Guide For Precast Concrete Wall Panels: Reported by ACI Committee 533

ACI 533R-93
(Reapproved 2004)
Guide for Precast Concrete Wall Panels

Reported by ACI Committee 533
Donald F. Meinheit*
Chairman
George F. Baty W. Calvin McCall

Muriel Burns Robert A. Nunez
Harry A. Chambers Michael G. Oliva
Sidney Freedman* Navin N. Pandya
Edward M. Frisbee Tibor Pataky
Theodore W. Hunt James B. Quinn, Sr.
Allan R. Kenney* Ralph C. Robinson
Benjamin Lavon Joseph R. Tucker
Victor F. Leabu
* Editorial subcommittee
This guide presents recommendations for precast wall panels. This guide 2.4-Limiting dimensions for wall panels
should be used with ACI 318 “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced 2.5-Serviceability considerations
Concrete” which may be legally binding. In addition to a discussion of the
2.6-Connections and connection assemblies
basic principles of design, tolerances and materials, this guide also
discusses fabrication, installation, quality requirements and testing. 2.7-Provision for architectural features
Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; architectural concrete; coatings; colored con- Chapter 3-Tolerances, pg. 533R-9
crete; concrete finishes; cracking (fracturing); curing; deflection; design; drying
shrinkage; erection; exposed aggregate concrete; fabrication; formwork; inspec-
3.1-General
tion; joints (junction); precast concrete panels; quality control; repairs; sealants; 3.2-Definitions
structural design; sandwich panels; surface defects; temperature; tests; texture; 3.3-Reasons for tolerances
tolerances; volume change; walls.
3.4-Role of the engineer-architect
3.5-Product tolerances for wall panels
CONTENTS 3.6-Erection tolerances for wall panels
3.7-Interfacing considerations
Chapter l-General considerations, pg. 533R-2 3.8-Clearances and tolerances for constructibility
1.1-Introduction
1.2-Purpose and scope Chapter 4-Materials, pg. 533R-22
1.3-Responsibility for precast concrete wall panels 4.1-Introduction
1.4-Esthetic considerations 4.2-Portland cement
4.3-Aggregates for structural or backup concrete
Chapter 2-Wall panel design, pg. 533R-4 4.4-Facing aggregates
2.1-Introduction 4.5-Admixtures
2.2-Design guidelines 4.6-Insulating materials
2.3-Effective dimensions 4.7-Reinforcement
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and

Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, plan-
ning, executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing Copyright 0 1993, American Concrete Institute.
specifications. Reference to these documents shall not be ACI 533R-93 became effective June 1, 1993.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
made in the Project Documents. If items found in these doc-
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any elec-
uments are desired to be part of the Project Documents, they tronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or
should be phrased in mandatory language and incorporated visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device,
into the Project Documents. unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
l
533R-1
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
4.8-Inserts and miscellaneous hardware response to client needs.

4.9-Curing materials and sealers
4.10-Joint sealants and fillers 1.2-Purpose and scope
4.11-Chemical retarders This document provides guidelines for specifying,
4.12-Form release agents planning, designing, manufacturing, and erecting precast
concrete wall panels. Although the focus is on precast
Chapter 5-Panel fabrication and delivery, pg. 533R-28 wall panels produced in established precasting plants, site
5.1-General requirements precasting is an option that has been used successfully on
5.2-Molds (forms) a number of projects. Tilt-up concrete, as discussed by
5.3-Concrete proportioning and mixing ACI 551, is a variation of site precasting. Guidance
5.4-Reinforcement offered in this document should aid in establishing and
5.5-Concrete placement maintaining quality site production as well as plant pro-
5.6-Surface finishes duction of precast wall panels.
5.7-Concrete curing The guide covers two classes of panels, either both
5.8-Storage non-load-bearing or load-bearing, fabricated of either
5.9-Delivery normal or lightweight concrete. The panels may be either
of the following types:
Chapter 6-Installation, pg. 533R-41
6.1-Planning and preparation Solid panels
6.2-Unloading and handling Insulated (sandwich) panels
6.3-Jobsite storage Ribbed panels
6.4-Installation Hollow-core panels
6.5-Cleaning Sculptured panels
6.6-Patching and repair
6.7-Joint sealing (caulking) In addition to reinforced panels, lightly prestressed
(effective prestress, after all losses, between 150 and 225
Chapter 7-Quality requirements and tests, pg. 533R-47 psi) and prestressed panels are covered. Structural design
7.1-Introduction considerations briefly addressed in Chapter 2 include the
7.2-Unacceptable defects use of panels as shear wall components.
