 115 kips/in. 2 values were established for cover
b. In calculations for reinforcement in direct tension, equal to or less than 2 in. (51 mm) and should be based
including hoop tension, the required strength should be on this value when the cover exceeds 2 in. Additional
1.65 U. cover may be regarded as added protection.‘“*l*
c. “The required design strength for reinforcement in The 2 factor and crack width are a function of the
diagonal tension (shear) should be calculated by applying a concrete cover and overall thickness of a flexural mem-
sanitary durability coefficient of 1.3 to the excess shear. ber and are valid only for one-way flexural members.
Excess shear is defined as the difference between the factored The designer should use the basic Gergley-Lutz equa-
shear force at the section, VU, and the shear strength provided tion, as recommended in the Commentary to Section
by the concrete, 4Vc. Thus 4V, 1 1.3 (Vu - 4V,), where 10.6.4 of AC1 318, for one-way flexural members.
4Vs is the design capacity of the shear reinforcement.” For members subject to direct tension (hoop ten-
d. In calculations for the compressive region of flexure sion), a sanitary durability coefficient of 1.65 may be
and compressive axial loads, and for all loads carried by used for all grades of reinforcing.‘O*ll The factor 2 has
concrete, the required strength should be 1.00 U. no direct bearing for this state of stress.
e. For factors to be used in seismic design, refer to The reinforcement for a two-way flexural member
ACI 318. (e.g., slabs and walls) may be proportioned in each di-
As noted previously, the durability coefficients were rection based on Section 2.6.5 since reliable crack-width
developed from crack width calculation methods. equations for such members are not available in the lit-
2.6.6 Serviceability for normal sanitary exposures* erature at this time.“*‘2
Except as provided in this section, serviceability re- For design by the working stress method of Section
quirements of AC1 3 18 to control calculated deflec- 2.6.7, deformed bars or wire should be spaced so that
the quantity 2 does not exceed 115 kips/in., as shown
*Normal sanitary exposures are defined as liquid retention (watertight), ex- in Fig. 2.6.7(a), 2.6.7(b), and 2.6.7(c), and the spacing
posure to liquids more alkaline than pH of 5, or exposure to sulfate solutions
of less than 1500 ppm. should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). In all other flexural
350R-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Bar sizes # 9, # 10,and #I 11 with 2 in. cover Table 2.6.7(b) - Recommended maximum
(Z/f,13 stresses at service load for recommended
I= - maximum 124n. (305mm) spacing of reinforcing
14.63 . bars in environmental engineering concrete
structures
Sanitary structure Maximum stress at
exposure condition* service
Bar and maximum 2 load, psi (kPa)
sizes value’ Grade 60 1 Grade 40
Members in direct 20,ooo 14,ooo
All sizes tension (138,OW (96SW
Flexural members
Severe exposure 22,000 20,ooo
(Maximum 2 = 95) (152,oW (138,@W
#3, #4, #5
Flexural members
Normal sanitary 27,000 20,ooo
(Maximum 2 = 115) (186,000) (138,OW
Flexural members
Severe exposure 18,000 18,000
(Maximum 2 = 95) ) (124,000) 1 (124,000)
#6, #7:, #8: I 1
10 Flexural members
Normal sanitary
(Maximum Z = 115) ( (I$& 1 (I$$&
9
8
:
W, #l0 , #llS
7
6
*Normal sanitary exposure is defined as liquid retention (watertight) expo-
sure to liquids with pH > 5 or exposure to sulfate solutions of less than 1500
5 ppm. Severe sanitary exposures are conditions in which the limits defining nor-
mal sanitary exposure are exceeded.
+
4 The Z values referred to are defined in ACI 318. Derivations for crack con-
trol formulas are in the commentary to AC1 318R.
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 26 27 28 29 30 :Bar sizes #7 through #l 1, in Grade 40, have been deleted from ASTM A 615.
Allowable service load s&s;, f,, ksi

For severe environmental exposures,* structural de-
Fig. 2.6.7(c)-Bar spacing for flexural crack control (#9 sign should conform to Section 2.6.6 with the quantity
through #II bars)
2 which does not exceed 95 kips/in., and surface or
other protection or barrier should be provided suitable
Table 2.6.7(a) - Recommended allowable for the particular conditions of exposure.
stresses* for concrete in environmental 2.6.7 Alternate design method, AC1 318, Appendix B
engineering concrete structures that must be (working stress design) - Except as noted below, the
water tight and resistant to chemicals alternate design method should be in accordance with
Recommended ACI 318, Appendix B. Recommended concrete and
Description value, psi
steel stresses for design at service loads are presented in
29,ooo,ooo Tables 2.6.7(a) and 2.6.7(b). These stresses are for a
Modulus of elasticity ratio n
W.’ 33 fl
Flexure:
maximum bar spacing of 12 in. and have been estab-
Extreme fiber stress in compressionf, 0.45 x lished to control crack widths for concrete surfaces ex-
Extreme fiber stress in tension in plain posed to conditions encountered in environmental en-
concrete footings and walls 1.6 X!T
Shear: gineering concrete structures. The stresses for 12 in. bar
v (as a measure of diagonal tension at d spacings should not exceed 27,000 psi (186 KPa) for
from face of support)
Beams with no web reinforcement 1.1 a7 Grade 60 reinforcement nor 20,000 psi (137 KPa) for
Joists with no web reinforcement 1.2 E Grade 40 reinforcement.
Members with web reinforcement or properly
combined bent bars and vertical stirrups 5fl Fig 2.6.7(a), 2.6.7(b), and 2.6.7(c) are presented for
Slabs and footings (peripheral shear) 2fl lesser bar spacings and a broader range of 2 values.
Bearing: Development lengths and anchorages should conform
On full area 0.25 f:
On one-third area or less 0.375 fJ to the requirements of AC1 318.
*Recommended working stresses shown above are in terms off,’ for all
strengths of concrete. For minimum recommended f: see Section 3.5.1. Other 2.7 - Reinforcement splices
requirements should conform to Appendix B (alternate design method) of ACI
318. Splices in reinforcement should conform to the re-
quirements of AC1 3 18. In circular tanks designed for
members, bar spacing should be limited so that calcu- ring tension, the location of splices should be stag-
lated 2 values do not exceed 115 kips per in. Deformed gered. Adjacent hoop reinforcing splices should be
bar or wire spacings should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm).
*Severe sanitary exposures are conditions in which the limits defining nor-
Preferably bar sizes should not exceed #I 1. mal sanitary exposures are exceeded.
staggered horizontally (center of lap to center of lap) by

not less than one lap length nor 3 ft and should not co-
incide in vertical arrays more frequently than every
third bar.
It should be noted that due to the unusually thick
slabs found in some liquid-retaining structures, the slab
top bar mats may require “top bar” lap lengths. Top
bar requirements are set forth in ACI 318.
2.8 -- Joints 1 0 d a y s 28 days 90 days 1 Y’ 2yr 5yr IOyr 2 0 y r 3 0 y r

2.8.1 Volume changes - Volume changes in con- Time after loading (log scale)
crete generally are caused by expansion or contraction