7.3-Structural adequacy This guide is a compilation of information contained
7.4-Prestressing in several earlier ACI Committee 533 reports,1-44a sym-
7.5-Materials posium volume, 5 committee member experience and new
7.6-Testing plastic concrete information and developments in the industry since the
7.7-Testing hardened concrete committee published its reports.
7.8-Documentation Heavy emphasis is placed on wall panels with an in-
tegral exposed aggregate concrete surface finish. Smooth
Chapter 8-References, pg. 533R-53 wall panels, as well as those having finishes of a textured
8.1-Recommended references or shaped architectural surface, are included. Panels
8.2-Cited references having natural stone veneer or ceramic veneer finishes
are not covered in detail.
Metric conversion, pg. 533R-55
1.3-Responsibility for precast concrete wall panels
1.3.1 General - Contractual agreements should assign
CHAPTER l-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS responsibilities so as to avoid later debate and contro-
versy. This can be particularly troublesome when parties
1.1-Introduction involved disagree on basic definitions and decisions
The widespread popularity of concrete as a building originating from the specifying agency.
material can be attributed to the availability, favorable A special report of an ad hoc committee for the
properties and geographic distribution of its naturally- responsibility for design of precast concrete structures
occurring mineral constituents. Concrete itself is easily has been published.6 This report makes recommendations
formed and molded, comparatively economical, and dur- on assignment of authority and responsibility for design
able in its finished state. Architectural precast panel use and construction of precast concrete structures.
has increased because of the nature of concrete as a This guide covers the design of panels by the design
material and the fact that prefabricated components add professional, referred to as the engineer-architect*
to construction efficiency. In addition, by exposing decor-
* As defined by ACI 117, engineer-architect or architect-engineer refers to the
ative aggregates, using veneer facing materials, and by “architect, the engineer, architectural firm, engineering firm, issuing project draw-
varying sizes, shapes and textures of panels, the engineer- ings and specifications, or adminstering the work under contract specifications and
architect has significant esthetic possibilities for creative drawings, or both."
PRECAST WALL PANELS 533R-3
throughout the text. Since there are minimum design rangements for corrections to be made by the parties
requirements and methods of design peculiar to precast involved prior to start of erection.
concrete wall panels, Committee 533 presents supple- 1.3.5 Handling and erection responsibilities - Re-
mental design guidelines which should be used with sponsibility for panel erection and cleaning, joint
ACI 318, the provisions of which may be legally binding. treatment, and supply of hardware needed for handling,
Handling and erection procedures vary widely, and guide- attachment, and bracing should be clearly defined in the
lines for these operations should correspond with local contract documents. However, contract document specifi-
practices but be consistent with Chapter 2 of this guide. cations, and the specifier, should not prescribe one sub-
Overlapping responsibilities for the structural design of contract because general contractors are generally more
wall panels may introduce conflicts between engineer- knowledgeable of the skills and experience of the various
architect and general contractor, regarding shop drawing subcontractors who can perform the services, and general
review, design for handling, erection stresses, in-place contractors can more easily evaluate the economies of
loads, and adequacy of connections. It is essential that the different alternatives.
work assignments and responsibilities be clearly defined 1.3.5.1 Cleaning - Specifications that require clean
in the contractual arrangements. panels after installation are recommended. Cleaning need
1.3.2 Structural design - The engineer-architect can not be the object of a separate operation (see Section
benefit from preconstruction contact with panel produc- 6.5.2). The precast manufacturer and/or carrier are re-
ers. Since most precasters maintain an engineering staff sponsible for delivering clean panels. After installation of
to prepare shop drawings, the engineer-architect should panels, the responsibility for protecting panels from
interact with this group to obtain constructive advice and soiling and staining during subsequent operations should
suggestions concerning local practice, production details, appropriately be the responsibility of the general con-
and manufacturing capabilities. When possible, this dis- tractor.
cussion should take place during the initial design phases 1.3.5.2 Furnishing attachment and handling hardware
of a construction project. Once a job is released for - Clip angles, inserts, bolts, and miscellaneous metal
bidding and the structural concepts have been estab- items are required for construction with precast panels.
lished, changes may not be possible. These items may be:
1.3.3 Reinforcement for handling and erection - It is
common practice for the engineer-architect to rely on the . attached to the building frame
manufacturer for development of handling techniques . embedded in the precast panel for erector or for
and for providing any additional reinforcement required other trades
to withstand handling or erection stresses. The engineer- . provided loose at the job site for connection pur-
architect may wish to review calculations for handling poses.
stresses.
The contract documents may require the manufacturer The responsibility for supplying items to be attached
to accept responsibility for design of panels to resist the to or placed in the structure to receive precast concrete
loads shown on the engineer of record’s design drawings, units depends on the type of structure and on local prac-
provided sufficient information is shown on these draw- tice. Specifications should indicate who is responsible for
ings, and to resist other loads that occur during stripping, the supply and installation of hardware. When the sup-
handling, shipping and erection. In this case, it is porting frame is structural steel, erection hardware is
common for the contract documents to require that the normally supplied and installed by the precast erector or
design calculations and erection drawings provided by the steel fabricator. When the building frame consists of cast-
panel manufacturer be signed by a professional engineer in-place concrete, hardware is normally supplied by the
who is either retained or employed by the manufacturer. precast manufacturer and placed by the general contrac-
1.3.4 Adequacy of connections - Contract drawings tor. Detailed hardware layout is prepared by the precast
prepared by the engineer-architect should show the con- manufacturer for approval by the engineer-architect. Oc-
nections required and the load support points in suffi- casionally certain special inserts or sleeves are required
cient detail to permit construction. Manufacturers, during for other trades. In these instances, the trade involved is
the preparation of shop drawings, should be given the responsible for having such parts approved and delivered
opportunity to redesign the connections if redesign will to the panel manufacturer in time for embedment in the
achieve more economical details that facilitate manu- wall panels. These must be accompanied by the engineer-
facture or erection. The manufacturer should review the architect’s approved placement drawings and instructions
connections designed by the engineer-architect for for installation.
structural adequacy and all connection redesign or any 1.3.5.3 Execution of connections - The general con-
other problem noted should be brought to the attention tractor is responsible for accurately constructing bearing
of the engineer-architect. Any deviation from or discre- surfaces and anchorages for precast elements. When a
pancy in the approved erection drawings should be noted panel cannot be erected within tolerances specified in the
by the erection contractor prior to the start of erection. contract documents, the matter must be called to the
The general contractor should make all necessary ar- engineer-architect’s attention for consideration and cor-
533R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
rection. clearly stated in the contract documents how long the

Changes, other than adjustments within the prescribed full-size sample should be kept at the point of manu-
tolerances, can only be made after approval. Any adjust- facture (precasting plant) or at the job site for com-
ments affecting structural performance must be approved parison. Approved full-size panels should be allowed to
by the engineer of record. No panel should be left in an be used in the completed structure. If full-size samples
unsafe support condition. are required prior to or at the beginning of manufactur-
1.3.6 Shop drawing approval - Erection and shape ing, lead time is necessary and the construction schedule
drawings prepared by the precast manufacturer (see Sec- must be adjusted accordingly. When full-size sample
tion 5.1) should be forwarded to the general contractor panels are not specified, the first production panels
for approval as to constructibility and then forwarded to should be submitted for inspection and approval by the
the engineer-architect who checks for conformance with engineer-architect.
the design requirements and contract documents. Re-
viewed drawings from the engineer-architect should be
returned to the manufacturer with a statement resem- CHAPER 2-WALL PANEL DESIGN
bling one of the following notations:
2.1-Introduction
1. Approved for conformance with the contract docu- 2.1.1 Scope- This guide presents design recommen-
ments. No resubmissions necessary. dations for both prestressed and conventionally rein-
2. Approved, as noted, for conformance with the con- forced concrete wall panels. Both load-bearing and non-
tract documents. No resubmissions necessary. load-bearing panels are covered.
3. Not approved; revise and resubmit. 2.1.2 Notation- The standard ACI 318 notation is
4. Rejected. used throughout this guide. Terms common to ACI 318
but used in this chapter with special application to wall
1.4-Esthetic considerations panels are:
The manufacturing techniques and procedures covered
in this guide allow flexibility during manufacturing to b = width of cross section
achieve uniform esthetic results and concrete quality. The fc' = concrete compressive strength specified at age
use of performance specifications for the appearance of considered during design
precast wall panels has not been completely successful, heff = effective thickness of member
due to the difficulty of explaining esthetic requirements Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section
or of establishing understandable criteria for acceptance. neglecting reinforcement
It is recommended that reference samples be used in de- k = effective length factor
termining product characteristics and quality, rather than l = length of span
writing restrictions which may prohibit the manufacturer r = radius of gyration of cross section
from using a process that offers the best possibility of eU = unsupported length of wall panel
producing the desired panel.