Fig. 2.8.1 - Drying shrinkage-time ratio curves, based
in response to changes in creep, shrinkage, tempera- on cylinders cured for 28 or 90 days, then stored at 50
ture, or moisture content. Temperature variations, to 70 percent humidity (from Troxell et al.13)
being daily and seasonal, are somewhat more regular
and predictable than moisture changes. ity of this problem, no one has yet established nation-
Contraction due to evaporation of excess water be- ally acceptable procedures for precisely determining the
gins during or after the curing period, depending on the size and location of expansion joints.”14
quality of the moisture and temperature controls. Historically, in environmental engineering concrete
Shrinkage may continue for several years, as is shown structures, the spacing of expansion joints has been
in Fig. 2.8.1, unless water is added to the hardened conservative and much influenced by the restraints in-
concrete for extended periods. However, in environ- herent in the geometry of tanks and buildings, with
mental engineering concrete structures designed to con- spacings varying from 50 to 250 ft for walls and super-
tain liquids, the shrinkage may be halted when the structures. Base slabs with frequent construction joints
structures are placed in use and even reversed during have been built, without expansion joints, up to 600 ft
hot, humid weather. in length.
To provide for volume changes in a manner that will In general, expansion joint spacing preferably should
minimize damage to the concrete, movement joints and not be spaced greater than 120 ft (36.6 m). When the
reinforcement should be provided for in the structure spacing of expansion joints exceeds 150 ft (46 m), a
by the design engineer. All joints should be shown on special investigation should be made for the reinforce-
the engineering drawings. Additional guidance on joints ment requirements and the expansion joint details. The
is contained in ACI 504R. restraint exerted on the base slab by the soil should also
Shrinkage-compensating concrete can be used to re- be investigated. It is often desirable to locate expansion
duce shrinkage cracking in environmental engineering joints at abrupt changes in the structure configuration
concrete structures, but this committee is not yet in a but when so placed, the joint details must be designed
position to recommend detailed requirements for its to transfer the shear caused by differential deflection of
use. Additional detailed information on shrinkage- the elements on each side of the joint or, if shear trans-
compensating concrete is contained in ACI 223. It fer is not provided for, to accommodate the distortion
should be noted that additional care and control should in the joint details caused by the differential deflection
be exercised during design and construction. such as in the waterstop.
2.8.2 Movement joints The recommendations of the preceding paragraph are
2.8.2.1 Expansion joints - Expansion joints are for normal environmental engineering concrete struc-
movement joints used to allow for expansion and con- tures partially filled with a liquid. When tanks or other
traction of concrete during the curing period and dur- structures will remain empty for long periods of time,
ing service to permit dimensional changes in concrete particularly in hot climates, closer spacings should be
due to load, to separate or isolate areas or members used. In this respect, particular attention should be paid
that could be affected by such dimensional changes, to conditions during construction.
and to allow relative movements or displacements due Many satisfactory expansion joint details have been
to expansion, contraction, differential foundation devised and used, some of which are illustrated in Fig.
movement, or applied loads. Expansion joints also can 2.8.2.1. Other suggested details are found in Fig. 8, 11,
function as contraction joints or construction joints. and 12 of the ACI 504R. All expansion joints should
In general, expansion joints should be provided near include some type of compressible preformed filler and
abrupt changes in the structure configuration. As stated a joint sealant or compression seal at the liquid face. If
in the foreword of the Federal Construction Council the member must be watertight, a suitable waterstop,
Technical Report No. 65 (National Academy of Sci- made of rubber, neoprene, or plastic, should be in-
ences), “Many factors affect the amount of tempera- cluded to act as the primary barrier to leakage. Water-
ture-induced movement that takes place in a building, stops. preformed joint filler. and joint sealant should be
and also the extent to which this movement can take selected to allow for the movement anticipated. Reinforce-
place before serious damage will occur or extensive ment should terminate 2 in. (51 mm) from the face of the
maintenance will be required. Because of the complex- joint.
Joint sealant on exposed surfaces