1.4.1 Design reference samples - Although full-size 2.1.3 Definitions - Precast wall panels can be differ-
sample panels are preferred, some construction specifi- entiated on the basis of structural function as well as
cations may require that the color and texture match panel configuration. The classes and types of panels
small samples. Such samples should be at least 12 x 12 in. covered in this guide are defined below. Each may be
although larger samples may be desirable. If both faces either prestressed or conventionally reinforced.
of the panel are to be exposed, the samples should show
the finished interior surface as well as the exterior face Panel classes:
of the precast. Non-load-bearing panel (cladding)-A precast wall
The manufacturer should submit samples to the gener- panel that transfers negligible load from other elements
al contractor for approval of the engineer-architect, while of the structure; this type of panel is generally designed
retaining duplicate samples. If the sample is not approv- as a closure panel and must resist all applicable service
ed, resubmissions should be made until approval is and factored loads from wind forces, seismic forces, ther-
obtained. Sample approval should be in writing with mally induced forces, forces from time-dependent defor-
reference to the correct sample code number, or the mations, self weight and those forces resulting from
approval may be written on the sample itself. handling, storage, transportation and erection.
1.4.2 Full-size samples - Committee 533 recommends Load-bearing panel-A precast wall panel that is de-
that at least 3 full-sized sample panels be specified. signed to carry loads from one structural element to
These sample panels should contain typical cast-in other structural elements; load-bearing panels must inter-
inserts, reinforcing steel, and plates as required for the act with other panels and the supporting structural frame
project. These panels should establish the range of accep- to resist all applicable design loads in addition to those
tability with respect to color and texture variations, listed for non-load-bearing panels. Load-bearing panels
surface defects and overall appearance. It should be also include panels designed to function as shear walls.
Panel types: dary forces caused by deflection, variable moment of

Solid panel-A panel of constant thickness; an inertia, stiffness and duration of load should be con-
allowance for surface texture must be made in sidered.
determining effective thickness. Axial forces, bending moments and shear forces
Hollow-core panel-A precast panel that has voids should be determined from a rational analysis of the
within the thickness in one direction for the full length of structure. Considerations of member and/or joint trans-
the panel. lation should be considered in the analysis.
Sandwich panel-A precast panel consisting of two In lieu of the procedure described above, compression
layers of concrete separated by a nonstructural insulating member design may be based on the approximate pro-
core. cedures given in Section 2.2.4.2.
Ribbed panel-A precast panel consisting of a slab 2.2.4.2 Approximate evaluation of slenderness effect
reinforced by a system of ribs in one or two directions. - Procedures described in ACI 318, Section 10.11
should be followed for determining the unsupported
2.2-Design guidelines length, effective length, and radius of gyration of precast
2.2.1 General- Precast wall panels should be de- wall panels.
signed according to Chapters 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, and 18 a) The effects of slenderness may be neglected if
of ACI 318 except as modified in Sections 2.2.3, 2.2.4.2, the slenderness conforms to ACI 318, Sec-
2.2.5, 2.3, 2.4.2, 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 of this recommendation. tion 10.11.4.1 or 10.11.4.2. For compression
ACI 318 requirements may be legally binding. members with slenderness k&/r greater than 150,
2.2.2 Forces for design - Precast wall panels should be an analysis according to Section 2.2.4.1 of this
designed to resist all of the following forces wherever guide should be made.
applicable: b) The magnified moment for design of a compres-
l Forces developed from differential support settle- sion member should be determined according to
ment, deformations from creep and shrinkage, structural ACI 318, Section 10.11.5.1.
restraint and the effects of environmental temperatures. c) For precast wall panels considered to be rein-
l Forces due to construction, handling, storage, trans- forced concrete compression members by these
portation, erection, impact, gravity dead and live loads, recommendations, the provisions of ACI 318,
as well as lateral loads from soil, hydrostatic pressure, Section 10.11.5.2 can be used in lieu of more
wind, and seismic action accurate calculations.
. Local stress concentrations in the vicinity of connec- d) For precast wall panels considered to be pre-
tions and applied loads must be considered. stressed concrete compression members by these
l Forces developed from thermal movement or bow- recommendations, the provisions of Section 3.5
ing as well as volume change of the panel, with respect of the PCI Design Handbook, can be used in lieu
to the supporting structure, must be considered. of more accurate calculations.
e) An equivalent uniform bending moment factor,
2.2.3 ACI 318 provisions applicable for member design defined in accordance with ACI 318, Section
- The following sections of ACI 318 should be followed 10.11.5.3 should be considered for precast wall
for the design aspects enumerated, except as otherwise panels braced against sideways and without trans-
modified in this guide: verse load between supports.
f) The minimum eccentricity, according to ACI 318,
Effective prestress-ACI1318, Section 18.6. The average Sections 10.3.5, 10.3.6, 10.11.5.4 or 10.11.5.5, as
concrete stress due to prestressing after losses is limited appropriate, should be considered for precast
to a range of 150 to 800 psi. wall panels when no bending moment occurs at
Flexure-ACI 318, Chapter 10 for nonprestressed either end of the panel.
panels and ACI 318, Chapter 18 for prestressed panels. 2.2.5 Reinforcement- Precast wall panels are not re-
Requirements of ACI 318, Section 10.7 for deep beams quired to have lateral hoop or spiral reinforcement unless
apply regardless of whether the member is prestressed or analysis or experience indicates this reinforcement is
nonprestressed. required.
Shear-ACI 318, Chapter 11 for both prestressed and Limits of reinforcement for precast wall panels should
nonprestressed panels. conform to ACI 318, Sections 7.10, 7.12, 10.9, 14.3, and
Bearing-ACI 318, Sections 10.15 and 15.8. 18.11, except that the minimum ratio of reinforcement
Combined bending and axial load-ACI 318, Sections area to gross concrete area should not be less than 0.001.
10.3 and 10.115. Two-way reinforcement is not required for some essen-
tially one-way panels, such as hollow-core panels.
2.2.4 Combined bending and axial load
2.2.4.1 General - All forces listed in Section 2.2.2 2.3-Effective dimensions
should be considered in designing wall panels for com- 2.3.1 Effective thickness
bined bending and axial load. Also the effects of secon- 2.3.1.1 General- The effective panel thickness for
Depth of reveal
Exposed aggregate surface
tectural facing concrete

n
2B o n d e d interface Total panel
l
h eff thickness
‘._ . ! (nominal)
rctural backup concrete
i
-IL-L
heff = Total panel thickness - depth of reveal (if depth of reveal exceeds 3%
of nominal thickness)
or
heff = Total panel thickness
Fig. 2.3.1.2-Effective thickness of architectural faced panels
I
h _
‘b-4 Solid
L?.._-___-_
Hollow-core
L- _
I
b
Ribbed
Ig = Uncracked moment ot Inertia
heff =
Fig. 2.3.1.3-Effective thickness of solid, hollow-core, or ribbed panels
design may be different from the total panel thickness. ate facing thickness.
The following sections explain how to determine the ef- 2.3.1.3 Solid, hollow-core, and ribbed panels - The
fective thickness for design purposes and Figs. 2.3.1.2, effective panel thickness should be determined by Eq. (2-
2.3.1.3 and 2.3.1.4 provide the general characteristics of 1).
the various effective thicknesses.
2.3.1.2 Architectural faced panels - The effective
thickness of a wall panel with an integral exposed aggre-
gate surface should be determined by subtracting the (2-1)
depth of aggregate reveal from the total panel thickness
if the depth of aggregate reveal exceeds 3 percent of the
total thickness. The effective thickness of a wall panel where Ig is the uncracked moment of inertia accounting
with a noncomposite facing should not include the separ- for voids or ribs, if they exist.
panels should be based on requirements of concrete

Wyth
e 1 placement, protection of prestressed and nonprestressed
reinforcement, fire resistance, member and local stability,
deflection, handling, transportation and concrete
Insulation
cracking.
, I . I 2.4.2 Distance between supports - Spacing of lateral
. .-I . .
. .
Wythe 2 ‘Mechanical
: ’ ‘* h3 supports for a precast wall panel loaded in flexure only
Connector f
should not exceed 50 times the effective width of the
compression flange or face.
The maximum slenderness (ke,lr) of a precast wall
h = h 1 + h2 +h3 (if wythes are fully composite) panel should not exceed 200.
eff
h = h 1 or h3 (if wythes are not considered composite)

The spacing between lateral supports of a precast
eff panel carrying axial load and bending moment should not
exceed 50 times the effective width of the compression
Fig. 2.3.1.4-Effective thickness of sandwich panels face or flange.
Lateral bracing should be attached to the compression
2.3.1.4 Sandwich panels - The effective thickness region of the member cross section needing lateral sup-
of a sandwich panel may be assumed equivalent to the port unless it can be shown that other portions of the
effective thickness of the two wythes plus insulation only cross section have sufficient stiffness to brace the
if mechanical shear connectors capable of developing full member.
composite action are used to connect the interior and
exterior wythes. In such cases the effective thickness may 2.5-Serviceabilityconsiderations
be determined from Eq. (2-1). 2.5.1 General - The action of service loads on deflec-
If the insulation core is cellular lightweight concrete or tions perpendicular and parallel to the wall panel must
lightweight concrete made with mineral aggregates, the be considered. Fatigue, impact (if any), cracking, and in-
shear transfer through the insulation core must not ex- plane lateral stability at service load conditions must be
ceed the shear allowed by the strength of the insulating accounted for in design.
concrete core. 2.5.2 Computed permissible deflections - Precast wall
When only partial composite action between wythes panel dimensions should be chosen so that under service
exists, and loadings are from lateral forces or long-term load conditions, the deflection of any point on the panel
sustained loads, the two wythes should be considered as measured from its original position should not exceed the
separate members unless testing is conducted to verify limits given in Table 2.5.2. In calculating the deflection,
panel behavior. See Section 2.4.2 for limitations on the the nonlinear behavior of the materials and/or the struc-
maximum slenderness ratio of the load-bearing wythe. tural member should be recognized.