unless otherwise noted- Water treatment plants and reservoirs require seal-
/
ants approved for potable water. In addition to taste,
odor, and toxicity concerns, the sealant should be re-
Bond breaker sistant to chlorinated water. Consideration should be
given to the effects of prolonged exposure to chlorine
at normal drinking water concentrations, as well as
Preformed joint fill
unless otherwise noted:
short-term exposure to chlorine at the high concentra-
tions required for disinfection. Sealants intended for
Type 1
No liquid Storaqe For
Type 2
Liquid Storage
use should be approved by agencies having jurisdiction
over the specific project or resource.
Note: Joint sealant and bond breaker should be applied
in accordance with the manufacturers' directions 2.8.2.4 Contraction joints - Some designers use
contraction joints as a type of movement joint to dissi-
Fig. 2.8.2.1 - Expansion joints (not to scale) pate shrinkage stresses. Where used, a contraction joint
should be located at intervals not exceeding 30 ft (9.1
m) unless additional reinforcement is provided, as rec-
ommended in Fig. 2.5. Two types of contraction joints
known as “full” and “partial” contraction joints are in
common use. In full contraction joints, all reinforce-
ment is terminated 2 in. (51 mm) clear of the joint. The
abutting ends of the concrete are coated with a bond
breaker (see Fig. 2.8.2.4). Waterstops, which may be
metal, plastic, or rubber, should be used for water-
tightness. Where necessary to insure equal deflection of
each side of the joint, a method of transferring stress
such as smooth dowels, should be provided. A sealant
usually is provided along the exposed perimeter of the
joint to exclude water or foreign matter.
It may be desirable to pass tension forces through the
joint to tie portions of the structure together. In this
Weakened plane joint for slabs and paving case a partial contraction joint may be used. This joint
is similar to the full contraction joint; however, in or-
Fig. 2.8.2.4 - Contraction joints (not to scale) der to weaken the joint and assure crack formation, not
more than 50 percent of the reinforcement is passed
2.8.2.2 Rubber waterstops permit the greatest joint through the joint. Inserts which reduce the cross sec-
movement and last indefinitely when kept in a dark and tion of the concrete and form a weakened plane have
humid environment. Polyvinyl chloride waterstops per- been used to form partial contraction joints in slabs
mit somewhat less movement than rubber and are less and paving. If the insert is removable, the resultant
sensitive to light and drying out. Polyvinyl chloride void should be filled with sealant. It is desirable to use
may be spliced by applying heat. The minimum thick- reduced spacing for partial contraction joints. This
ness of either type should be W in. (9.5 mm), and they spacing should be approximately % that of the full
should be at least 9 in. (230 mm) wide for expansion contraction joint. If splices are used at partial contrac-
joints and 6 in. (150 mm) wide for other types of joints tion joints, they should be positioned as shown in Fig.
to provide adequate embedment in the concrete. In 15 2.8.2.4.
any event, the engineer should verify that the water Contraction joints may not be required when using
stop is chemically compatible with the liquid it must shrinkage-compensating concrete. Typical contraction
contain. joint details are shown in Fig. 2.8.2.4.
The preformed joint filler has the twofold task of 2.8.2.5 Additional reinforcement at joints- Move-
serving as a form for the second placement of concrete ment joints, particularly expansion joints, should have
and preserving the space into which the concrete may the concrete ends reinforced to resist spalling and/or
expand. An ideal joint filler will permit compression to splitting of the concrete due to inadvertent contact with
one-half its original width and will reexpand to fill the the concrete on the other side of the joint. The rein-
joint when the adjacent members contract. Cork, neo- forcement should not be smaller than #3 bars spaced 12
prene, rubber, foam, and other materials conforming in. on center, should be along each face of the joint,
to ASTM D 994, D 1056, D 1751, and D 1752 are sat- and should be anchored back along the normal con-
isfactory joint fillers. crete reinforcement.
2.8.2.3 Sealants should be recommended by the 2.8.3 Construction joints-Construction joints,
manufacturer for the intended service. Only a few non- which should not be taken as movement joints unless
sag sealants have been recommended for submerged designed in accordance with Section 2.8.2.4, should be
service. For other services, nonsag and self-leveling located so as to least impair the strength of the struc-
sealants may be used. ture, to provide logical separations between segments of
the structure, and to facilitate construction. Additional In environmental engineering structures, the ma-
construction joints, or revised locations of joints, may chines that most often cause vibration problems are
be proposed by the contractor but should be subject to forced-draft fans and centrifuges used for dewatering
approval of the designer. Before placing new concrete clarifier sludge or digester sludge. These are very sensi-
against it, the surface of the joint should be prepared tive machines and need carefully designed foundations
to insure a good bond, unless designed as a contraction with no critical resonant vibration. Chemical mixers
joint (Section 2.8.2.4). may also serve as the source of significant dynamic
All reinforcement should be continued across or loads. The supports of such mixers are particularly
through construction joints, unless designed as in Sec- prone to vibration.
tion 2.8.2.4. Where the joint must be watertight, a wa- The key to successful dynamic design is to insure that
terstop should be used. the natural frequency of the machinery support struc-
2.8.4 Shear keys for movement joints-In some in- ture is significantly different from the frequency of the
stances, shear keys have proved troublesome in prac- disturbing force. If the two frequencies approach each
tice. Failure of the key can result in leakage due to by- other, resonant vibrations will be set up in the support
passing of the waterstop. When shear keys are used, structure. To minimize resonant vibrations, the ratio of
special precautions should be taken to avoid this prob- the natural frequency of the structure to the frequency
lem. A number of techniques have been used, including of the disturbing force should be kept out of the range
shear transfer with dowels and steel waterstops, relo- from 0.5 to 1.5. As discussed later in this section, it is
cation of the waterstop, and redesign to avoid the ne- preferable to maintain a frequency ratio above 1.5.
cessity of shear transfer. For spread foundations, the safe-bearing load fre-
quently is assumed as one-half of the permissible safe
load for statically loaded foundations at the same lo-
2.9-- Impact, vibration, torque, and seismic loads cation and on the same soil or rock.16,17 Some equip-
To maintain the watertightness of a structure, it is ment manufacturers recommend minimum founda-
essential that cracking and crack widths be kept to a tion/equipment mass ratios, generally in the range of
minimum. Accordingly, special care is needed in de- four to six. Adherence to this rule has not always
signing for impact and vibration, either of which can proved satisfactory,18 and to insure that the equipment
initiate or propagate cracks. In particular, the effect of will not be in resonance with the foundation, it is rec-
vibration is cumulative and cracks will continue to de- ommended that the natural frequency of the founda-
velop and grow with time. It is, therefore, important tion system be calculated. For natural frequency calcu-
that corrective action to reduce the vibration be taken lations, follow the method recommended in Reference
as early as possible in structures where vibrations have 16. For pile-supported foundations, follow the recom-
caused cracking. mendations found in References 19 through 21. Often
2.9.1 Impact -Impact loads are occasionally en- the machine foundation is insulated or entirely sepa-
countered in environmental engineering concrete struc- rated from the floors and other parts of the structure,
tures. When they are present, a conservative design minimizing transmission of vibration to other areas of
approach is recommended to keep cracking to a mini- the building. If the anticipated vibration is of a fre-
mum. Design for impact should be as thorough as pos- quency and amplitude that can be transmitted through
sible. However, where a complete shock analysis is not the ground, the equipment foundation also should be
practical, appropriate impact factors should be used insulated from the ground by shock-absorbing sup-
and design should be based on the stresses recom- ports. More detailed information on the dynamic de-
mended in Section 2.6. An appropriate impact allow- sign of foundations can be found in Reference 22.
ance, frequently in the range of 25 percent of the If the machine is not supported directly on a solid
weight, is used for heavy machines. foundation but on columns and beams, it is the natural
2.9.2 Vibration- Most of the mechanical equipment frequency of the support members that is of primary
associated with environmental engineering structures, importance. Needless to say, the strength of these
such as scrapers, clarifiers, certain types of floccula- members also must be within acceptable limits.
tors, and rotating vacuum screens, is basically slow- The natural frequency of a structure should be cal-
moving and will not cause structural vibrations. For culated for the vertical direction and for the two prin-
such equipment, a separate design for dynamic loading cipal horizontal directions. To combine the effect of
is unnecessary. Other commonly used machines, such several masses, such as those due to the machine and
as centrifugal pumps, fans, centrifuges, blowers, gen- the structure, the natural frequency can be calculated
erator engines, and compressors, have much higher ro- using the following formula
tational speeds and require special considerations in the
design of their support structures and foundations.
Usually, the value of such machines is so much more
than the cost of the foundation that it is imprudent to
economize on foundation costs and run the risk of
shortened machine life, increased maintenance costs,
and breakdowns. where
350R-14 ACI COMYllTEE REPORT
FN = combined natural frequency machine and thus avoid resonant vibration. In this
F, = natural frequency due to Mass 1 case, the natural frequency of the support should be at
F* = natural frequency due to Mass 2 least 50 percent below the operating frequency of the
F3 = natural frequency due to Mass 3 machinery. A disadvantage is that the machine would
F4 = natural frequency due to Mass 4 pass through the critical cycle at startup and shutdown.
It is not likely that the short coincidence of time would
The individual frequencies, in cycles per min, can be cause damage to the machine, but generally it is pref-
calculated using the expressions given in Table 2.9.2(a), erable to keep the deflection low and the natural fre-
in which D is the immediate deflection due to the mass quency of the structure well above operating speed. It
being considered. Gravity should be assumed to act in is also possible that the machine will be operated at a
the direction of vibration, and in lieu of a comprehen- lower speed for some time, and this lower speed could
sive analysis, D can be calculated using the method coincide with, or be close to, the critical frequency of
outlined in Section 9.5.2.3 of AC1 318. resonant vibration.
The preceding equations provide a simple method of If the machinery is installed on an upper floor, the
computing the natural frequency of a structure from its use of vibration isolators is recommended, but this
static deflection. For the case of a concentrated load should not be considered a substitute for dynamic
only, Table 2.9.2(b) relates the static deflection of a structural design, since all isolators transmit some vi-
structure supporting an item of equipment to the natu- bration.
ral frequency of that structure as calculated using the A more complete discussion of dynamic analysis
equations. A similar table can be developed for struc- methods is given in References 23 through 26.
tures in which the uniform loads or other loads are sig- 2.9.3 Torque-In some cases, it may be necessary to
nificant. As stated, the ratio of natural frequency of the consider torque in the design of the structure. Large
structure to frequency of the machinery or other dis- circular clarifiers frequently fall into this category.
turbing force should be either less than 0.5 or greater Most clarifiers support the entire mechanism on a
than 1.5, preferably the latter. Table 2.9.2(b) shows center column. The diameters of clarifiers are steadily
recommended maximum structural deflections for given increasing, and there are now clarifiers of 500 ft (152
equipment operating speeds. m) diameter in operation. These clarifiers have cantile-
Theoretically, the natural frequency of the structure ver scrapers close to 250 ft (76 m) in length. Stalling
also could be lower than the operating rotation of the torques of up to 5,000,OOO lb-ft (6,780,OOO N-m) are
specified, and the foundation must be able to resist this
Table 2.9.2(a) - Natural frequencies of beams load. There have been cases where the center column
Natural frequency, has sheared off from the foundation. Often, a limit
cycles p e r minute switch is included in the mechanism to prevent over-
End condition Where D Where D load of the structure.
Position of clef&ion , def&ion, In a few types of clarifiers, the radial scrapers are
Load deflection L in. mm supported on a center column but driven by a carriage
Uniform
233 1174 that rides on the periphery of the clarifier. With this
End 2
z JB type, horizontal reactions occur at both the center col-
213
umn and the periphery, and there is no torque.
Uniform Midspan 1073
The sludge accumulation, which produces the speci-
Fixed Fixed 3 i z-
fied stalling torque, is assumed to be a triangular hori-
zontal load on the cantilever arms, the maximum being
or
at the center and tapering off to zero at the circumfer-
Concentrated Under load 188 947
Fixed Free (any position) ence. This corresponds with the probable pattern of the
z fl
sludge accumulation.
P i nTPin From the viewpoint of thet foundation,
h e f the load dis-
I
tribution of the steel structure is immaterial. However,
the magnitude of the stalling torque is important, and
Table 2.9.2(b) - Recommended maximum
structural deflection for given equipment the foundation and the center column usually are de-
operating speeds signed to resist a torque of 50 percent in excess of the
Recommended stalling torque. The resisting earth friction and passive
minimum natural earth pressure have small lever arms about the center of
frequency of Maximum static deflection the torque, and it is possible, if the foundation is small
Operating speed structure, cycles per of structure due to dead
of machinery, min from formula load and machinery load, or in loose fills or slippery silts, for the clarifier drive
cycles per min (Hz) (Hz) in. (mm) mechanism to start turning the center column founda-
% {YJ :g I::-:;
;.l& {;.;;] tion. However, the concrete center column may be
800 (13:3) 1200 (2o:o) 0:025 (0:635) keyed and doweled into the clarifier base slab to resist
1000 (16.7) 1500 (25.0) 0.016 (0.406) this torque.
1200 (20.0) 1800 (30.0) 0.011 (0.279)
3000 (50.0) 0.0040 (0.102) The torque resistance of the foundation can be in-
;z g-i; . 3600 (60.0) 0.0027 (0.069) creased by the use of batter piles at the periphery of the
foundation. Increasing the friction by increasing the 3.1.2 Sulfate-resistant cement- The C3A content of
foundation weight and/or increasing the area of the the cementitious material should not exceed 8 percent in
foundation to give a bigger lever arm also will provide any concrete exposed to moderate sulfate attack (150 to
greater torque resistance. 1000 ppm). Portland blast furnace slag cement
2.9.4 Design of tanks to resist seismic loads -- In de- (ASTM C 595), Types IS (MS) or IS-A (MS), also may
sign of tanks to resist seismic loads, the hydrodynamic be used for such exposures as well as portland pozzo-
mass of the contained fluid should be considered in the lan cement (ASTM C 595). Types IP or IPA, provided
seismic load determination. This applies to both open the pozzolan content does not exceed 25 percent by
and enclosed tanks and all sizes and shapes, e.g., weight of the cementitious materials.
square, rectangular, and circular. For severe sulfate exposure (1000 ppm or more), a
Hydrodynamic pressures should include both impul- cementitious material with not more than 5 percent C 3A
sive and convective components. Impulsive pressures should be used. If this type is not available, a cement
are developed by accelerations of the tank walls acting with a C3A content between 5 and 8 percent may be
against the mass of the contained liquid. Convective used with a 10 percent reduction in water-cement ratio.
pressures are those produced by oscillations (sloshing) Alternatively, substituting a pozzolan such as fly ash
of the liquid within the tanks. for cement by weight so that the total C3A content of
In addition to the preceding, the tanks should also be the resulting cement plus pozzolan is not greater than 5
designed to include seismic effects of external earth percent may be done. In this case, the pozzolan should
pressures and dead loads of the structure. not exceed 25 percent by weight of the cement plus
Methodology for developing hydrodynamic pres- pozzolan. Higher alkali could be permitted if a suitable
sures has been developed by G. W. Housner and is fly ash or other pozzolan, or ground granulated blast-
contained in Reference 27. Additional information on furnace slag, can be used as an inhibitor of the reac-
seismic-induced loadings of environmental facilities is tion.
contained in Reference 28. Other rational methods for Some expansive hydraulic cements (shrinkage-com-
determining the seismic resistance of tanks, such as the pensating) made with Type II or Type V portland ce-
energy method described in References 29 and 30, may ment clinker and adequately sulfated can provide ade-
be used. quate sulfate resistance. (See Section 2.5.7 of ACI 223.)
Seismic action can induce large horizontal and over- 3.1.3 Low alkali cement- Where aggregates are al-
turning forces on environmental engineering concrete kali reactive, a cement containing less than 0.60 per-
structures. Special provisions may be required when cent alkalies should be used.
joints at the base of tanks are required to resist high 3.1.4 Pozzolans- Pozzolans should conform to
shear forces and tension loads and, at the same time, ASTM C 618 and should have a loss on ignition of less
fulfill the movement requirements outlined in Section than 3 percent. Not all pozzolans are beneficial to sul-
2.8. fate resistance. Pozzolans should not exceed 25 percent
by weight of the cement plus pozzolans to avoid erratic
absorption of admixtures.
CHAPTER 3-- MATERIALS, MIXTURE 3.2-- Admixtures
PROPORTIONING, AND TESTING An air-entraining admixture should conform to
Selection and storage of materials and mixture pro- ASTM C 260. It has been found that this type of ad-
portioning for environmental engineering concrete mixture has a number of beneficial effects, in addition
structures should be in conformance with ACI 301, ex- to improving resistance to the effect of freeze-thaw
cept as specifically recommended in this report. cycles. These include improved workability (with con-
stant slump), less bleeding, better paste structure, and
3.1 -- Cementitious materials less shrinkage. As a result, their use contributes to a
3.1.1 Cement-- Except for the limitations of Sections dense watertight structure, and they should be used in
3.1.2 and 3.1.3, cement should conform to one of the all concrete covered by Section 3.5.1.
following specifications. If chemical admixtures are used, they should meet
1. Portland cement ASTM C 150, Types 1, IA, II, the requirements of ASTM C 494. Pozzolans should
IIA, III, IIIA, or V. meet the requirements of ASTM C 618. The use of all
2. Blended hydraulic cement ASTM C 595 Types admixtures should be in accordance with ACI 212.2R
I(PM), I(SM), IP, and their air-entrained modifications, as and should be acceptable to the engineer. The use of
denoted by Suffix A. water-reducing admixtures is recommended. Addi-
3. Expansive hydraulic cement ASTM C 845, Type tional guidance may be found in ACI 226R.
E-IK. Admixtures intended for use with shrinkage-com-
If air-entrained concrete is required, an air-entrain- pensating cement should be used only with the prior
ing admixture as noted in Section 3.2 should be used. knowledge and approval of the cement manufacturer.
These different cements should not be used inter- 3.2.1 Chloride content-- The maximum water-solu-
changeably in the same element or portion of the work. ble chloride ion content, expressed as a percent of the
Additional guidance on cement may be found in ACI cement, contributed from all ingredients of the con-
225R. crete mix, including water, aggregates, cementitious
materials, and admixtures, should not exceed 0.06 per- 1. Type of cement: See Section 3.1.
cent for prestressed concrete or 0.10 percent for all 2. Maximum water-cement ratio: 0.45. If a pozzolan
other concrete. If the structure is exposed to chloride, is used in the concrete, the maximum water-cement plus
the maximum water-soluble chloride content should be pozzolan ratio should be 0.45.
0.10 percent similarly expressed and measured. Only 3. Minimum cementitious materials content:
those admixtures expressly stated by the manufacturer
Coarse aggregate size no. Ib/yd 3
as being chloride-free should be used. Determination of
467 [I ‘VI in. (38.1 mm) maximum] 517 (307 kg/m3)
water-soluble chloride ion content should be in accord- 57 [1 in. (25.4 mm) maximum] 536 (318 kg/m3)
ance with Federal Highway Administration Report No. 67 [‘/ in. (19 mm) maximum] 564 (335 kg/m3)
FHWA-RD-77-85, “Sampling & Testing for Chloride

Ion in Concrete.” No calcium chloride or admixture Concrete mixtures with less cement than shown in the
containing chloride from other than incidental impuri- preceding table may be used when it is demonstrated to
ties should be used. the engineer that the proposed mixtures will produce
concrete that will meet the other requirements of Sec-
3.3-Water tion 3.5.1 and will have acceptable durability, im-
Mixing water should be potable, except that fresh permeability, workability, compactability, and finish-
nonpotable water may be used if mortar cubes made ability, as listed in Section 1.1.
with the water in question have 7- and 28-day strengths 4. Air content (as determined in accordance with
equal to at least 90 percent of the strength of similar ASTM C 173 or C 231): 51/2 + 1 percent for coarse ag-
specimens made with potable water when tested in ac- gregate size No. 467; 6 f 1 percent for coarse aggre-
cordance with ASTM C 109. gate size No. 57 or No. 67.
3.4-Aggregates 5. Slump (as determined in accordance with ASTM
3.4.1 Aggregates for watertight, chemical resistant C 143), measured at the point of placement into the
concrete- Fine aggregates should conform to the pro- structure: 1 in. (25 mm) minimum; 3 in. (75 mm) max-
visions of ASTM C 33. imum for footings, caissons, substructure walls; 4 in.
Coarse aggregates should be sized to be as large as (100 mm) maximum for slabs, beams reinforced walls,
practical, consistent with the placing constraints, as re- columns.
quired by the engineer and as described in ASTM C 33, Note: Because of the high slump loss associated with
and should conform to all quality requirements noted shrinkage-compensating cement-concrete, it requires
therein. higher slumps at the batch plant than those just given.
The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate (See Section 4.3 of ACI 223.) These slump numbers do
should not be larger than one-fifth of the narrowest di- not apply when an acceptable high-range water reducer
mension between sides of the forms, one-third of the is used.
depth of slabs, or three-fourths of the minimum clear 3.5.2 Ordinary structural concrete- In general, all
spacing between reinforcing bars. These limitations concrete other than that referred to in Section 3.5.1
may be waived if, in the judgment of the engineer, should be proportioned in accordance with Chapter 3
workability and methods of consolidation are such that of ACI 301 and ACI 211.1.
the concrete can be placed without honeycomb or void. 3.5.3 Acceptance of proportions- The contractor
3.4.2 Aggregates for ordinary structural concrete- In should furnish for the engineer’s review mixture pro-
general, aggregates for all concrete other than that re- portions prepared by a testing laboratory acceptable to
ferred to in Sections 3.4.1 and 3.5.1 should be in ac- the engineer, in accordance with ACI 301 and ACI 318.
cordance with Section 2.4 of ACI 301. For further in-
formation, refer to ACI 221R. 3.6- Evaluation and acceptance
3.6.1- During construction, 7 day compressive
3.5-Mix proportioning strength tests should be used to supplement the 28-day
3.5.1 Watertight, chemical resistant concrete- All tests by comparing the average relative 7- and 28-day
concrete that must be watertight and resistant to freeze- strengths as determined by the laboratory. At least two
thaw cycles and to naturally occurring or commonly test cylinders should be made for testing at each age
used chemicals should be air entrained. All materials during each concreting operation for each 100 yd3
should be proportioned to produce a well-graded mix- (76.45 m’) of concrete or fraction thereof. All test cyl-
ture of high density and maximum workability, with a inders should be cured under laboratory conditions,
minimum specified 28 day compressive strength of 3500 except that the engineer may require an equal number
psi (24 MPa) where the concrete is not exposed to se- of field control cylinders cured under job conditions.
vere and frequent freezing and thawing, or 4000 psi (28 For details, see ASTM C 31, C 39, C 172, and ACI
MPa) where the concrete is exposed to severe and fre- 214.
quent freezing and thawing, except where special struc- 3.6.2- If the concrete fails to meet the specified 28-
tural or other considerations require concrete of greater day strength, the engineer may order tests on the hard-
strength. The concrete should be proportioned in ac- ened concrete, as described in Section 17.3 of ACI 301.
cordance with ACI 211.1, subject to the following re- If the concrete is cored and the cores fail to meet the
quirements. requirements of Section 17.3.2.3 of ACI 301 or Section
4.7.4.4 of ACI 318, the engineer should have the right enough to keep the chute clean but slow enough to
to reject the concrete, change the mix proportions, or avoid segregation of materials. The end of each chute
both, at the expense of the contractor. should be provided with a baffle to help prevent segre-
gation, or the concrete should be discharged through a
CHAPTER 4 - CONSTRUCTION drop chute, tremie, or elephant trunk directly into the
Construction of environmental engineering concrete form.
structures generally should be in conformance with ACI 4.2.3 Drop chutes, elephant trunks, and tremies-
301, particularly Chapters 4 through 13, except as spe- Drop chutes, elephant trunks, and/or tremies should be
cifically recommended in this report. used in walls and columns to prevent free-fall of the
concrete and to allow the concrete to be placed through
4.1 -Concrete the cage of reinforcing steel. They should be moved at
4.1.1 Concrete mixture design-- In addition to the short intervals to prevent stacking of concrete. Vibra-
mixture design parameters established pursuant to tors should not be used to move the mass of concrete
structural characteristics, chemical resistance, and du- through the forms. Tremies should be used to place
rability requirements, the concrete mixtures should be concrete under water and to avoid segregation.
suitable for the placing systems to be employed. 4.2.4 Pumping- Pumping equipment should be a
Generally, well-proportioned mixtures leaning to- suitable type with adequate pumping capacity for the
ward the coarse range in coarse-to-fine proportioning required slump and maximum size aggregate to be used.
with good cohesive qualities will be able to be placed Pumplines should not contain aluminum. Loss of
well with all placing systems. Loose, sandy, or bleeding slump in pumping from pump hopper to point of
mixes should be avoided. placement should not exceed 1 ‘/z in. (38.1 mm).
Mix proportions should be prepared in accordance 4.2.5 Conveying- Concrete conveying equipment
with ACI 301 and ACI 211.1. should be designed specifically to place concrete with-
4.1.2 Mixing concrete- Because uniformity is partic- out segregation. Conveyor systems should not impair
ularly important in obtaining watertight concrete, the the strength, slump, or air content of the concrete
concrete materials should be mixed sufficiently to pro- placed. The placement system should be capable of de-
duce concrete uniform in color and consistency with the livering concrete continuously over the entire place-
required slump and air content. Concrete may be either ment area without delays for equipment relocation.
ready-mixed or mixed at the job site, as recommended 4.2.6 Back-up placement systems- Alternate placing
in Chapter 7 of ACI 301. equipment should be immediately available for use in
the event that the primary placing equipment or system
4.2- Placement of concrete breaks down during a placement. Such equipment
Detailed recommendations for acceptable placing should be able to commence placing operations with 30
practices to obtain durable and watertight concrete, min notice to avoid cold joints in the structural element
which is absolutely necessary in environmental engi- being placed. Provisions should be made for the use of
neering concrete structures, are given in ACI 304R. The retarders.
contractor should provide for the continuation of con- 4.2.7 Portholes in wall and column forms- Limita-
crete placements in the event of plant or equipment tions-Temporary openings or portholes in wall or col-
breakdowns. Backup concrete placing equipment umn forms may be used to limit the free-fall of the
should be available for use within 30 min in the event concrete to less than 4 ft (1.2 m) and should be so lo-
the primary placing equipment breaks down. An alter- cated to facilitate the placing and consolidation of the
nate concrete source with acceptable materials and concrete. The ports should be spaced no more than 6 to
mixtures on hand will assure the continuation of con- 8 ft (1.8 to 2.4 m) apart to limit the horizontal flow of
crete placements without unplanned and frequently un- concrete and to prevent segregation.
acceptable, irregular construction joints. 4.2.8 Placing in forms- Sections of walls between
To prevent segregation, the concrete should be de- joints should be placed continuously to produce a
posited in approximately 12 to 24 in. (305 to 610 mm) monolithic unit. At least 48 hr should elapse between
deep horizontal layers as near as possible to its final casting of adjoining units.
position (see ACI 309R). It should not be allowed to Placing of concrete in beams or slabs should not be-
drop freely more than 4 ft (1.2 m) or through a cage of gin until the concrete previously placed in walls or col-
reinforcing steel (see Section 4.2.3). umns has attained initial set. As soon as possible after
4.2.1 Buckets- Bottom-dump buckets may be used concrete has been deposited, it should be consolidated
for transporting mixed concrete to the desired location. in an acceptable manner to work the concrete around
Particular care should be taken to avoid jarring or the reinforcement and inserts and to prevent formation
bumping that may cause segregation. of voids. Each horizontal layer should be consolidated
4.2.2 Chutes- Chutes used to transport concrete by the use of acceptable mechanical vibratory equip-
should be of metal, except aluminum, or wood with ment. The vibrator should extend into the underlying
metal lining and should have a slope not exceeding one layer to bond the two layers together. To avoid exces-
vertical to two horizontal and not less than one vertical sive pressure on the forms, the vibrator should pene-
to three horizontal so that the concrete will travel fast trate no more than 2 ft (610 mm) into the underlying
layer. The use of vibrators to move concrete horizon- new concrete should be placed on a layer of cement
tally within the forms should not be allowed. Mechan- mortar evenly spread over the previously placed con-
ical high frequency vibrators with a minimum fre- crete. This mortar should be a mixture of cement, sand,
quency of 8000 revolutions per min are preferred for and water in the same proportions used in the concrete
consolidation of the concrete within the forms. The but with all coarse aggregate omitted.
concrete should be vibrated in accordance with the rec- 4.3.2 Movement joints- Concrete surfaces must be
ommendations contained in ACI 309R. Vibration clean and dry; free from grease, oil, bitumen, or curing
should be continued until the escape of large bubbles at compound; and should be primed according to the rec-
the surface stops and before the onset of any segrega- ommendation of the manufacturer of the sealant.
tion. When a joint sealant is used, it should be investigated
Vibrators attached to the forms provide an excellent for compatibility with the liquid being retained. For
means of vibrating high walls and columns. The forms detailed recommendations on sealants, see ACI 504R.
must be designed to allow for the full liquid head pres- 4.3.3 Waterstops
sure produced by the use of form vibrators. 4.3.3.1 Steel - Steel waterstops have been used
For more information on vibration and consolida- successfully in construction joints. This type of water-
tion of concrete, refer to ACI 309R. stop is usually a 6 x j/4 in. (152 x 6 mm) steel plate
4.2.9 Temperature limitations embedded 3 in. (76 mm) into the concrete on each side
4.2.9.1 Cold weather- Unless the temperature is at of the joint. To facilitate bonding to the concrete, the
least 40 F (4.4 C) and rising, water and/or aggregates surfaces of steel waterstops should be free of all mud,
should be heated so that the temperature of the con- oil, loose rust, or other material that would inhibit
crete, when placed, is not less than 55 F (13 C). Provi- bond. Splices should be made by butt-welding the ends
sion should be made for maintaining the concrete moist of the plates together.
and at a minimum temperature of not less than 50 F (10 4.3.3.2 Flexible waterstops - Waterstops fabri-
C) for a period of at least 7 days. cated of rubber, vinyl, metal, or other acceptable ma-
Insulated tarpaulins and blankets may be used to terial should be of shapes and patterns to accomplish
cover concrete slabs or draped over and around wails, the required function. Where movement is anticipated
columns, and beams to retain the heat generated by hy- as in expansion joints, a bulb or U-shaped center sec-
dration of the cement. Forms may be insulated or tion with “tear-away” closure should be provided of
heated. Atmospheric steam curing may be utilized to such size and pattern as required to accommodate an-
accelerate curing and strength gain. Detailed recom- ticipated movement.
mendations are given in ACI 306R. When a flexible-type waterstop is used, all portions
Because of potential dangers, form removal should including ends and edges should be firmly tied and/or
be governed by attainment of adequate strength in the fixed in position to prevent movement during place-
field-placed concrete. ment of the concrete. See Fig. 12 and 16 of ACI 504R
4.2.9.2 Hot weather- When the ambient tempera- for installation recommendations.
ture is 90 F (32 C) or above, special precautions should
be taken during batching, mixing, placing, and curing. 4.4 - Formwork
Aggregate and cement should be kept cool. The use of 4.4.1 General - Formwork should be designed, fab-
a set-retarding admixture may be beneficial, particu- ricated, erected, used, and removed in accordance with
larly with shrinkage-compensating concrete. the recommendations and guidelines of ACI 347 and
Sometimes it is desirable to cool the mixing water by SP-4.
the use of liquid nitrogen, by refrigeration, or by re- 4.4.2 Form design - Formwork should be designed
placing part of the water with shaved or crushed ice. so that all components and members of the structure
Wall forms should be removed as soon as the con- will be cast to the correct dimensions, shape, align-
crete has hardened sufficiently to prevent damage to the ment, elevation, and position, without excessive deflec-
concrete. Curing should be commenced immediately tion. Formwork also should be designed to be erected,
with water and burlap covers or with the application of supported, braced, and maintained so that it will sup-
a nonstaining, nontoxic white-pigmented curing com- port safely all vertical and lateral loads that might be
pound acceptable to the engineer. applied until such loads can be supported by the con-
Curing of concrete slabs should be started as soon as crete structure.
possible, when finishing has been completed and/or the The form panels for liquid-containing structures and
water sheen has disappeared. If liquid membrane-cur- conduits should be constructed in the largest size con-
ing is used (see Section 4.6), the compound should be sistent with the lifting equipment available to handle
nonstaining, nontoxic, and white-pigmented. Detailed rec- them. Form surfaces should be constructed of sheet
ommendations are given in ACI 305R. steel, smooth-dressed wood or plastic-faced plywood,
4.3-Joints or fiberglass. Assemblies should provide for ease of
4.3.1 Construction joints- Vertical construction stripping with minimum damage to the formed sur-
joints should be prepared and bonded as provided in faces.
Chapter 6 of ACI 301. This practice also may be used Vertical or lateral loads should be carried to the
for horizontal joints. When the wall height exceeds 8 ft, ground by the formwork and shoring system or by the
in-place construction that has adequate capacity for during early finishing operations. Any water brought to
that purpose. the surface by the strike-off or rough floating should be
Formwork and falsework vertical and lateral loads allowed to evaporate. If the amount of water or lait-
should also include live loads, wind loads, and con- ance is excessive, it should be removed before the sur-
struction loads, together with appropriate safety fac- face is floated or troweled again. If a smooth surface is
tors and load multipliers as recommended by ACI 347. required, final troweling should be delayed as long as
All formwork should be mortar tight. Tie systems possible. Generally, the proper time for final troweling
should provide for positive pressure at all joints to pre- is after the surface water has disappeared and when the
clude grout leakage. surface cannot be dented easily with the finger. Final
4.4.3 Form ties -- Form tie assemblies for environ- troweling should be only as required to produce the
mental engineering concrete structures should permit specified finish and close any surface cracks that may
tightening of the forms and should leave no metal or have developed.
other material within 1 ‘/z in. (38 mm) of the surface. 4.5.2 Nonslip finish - All exposed floor areas, side-
The assembly should provide cone-shaped depressions walks, and steps subject to foot traffic and likely to be
at the forms at the surface at least 1 in. in diameter and wet should have a nonslip finish, as described in Sec-
1% in. deep to allow filling and patching. tion 7.11 of ACI 302.1R.
Ties should be tight fitting, or tie holes in forms 4.5.3 Finishing formed surfaces - Requirements
should be sealed to prevent leakage where ties pene- vary from merely removing fins and repairing obvious
trate the form. imperfections to finishing, which involves grinding,
When a portion of single rod ties are to remain in a rubbing, floating, or brushing. Such work should be
liquid-retaining structure, the portion that is to remain done as soon as forms can be removed. If surfaces are
should be provided with a tightly fitted washer at mid- to be finished by grinding, chipping, bushhammering,
point. Multi-rod ties do not require washers. Through or sandblasting, the concrete must first be cured thor-
ties that are to be entirely removed from the structure oughly. Chapter 10 of ACI 301 adequately covers these
should be tapered over the portion that passes through and other types of concrete finishes.
the concrete. The large end of tapered ties should be on 4.5.4 Repair of surface defects - Repair of surface
the liquid side of the wall. The contractor should be re- defects should be in accordance with Chapter 9 of ACI
quired to demonstrate the methods and materials to be 301 and with ACI 309.2R.
used to fill the void thus formed. 4.5.4.1 Tie holes -- After being thoroughly cleaned
4.4.4 Form coating or release agents - Form sur- and dampened, the tie holes should be grouted solid
faces that will be in contact with concrete should be with a nonmetallic, nonshrinking grout. The tie hole
coated with an effective bond-breaking form coating in should be filled from the large end of the cone-shaped
accordance with Section 4.4 of ACI 347. For water hole and packed solid by rodding. The use of rubber of
treatment plants, the form coating should be nontoxic plastic plugs wedged deep in the wall prior to filling
after a specified period, usually 30 days. with grout is recommended. The grout material and the
4.4.5 Inspection before concreting - Prior to plac- entire tiehole filling process should be acceptable to the
ing concrete, forms should be inspected for cleanliness, engineer prior to the start of the work.
accuracy of alignment, and reinforcing steel clearances. 4.5.4.2 Patching minor defects - Surfaces to be
Inspection ports should be provided if, in the opinion patched or repaired after removal of forms should be
of the inspector, they are necessary to clean and inspect corrected by acceptable methods and not by plastering
properly the interior of the formed element. over them. Patching of defective areas should be done
4.4.6 Removal of forms - Removal of forms should as soon as the forms can be removed and before curing
be in accordance with ACI 347-78 (Reaffirmed 1984). compound is applied.
In hot, dry climates, wood forms remaining in place A good patch well-bonded to adjacent concrete is es-
may not provide adequate curing and should be kept sential. Nonshrink, nonstaining grout should be used
wet or removed or loosened so that the concrete sur- where appearance is important. Curing requirements
faces can be kept moist or coated with a curing mem- for patches should be the same as for the mass of the
brane. In cold weather, removal of formwork should be concrete.
deferred and insulated until concrete has attained ade- 4.5.4.3 Honeycombed areas - Honeycombed sec-
quate strength, or formwork should be replaced with tions may result from improper placement and inade-
insulation blankets to avoid thermal shock and conse- quate vibration. Whether patching of honeycombed
quent crazing of the concrete surface. areas is permissible depends on the extent and depth of
4.4.7 Reshoring - Reshoring, if permitted, should the defective concrete and its location. If patching is
be in accordance with ACI 347-78 (Reaffirmed 1984). allowed, all unsound material should be chipped out
back to sound, solid concrete and inspected prior to the
4.5 -- Finishes for exposed surfaces start of filling and patching operations.
4.5.1 Finishing unformed surfaces - Detailed rec-
ommendations are given in Section 6.4.4 and Chapter 7 4.6 -- Curing
of ACI 302.1R. Concrete should be spread evenly Proper curing of fresh concrete requires that mois-
ahead of the strike-off and worked as little as possible ture be retained to promote additional hydration of ce-
350R-20 ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT
ment during the curing period and to prevent forma- b. The volume of leakage in a given time period (af-
tion of surface cracks due to rapid loss of water while ter correcting for evaporation losses) is less than a
the concrete is plastic. Detailed recommendations are specified amount.
given in ACI 308. Acceptable leakage volumes will vary depending on
When surfaces are cured with membrane curing the specific application. Leakage rates of X0 of 1 per-
compound, all finishing operations, except grinding, cent of the tank volume in any 24 hr period (after ab-
chipping, bushhammering, and sandblasting, should be sorption and stabilization) would be generally accept-
completed prior to application of the membrane. able for a water reservoir where the consequences of
Curing should commence as soon as possible follow- leakage would not be significant.
ing initial set or completion of surface finishing, and as
soon as marring of the concrete surface will not occur. CHAPTER 5 - PROTECTION AGAINST
Various methods commonly used include sprinkling, CHEMICALS
ponding, using moisture retaining covers, or applying a 5.1 - Resistance of concrete and
liquid membrane-forming curing compound seal coat to reinforcing steel
form a thin water-impervious membrane. Concrete made with the proper type of cement,
Leaving wall forms in place provides an excellent which has been properly proportioned, batched, mixed,
means of retaining moisture. However, in hot, dry placed, consolidated, and cured, will be dense, strong,
weather, the dry forms tend to absorb moisture from watertight, and resistant to most chemical attack;
the concrete and inhibit dissipation of the heat of hy- therefore, under ordinary service conditions, quality
dration. Therefore, in hot, dry weather, the forms concrete does not require protection against chemical
should be kept moist or removed as soon as the con- deterioration or corrosion. Likewise, reinforcement
crete has hardened sufficiently to prevent damage to the embedded in quality concrete normally is well-pro-
concrete. Moist or membrane curing should be com- tected against corrosive chemicals.
menced immediately after removal of the forms. Quality concrete, properly air entrained, is also resis-
The membrane curing compound should cover the tant to freeze-thaw deterioration, which in many loca-
entire surface to be cured with a uniform film that will tions may be more severe than chemical action.
remain in place without gaps or omissions for the full
duration of the curing period. Exposed steel, keyways, 5.2 - Need for protection
or concrete to be surfaced should be protected from the The corrosive conditions that require concrete sur-
curing compound unless tests show that satisfactory face protection can range from comparatively mild to
adherence of the surface is obtained. very severe, depending on the chemicals used and the
Membrane curing compounds should conform to domestic and industrial wastes encountered.
ASTM C 309 and should have a minimum of 18 per- The type of protection employed against chemical
cent solids, be nonyellowing, and have a unit moisture attack will also vary according to the kind and concen-
loss of less than 0.039 gm/cm2 maximum at 72 hr. Rate tration of the chemical, frequency of contact, and
of application of curing compounds should follow physical conditions such as temperature, pressure, me-
manufacturer’s recommendation or be in the range of chanical wear or abrasion, and freeze-thaw cycles.
150 to 200 ft2/gal. [See Section 2.3.3 of ACI 308-81 Where conditions exist that may be expected to de-
(Revised 1986)]. Polyethylene film for curing concrete teriorate, remove, or otherwise destroy the concrete
should conform to ASTM C 171. Curing compounds immediately around the reinforcing steel, direct protec-
used in water treatment plant construction must be tion of the reinforcing steel, such as epoxy coating as
nontoxic and free of taste and odor. specified in ASTM A 775, may be desirable.
5.3 - Types of protection