2.3.1.5 Panels of irregular shape - Panels not
conforming to the configurations listed in this section Table2.5.2-Deflection limits for precast wall panels
may have the effective thickness determined by analysis
Deflection to be Deflection
or testing. member considered limitation
2.3.2 Effective width - If concentrated loads or bend-
Load-bearing Immediate deflection due 1/240 but not
ing moments are applied to the top and bottom of a wall precast wall to combined effects of greater than 3/4
panel, the effect of local stress in the vicinity of the panels prestress, if any, self in.
applied concentrated load or bending moment should be weight, and superimposed
investigated. The effective width should be determined by dead load. 1/360 but not
Immediate deflection due greater than 3/4
a rational analysis. to live load. in.
In lieu of a rational analysis, the effective width for a
Non-load-bearing That part of the total de- 1/480 but not
concentrated load may not exceed the center-to-center precast wall panel flection after the installa- greater than 3/4
distance between supports, nor the width of the loaded elements likely to tion of the non-load-bear- in.
portion plus six times the wall panel effective thickness be damaged by ing element (the sum of
on each side of the concentrated load. large deflection the long time deflection
In lieu of a rational analysis, the effective width for due to all sustained loads
and the immediate deflec-
concentrated bending moments may not exceed the effec- tion due to live load
tive thickness of the wall panel or the width of the corbel
at the point of concentrated bending moment, whichever
is greater, plus three times the effective wall panel 2.5.3 Cracking
thickness each side of the concentrated bending moment. 2.5.3.1 Acceptability of cracking - Although precast
wall panels typically undergo far less cracking than cast-
2.4-Limiting dimensions for wall panels in-place concrete, they are not generally crack free. Com-
2.4.1 General- Limiting dimensions for precast wall putations based on current engineering practice assume
that cracks will occur in a concrete member even though exposed to view. If the geometry of the precast member
they may not be visible to the naked eye. It is the control is more like that of a two-way slab, flexural reinforce-
and acceptability of these cracks that must be evaluated. ment requirement of ACI 318 Section 10.6 may lead to
If the crack width is narrow, not over 0.010 in., the crack widths wider than expected.
structural adequacy of the casting will remain unim- 2.5.3.3 Limit on flexural tension - For convention-
paired, as long as corrosion of the reinforcement is ally reinforced and prestressed wall panels where the
prevented. Therefore, if the reinforcement is coated for exposed surface is to remain free of discernible cracks,
corrosion resistance, wall panels containing cracks up to the maximum flexural tension in the member under loads
0.005 in. wide for surfaces exposed to weather and 0.010 produced by stripping, handling, transportation, impact,
in. wide for surfaces not exposed to the weather should and live load effects should be less than 5g. The value
be acceptable. The limitation on crack size specified is of the tensile strength of concrete should be modified
for structural reasons. The esthetic limitation will depend according to ACI 318, Section 11.2 if lightweight aggre-
on the texture of the surface and the appearance re- gate concrete is used.
quired. On coarse textured surfaces, such as exposed ag-
gregate concrete, and on smooth surfaces comparable to 2.6-Connections and connection assemblies
the best cast-in-place structural concrete, the structural 2.6.1 General - Wall panel units should be safely and
limitation would be aesthetically acceptable. For smooth adequately seated and anchored by mechanical means
surfaces of high quality it may be desirable to limit crack- capable of sustaining all loads and stresses that may be
ing in interior panels to 0.005 in. In addition, it should be applied to the wall panel, including positive or negative
noted that cracks will become even more pronounced on wind pressures and seismic forces where required by
surfaces receiving a sandblasted or acid etch finish. code.
Additional guidance on cracking and its causes can be Whenever possible, panels should be concentrically
found in the PCI Quality Control Manual, PCI Design supported to avoid bowing and warping of panels due to
Handbook, PCI Architectural Precast Concrete, ACI stress differential between inside and outside faces of the
224.1R, and ACI 224R. panel.