4.7 - Leakage testing Many types of protective coatings or barriers will
It is normal practice to test liquid-retaining struc- prevent contact with the concrete surfaces. To be suc-
tures for water tightness. The leakage test should be cessful, such coatings should exhibit good adhesion to
performed while the tank walls are exposed so that the concrete and be completely impervious.
leaks can be easily found and repaired. Thus, leakage Among these are various coatings of thermoplastic
tests usually are performed prior to backfilling or clad- and thermosetting types, ceramics, chemical-resistant
ding the tank. For potable water facilities, the leakage mortars, sheet or linear materials, and composite bar-
test is often done in conjunction with the disinfection in riers.
order to save water. If conditions are severe enough to deteriorate good-
The acceptance leakage criteria and method of test quality concrete, it is difficult to provide complete and
should be specified in the construction contract. Tanks lasting protection, even with the best of these types of
generally are filled to full overflow level. If the struc- protection. Consideration should be given to neutraliz-
ture has dried out, the water should be left standing for ing severely aggressive liquid wastes.
a period to allow for absorption. Tanks are usually When special protection is required for the reinforc-
considered acceptable if: ing bars, epoxy-coated bars are preferable. Specifica-
a. There are no visible leakage or visible damp areas, tions for such coatings should be patterned upon
and ASTM A 775.
5.4 - Recommended coatings Group 1

5.4.1 Water treatment plants - In general, normal These chemicals are not considered harmful to con-
concentrations of the chemicals used in water treat- crete but are listed because in some instances treatment
ment plants for coagulation, taste and color control, is desired to prevent staining or the absorption of liq-
and disinfection do not affect concrete, except for liquid into the concrete which may react with other chem-
uid alum, which requires a continuous, inert barrier, icals in the future.
such as PVC or rubber, at least 20 mils (0.508 mm) in Activated carbon (except when agitated, then in
thickness. Group 3)
5.4.2 Domestic sewage plants - Concrete in domes- Activated silica (except when agitated, then in Group
tic sewage treatment plants seldom requires special 3)
protection, although the mechanical equipment in such Calcium hydroxide
environments generally is provided with a protective Calcium oxide
coating of coal-tar-based paint or some type of epoxy Potassium permanganate
due to its much greater susceptibility to damage from Sodium bicarbonate*
mildly corrosive conditions. Sodium carbonate
In exceptional cases, for example, where hydrogen Sodium fluoride
sulfide evolves in a stagnant, unventilated environment Sodium hydroxide (except over 20 percent concen-
that is difficult or uneconomical to correct or clean tration, then in Group 3)
regularly, a coating such as that normally provided for Sodium silicate
metal may be necessary. Care should be exercised in Sodium siliconfluoride
using such coatings, and they should be fully tested to Trisodium phosphate
insure their suitability for the proposed application.
5.4.3 Industrial wastewater treatment plants - In- Group 2
dustrial wastewater treatment may at times involve acid Concrete exposed to the chemicals listed in this group
waste with pH as low as 1.0. The type of protection should be made with sulfate-resistant cement (see Sec-
generally used is chemical-resistant mortar, acid proof tion 3.1) or should be given a protective coating, as de-
brick or tile, thick bituminous coatings, epoxies, and scribed in Section 5.4.
heavy sheets or liners of rubber or plastic. Copper sulfate
5.4.4 Protection of floors in treatment plants - Ferric sulfate
Concrete floors, where occasional spillage of acids may
occur, should be protected with vinyl lacquer, epoxy, Group 3
chlorinated rubber, or phenolic coatings. Concrete should be protected against these chemicals
5.5 - Selection of protection system with a protective coating, as described in Section 5.4.
Each project should be considered individually be- Activated carbon (when not agitated, then in Group
cause various materials and techniques used from time 1)
to time cause new problems of chemical attack. De- Activated silica (when not agitated, then in Group 1)
tailed recommendations are given in ACI 515.1R. Alum, liquid
Manufacturers of protective materials should be Aluminum ammonium sulfate
consulted for information on the best preparation of Aluminum chloride solution
concrete surfaces and the proper mixing and applica- Aluminum potassium sulfate
tion of their coating products. It is important that the Aluminum sulfate
surfaces be clean, dry, and sound in order to obtain Ammonium sulfate
proper coverage and bond. Generally, muriatic acid Calcium hypochloride
washing and/or sandblasting are recommended for Chlorine
cleaning. Ferric chloride
Fluosilicic acid
5.6 - Safety precautions Sodium bisulfite
The toxicity of any product should be investigated. Sodium hydroxide (except less than 20 percent con-
When applying coatings, the need for ventilation centration, then in Group 1)
should be checked. Required protective equipment such Sulfuric acid
as gloves, goggles, and masks should also be checked
before application. CHAPTER 6 - REFERENCES
6.1 - Recommended references
5.7 - Chemicals used in treatment plants
Chemicals sometimes encountered in water and The documents of the various standards-producing
wastewater treatment were previously listed in Table organizations referred to in this document are listed
2.3.2. Some type of protection may be required where below with their serial designation, including year of
some of these materials contact concrete surfaces. Ta- adoption or revision. The documents listed were the
ble 2.5.2 of ACI 515.lR provides additional informa-
tion on the effect of chemicals on concrete. *Caution with respect to alkali-reactive aggregate.
350R-22 ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT
latest effort at the time this document was revised. 347-78 Recommended Practice for Con-
Since some of these documents are revised frequently, (Reapproved 1984) crete Formwork
generally in minor detail only, the user of this docu- 504R-77 Guide to Joint Sealants for Con-
ment should check directly with the sponsoring group crete Structures
if it is desired to refer to the latest revision. 515.1R-79 Guide to the Use of Waterproof-
(Revised 1985) ing, Dampproofing, Protective,
and Decorative Barrier Systems
American Association of State Highway for Concrete
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) SP-4 Formwork for Concrete, 4th
T 260-84 Sampling and Testing for Total Edition, 1981, Revised 2nd
Chloride Ion in Concrete and Printing
Concrete Raw Materials
American Concrete Institute (ACI) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