Cracks in precast concrete panels may be classified as When the wall panel is designed to serve as a struc-
hairline, cleavage, or fracture cracks. tural member, it may be required to carry imposed ver-
Hairline cracks are surface cracks of minute width, tical loads, resist bending and shear (other than that
visible but not measurable without magnification. caused by its own weight, and volumetric changes), or it
Cleavage cracks are cracks not over 0.01 in. wide that, may be designed to function as a shear wall. When wall
in the judgment of the inspector, penetrate at least to the panels are designed to transmit load from one to anoth-
plane of the nearest reinforcing steel. er, consideration must be given to the additional loads
Fractures are total cleavages of measurable width required for the design of the connection or connections.
through which water may pass freely. Concepts for design of connections for precast wall
Crazing consists of hairline cracks in an approximate panels may be found in the PCI Design Handbook and
hexagonal or octagonal pattern on the surface of con- the PCI Design and Typical Details of Connections for
crete. These probably occur in many panels, but they are Precast and Prestressed Concrete.
not readily visible in exposed aggregate surfaces, or when 2.6.2 Panel movement - Wall panel connection assem-
the concrete is dark. They are more apparent on white blies should be designed to allow for panel movement
panels, flat surfaces, and smooth finishes. Crazing cracks caused by volumetric change in the concrete, induced by
are of little structural importance and should not be temperature, moisture differential, and creep in pre-
cause for rejection. If the panels are to be installed in an stressed panels, as well as by differential movement or
environment that may be the source of considerable soil- drift between the building frame and wall panel units.
ing, it may be advisable to avoid smooth concrete finishes Guidance on the design for these conditions can be
in order to render the potential crazing less visible. found in PCI Design Handbook and Ref. 7.
2.5.3.2 Crack prevention and control - Significant 2.6.3 Bearing seats- Because of the indeterminacy in
reductions in crack widths can be obtained by properly the analysis of load-transfer connection assemblies, bear-
selecting and locating reinforcement and by maintaining ing seats should be provided for panels weighing more
accurate positioning of the steel during the casting than 5000 lb.
operation. Reinforcement is more effective if it consists The designer should avoid hanging the panels from
of more closely-spaced, smaller diameter bars or wire, inserts, anchors, or other connection devices in direct
particularly in thin sections. For this reason, welded wire tension near the top edge of the panel. Clips, clamps,
fabric reinforcement is commonly used instead of rein- welding plates, and brackets are commonly used to resist
forcing bars because of the relatively close spacing, 4 to horizontal and lateral loads. When they are intended to
6 in. or less, of the wires. transfer the panel weight to the structure, rigorous
The flexural reinforcement distribution requirements analysis is required in their design, and special pre-
in ACI 318, Section 10.6 should be followed for rein- cautions should be enforced to ensure their proper
forced precast or architectural wall panel surfaces not installation.
2.6.4 Haunches - Concrete haunches used to posi- accumulation cause the glass to be attacked nonuni-
tively seat panels should conform to shear requirements formly, and eventually the cycle of water drying, gel
of ACI 318, Section 11.9 and should be designed for forming, acid atmosphere attack, and alkali washing
eccentric loading and combined shear, bending, tension, compounds, causes in-depth glass dissolution; no amount
and bearing stresses. The effect of eccentricity which will of cleaning or buffing will remove the stain or etch.
cause the panel to deflect should be considered in the Staining will be more noticeable on tinted heat-ab-
design of panel reinforcement. sorbing glass because of the greater contract between the
2.6.5 Panel inserts - The design of wall panel inserts light color of the stain or etch and the darker color of
that are part of a connection assembly should be based the glass. There is no known difference in the composi-
on design relationships incorporating the load factors and tion of tinted glasses, which contributes to this staining,
strength reduction factors (# factors) specified in ACI as compared to clear glass.
318. The connections should not be the weak link in a 2.7.2 Drip details - Directed slow-water runoff of
precast system. Inserts should have a factor of safety con- rainwater over building facades and dirt accumulation
sistent with the insert manufacturer’s recommendation. sometimes contributes to staining or etching of glass
2.6.6 Fire resistance - Wall panel connections should surfaces. This phenomenon was briefly discussed in Sec-
be fireproofed as required by local codes and have min- tion 1.4 and is more fully explained in PCI Architectural
imum fire resistance equivalent to that required by code Precast Concrete. Appropriate building details can reduce
for the wall panels. the amount of water discharged to the glass. Concrete
2.6.7 Weld design - Potential relative movement frames at window heads should, wherever possible, be
between the panel and supporting structural frame or designed so that they do not splay down and back toward
adjacent panels should be investigated when designing the glass unless drip details are incorporated into the
the welds. The effects of possible concrete cracking due frames. Without drip details, a direct, slow washdown of
to welding heat on the precast panel or its supporting the glass should be anticipated.
concrete frame should be considered in the design of the The drip section should be designed in relation to the
connection assembly. slope of the concrete surface (se Fig. 2.7.2.1). To avoid
a weakened section that is likely to chip, the drip should
2.7-Provision for architectural features not be located too close to the edge of the precast unit.