201.2R-77 Guide to Durable Concrete A58.1-1982 American National Standard
(Reapproved 1982) Minimum Design Loads for
ACI 211.1-81 Standard Practice for Selecting Buildings and Other Structures
(Revised 1985) Proportions for Normal, Heavy-
weight, and Mass Concrete ASTM
212.2R-81 Guide for Use of Admixtures in A 615-86 Standard Specification for De-
(Revised 1986) Concrete formed and Plain Billet-Steel
214-77 Recommended Practice for Eval- Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
(Reapproved 1983) uation of Strength Test A 6116-86 Standard Specification for Rail-
Results of Concrete Steel Deformed and Plain Bars
221R-84 Guide for use of Normal Weight for Concrete Reinforcement
Aggregate in Concrete A 617-86 Standard Specification for Axle-
223-83 Standard Practice for the Use of Steel Deformed and Plain Bars
Shrinkage-Compensating Con- for Concrete Reinforcement
crete A 706-86 Standard Specification for Low-
224R-80 Control of Cracking in Concrete Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for
(Revised 1984) Structures Concrete Reinforcement
224.1R-84 Causes, Evaluations, and Repair A 767-85 Standard Specification for Zinc-
of Cracks in Concrete Structures Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars
225R-85 Guide to the Selection and Use for Concrete Reinforcement
of Hydraulic Cements A 775-86 Standard Specification for
301-84 Specifications for Structural Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel
(Revised 1988) Concrete for Buildings Bars
302.1R-80 Guide for Concrete Floor and C 31-87 Standard Practices for Making
Slab Construction and Curing Concrete Test Speci-
304R-85 Guide for Measuring, Mixing, mens in the Field
Transporting, and Placing Con- C 33-86 Standard Specification for Con-
crete crete Aggregates
305R-77 Hot Weather Concreting C 39-86 Standard Test Method for Com-
(Revised 1982) pressive Strength of Cylindrical
306R-88 Cold Weather Concreting Concrete Specimens
308-81 Standard Practice for Curing C 109-86 Standard Test Method for Com-
(Revised 1986) Concrete pressive Strength of Hydraulic
309R-87 Guide for Consolidation of Con- Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or
crete 50-mm Cube Specimens)
309.2R-82 Identification and Control of C 143-78 Standard Test Method for Slump
Consolidation-Related Surface of Portland Cement Concrete
Defects in Formed Concrete C 150-86 Standard Specification for Port-
318-83 Building Code Requirements for land Cement
(Revised 1986) Reinforced Concrete C 171-69 Standard Specification for Sheet
318R-83 Commentary on Building Code (Reapproved 1986) Materials for Curing Concrete
(Supplement 1986) Requirements for Reinforced C 172-82 Standard Method of Sampling
Concrete Freshly Mixed Concrete
344R-70 Design and Construction of Cir- C 173-78 Standard Test Method for Air
(Reapproved 1981) cular Prestressed Concrete Struc- Content of Freshly Mixed Con-
tures crete by the Volumetric Method
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
C 231-82 Standard Test Method for Air ASTM

Content of Freshly Mixed Con- 1916 Race St.
crete by the Pressure Method Philadelphia, PA 19103
C 260-86 Standard Specification for Air-
Entraining Admixtures for Con- 6.2-Cited references
crete 1. “Water Treatment Plant Design,” Manual of Engineering
C 309-81 Standard Specification for Liq- Practice No. 19, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
uid Membrane-Forming Com- 1969, 353 pp.
2. “Wastewater Treatment Plant Design,” Manual of Engineer-
pounds for Curing Concrete ing Practice No. 36, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
C 494-86 Standard Specification for 1977, 574 pp.
Chemical Admixtures for Con- 3. “Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers,“
crete Manual of Engineering Practice No. 37, American Society of Civil
C 595-86 Standard Specification for Engineers, New York, 1969, 332 pp.
4. “Underground Concrete Tanks,” Information Sheet No.
Blended Hydraulic Cements
IS07lD, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1973. 4 pp.
C 618-85 Standard Specification for Fly 5. “Circular Concrete Tanks Without Prestressing,” Information
Ash and Raw or Calcined Natu- Sheet No. IS072D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1942, 32
ral Pozzolan for Use as a Min- PP.
eral Admixture in Portland Ce- 6. “Rectangular Concrete Tanks,” Information Sheet No.
IS003.03D. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1969 (Revised
ment Concrete
1981) 16 pp.
C 806-75 Standard Test Method for Re- 7. Moody, W. T., “Moments and Reactions for Rectangular
strained Expansions of Expan- Plates,” Engineering Monograph No. 27, U.S. Bureau of
sive Cement Mortar Reclamation, Denver, 1960 (Revised 1963), 74 pp.
C 845-80 Standard Specification for Ex- 8. Vetter. C. P., “Stresses in Reinforced Concrete Due to Vol-
pansive Hydraulic Cement ume Changes,” Transactions, ASCE, V. 98, 1933, pp. 1039-1053.
9. Klein, Frank; Hoffman, Edward S.; and Rice, Paul F., “Ap-
C 878-80 Standard Test Method for Re- plication of Strength Design Methods to Sanitary Structures,” Con-
strained Expansion of Shrink- crete International: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 4, Apr. 1981,
age-compensating Concrete pp. 35-40.
D 994-71 Standard Specification for Pre- 10. Gogate, Anand B., “Structural Design Considerations for Set-
formed Expansion Joint Filler tling Tanks and Similar Structures,” ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V.
(Reapproved 1982)
65, No. 12, Dec. 1968, pp. 1017-1020.
for Concrete (Bituminous Type) 11. Gogate, Anand B., “Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete
D 1056-85 Standard Specification for Flexi- Sanitary Structures-Past, Present, and Future,” Concrete Interna-
ble Cellular Materials-Sponge tional: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 4, Apr. 1981, pp. 24-28.
or Expanded Rubber 12. Gogate, Anand B., “An Analysis of AC1 Committee 350’s
D 1751-83 Standard Specification for Pre- Recommended Design Standards,” Concrete International: Design &
Construction, V. 6, No. 10, Oct. 1984, pp. 17-19.
formed Expansion Joint Fillers 13. Troxell. G. E.; Raphael, J. M.; and Davis. R. E., “Long-Time
for Concrete Paving and Struc- Creep and Shrinkage Tests of Plain and Reinforced Concrete,” Pro-
tural Construction (Nonextrud- ceedings, ASTM, V. 58, 1958, pp. 1101-1120.
ing and Resilient Bituminous 14. “Expansion Joints in Buildings,” Technical Report No. 65,
Federal Construction Council, National Academy of Sciences, Na-
Types) tional Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1974, 43 pp.
D 1752-84 Standard Specification for Pre- 15. Allen, E. A., and Higginson, E. C., “Waterstops in Articu-
formed Sponge Rubber and Cork lated Concrete Construction,” ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 52. No.
Expansion Joint Fillers for Con- I, Sept. 1955, pp. 83-91. Also, Discussion, Part 2, Dec. 1956, pp.
crete Paving and Structural Con- 1149-1152.
struction 16. Whitman, Robert V.. and Richart, Frank E., “Design Proce-
dures for Dynamically Loaded Foundations,“ Proceedings, ASCE,
V. 93, SM6, Nov. 1967, pp. 169-193.
The previously mentioned publications may be ob- 17. Irish, K., and Walker, W. P., Foundations for Reciprocating
tained from the following organizations: Machines, Concrete Publications Ltd., London, 1969, 103 pp.
18. Karabinis. A. Harry, and Fowler. Timothy J., “Design Con-
siderations for Dynamically Loaded Equipment Foundations,”
American Association of State Highway and Foundations for Equipment & Machinery, SP-78, American Con-
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) crete Institute. Detroit, 1982. pp. 61-78.
444 N. Capitol Street NW, Suite 225 19. Novak, Milos, “Vertical Vibration of Floating Piles,” Pro-
Washington, DC 2001 ceedings, ASCE, V. 103, EMl, Feb. 1977, pp. 153-168.
20. Novak, Milos. and Howell, John F., “Torsional Vibration of
Pile Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, GT4, Apr. 1977, pp.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) 272-285.
P.O. Box 9094 21. Singh, Jogeshwar P.; Donovan, Neville C.; and Jobsis, Adri-
Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094 anus C., “Design of Machine Foundations on Piles,” Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 102, GT8, Aug. 1977. pp. 863-877.
22. Barkan, D. D., Dynamics of Bases and Foundations, McGraw-
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Hill Book Co., New York, 1962. 496 pp.
1430 Broadway 23. Biggs, J. M., Introduction to Structural Dynamics, McGraw-
New York. NY 10018 Hill Book Co., New York, 1964, 341 pp.
24. Church, A. H., Mechanical Vibrations, John Wiley & Sons, 2. “Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Structures for
New York, 1963, 432 pp. Retaining Aqueous Liquids,” (BS8007:1987), British Standards In-
25. Skipp, B. O., Editor, Vibration in Civil Engineering, Butter- stitution, London, 1987.
worths, London, 1966, 298 pp. 3. Critchell. Peter L., Joints and Cracks in Concrete, Contractors
26. Major, A., Vibration Analysis and Design of Foundations for Record Ltd., London, 1958, 232 pp.
Machines and Turbines, Collets, London, 1962, 828 pp. 4. Davies, John Duncan, and Long, John Edward, “Behavior of
27. Housner, G. W., “The Dynamic Behavior of Water Tanks,” Square Tanks on Elastic Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 94,
Bulletin, Seismic Society of America, V. 53, No. 2, Feb. 1963, pp, EM3, June 1968, pp. 753-772.
381-387. 5. Manning, G. P., Concrete Reservoirs and Tanks, Concrete
28. Ballantyne, D. B.; Pinkham, C. W.; and Weinberger, L. W., Publications Ltd., London, 1967, 384 pp.
“Seismic Induced Loadings on Sanitary Facilities,” ASCE Specialty 6. Kleinlogel, Adolf, Influences on Concrete, translated from the
Conference on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering (Oakland, Aug. German by F. S. Morgenroth, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New
1981), American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1981. York. 1950, 281 pp.
29. Housner, George W., “Limit Design of Structures to Resist 7. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
Earthquakes,” Proceedings, World Conference on Earthquake En- Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
gineering, University of California, Berkeley, 1956, pp. 5-l - 5-13. 8. “Concrete for Massive Structures,” Information Sheet No.
30. Medearis, Kenneth, “Energy Absorption of Structures under lSOW128T, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1987, 24 pp.
Cyclic Loading,” Proceedings, ASCE. V. 90, ST1, Feb. 1964, pp. 61- 9. “Concrete for Wastewater Treatment Works,” Information
69. Sheet No. IS182W. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1976, 15
31. Stark, David, “Longtime Study of Concrete Durability in Sul- pp.
fate Soils,” George Verbeck Symposium on Sulfate Resistance of 10. “Concrete for Water Treatment Works,” Publication No.
Concrete, SP-77, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1982, pp. 21- PA069W, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1963, 24 pp.
40. 11. “Effect of Various Substances on Concrete and Protective
32. Lamond, Joseph F., “Twenty-Five Years’Experience Using Fly Treatments.” Information Sheet No.IS001T, Portland Cement As-
Ash in Concrete,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Other Mineral By- sociation, Skokie, 1986, 24 pp.
Products in Concrete, SP-79, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 12. “Volume Changes of Concrete,” Information Sheet No.
1983, pp. 47-69. IS0ST. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1969, 4 pp.
13. “Design of Circular Domes,” Information Sheet No. IS076D,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1942, 8 pp.
6.3 Additional references
1. Biczok, Imre, Concrete Corrosion and Concrete Protection, 5th This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was ap-
Edition. Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1967, 543 pp. proved in accordance with ACI balloting procedures.

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Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures: Reported by ACI Committee 350

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What are some of the structural design considerations discussed in the document?

What topics are covered in Chapter 3?

ACI 350R-89

Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures

Bar sues # $# 71 and# 8 wtth 2 in. cover

Allowable service load s&s;, f,, ksi

staggered horizontally (center of lap to center of lap) by

2.8 -- Joints 1 0 d a y s 28 days 90 days 1 Y’ 2yr 5yr IOyr 2 0 y r 3 0 y r

crete generally are caused by expansion or contraction

Joint sealant on exposed surfaces

FHWA-RD-77-85, “Sampling & Testing for Chloride

5.3 - Types of protection

5.4 - Recommended coatings Group 1

American Concrete Institute (ACI) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

C 231-82 Standard Test Method for Air ASTM

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