2.7.1 Glass staining or etching - Glass, like all building The introduction of edge drips and a second drip or
materials, is subject to the effects of weathering. When gutter serve as a dual line of defense against slow water
a moist material is in contact with or applied to glass, the runoff. This can be accomplished by having a cast-in drip
glass surface may undergo subtle changes in the contact in the panel or by the use of extrusions (either aluminum
area. If the coating in contact with the glass is inert and or neoprene) across the head of the window, which have
moistureproof, the glass surface will be protected from either an integral gutter or an extended drip lip of at
changes caused by exposure to moisture. However, if the least 1 in. also shown on Fig. 2.7.2.1.
coating material is removed, a differential surface change 2.7.3 Joint size and location - Joints between precast
may become quite visible and unattractive under some panels or panels and adjacent building materials must be
lighting and viewing conditions, even though the change wide enough to accommodate anticipated panel and
is slight. Finely divided damp materials, for example, dirt building movements. No joint should ever be designed to
and dust, in contact with glass can cause the glass con- be less than 3/8 x 3/8 in. Particular care must be given to
stituents to dissolve slightly and be redeposited at an joint tolerances in order for the joint sealant system to
evaporating edge resulting in staining. In addition, some perform within its design capacities. For optimum perfor-
silicone sealants have ingredients that may leach out and mance and maximum sealant life, recommendations of
stain the glass. the sealant manufacturer should be followed.
When glass (sodium calcium silicate) is exposed to Panels less than 15 ft long may have 1/2-in. joints, but
moisture, a minute amount of the glass will dissolve. If all other panels should have at least 3/4-in. joints. Corner
the dissolved material is washed away, little change can joints should be 1/4 in. wider to accommodate the extra
be seen by the human eye. But when the solution re- movement and bowing that occurs there. Joint widths of
mains on the glass, atmospheric carbonation of the alkali 3/8 in. are considered highly risky for any sealant instal-
and alkaline earth silicates causes a subsequent deposit lation. When joints are too narrow, adjacent panels or
of silica gel. The gel on aging and exposure to atmos- building materials may come in contact and be subject to
pheric acids becomes difficult to remove. When this induced loading, distortion, cracking, and crushing of
happens uniformly, the eye does not detect the differ- ends.
ences. However, the silica gel deposit, or the glass etch
depth need not be thicker than a wavelength of light for
the eye to detect it. Frequent washing of the windows CHAPTER 3-TOLERANCES
tends to remove the gel before it becomes hard, mini-
mizing staining and etching. 3.1-General
Directed slow-water runoff and the resultant dirt Precast structures should be designed and detailed in
Design of water drip in relation to Drip or gutter incorporated into head

slope section gasket
SHALLOW HEAD
DRIP OR _ *k
GUTTER
3/8 ANCHOR WITHIN 6” EACH

SEALANT OR PLASTIC DRIP SIDE OF VERTICAL
TYP . - 2” EMBEDMENT
I
EXPERIMENTAL GUTTER INSTALLED

TO CORRECT GLASS STAINING
45 o HEAD
DON’T
Fig. 2.7.2.1-Design of water drip in relation to slope
such a manner that the complete structure will be safe, from warping, in that while two edges of the panel may
functional, aesthetically appealing, and economical. How- fall in the same plane, the portion of the panel between
ever no structure is exactly level, plumb, straight and the edges can be out of the plane defined by the edges.
true. All construction and materials should be specified Several bowing conditions are shown in Fig. 3.2.1.
with permissible variations, or tolerances, limiting the Differential bowing may be observable when panels are
extent of deviation from design values. These tolerances viewed together on the completed structure. When two
require monitoring in order to construct the structure as panels bow in the same direction, the magnitude of dif-
designed. General construction tolerances for cast-in- ferential bowing is determined by subtracting one bow-
place and precast concrete have been summarized by ing value from another. When panels bow in opposite
ACI 117 and the PCI Committee on Tolerances. This directions, the convex bowing is taken as positive (+) and
chapter presents tolerances that are specifically appli- concave bowing is taken as negative (-) by a standard
cable to precast concrete wall panels. sign convention, the differential bowing is the algebraic
Three tolerance groups should be established as part difference.
of precast concrete wall panel design. Wall panels and For example in Fig. 3.2.2 if the maximum bowing of
their component details should conform to: panel 3 was +1/4 in. and the maximum bowing of panel 4
Product tolerances (Section 3.5) was - 1/4 in., then the differential bowing between these
Erection tolerances (Section 3.6) two adjacent panels is 1/2 in.
Interfacing tolerances (Section 3.7) Camber-The maximum deviation in elevation from a
When tolerances are understood and provided for in straight line through the end points of an element; a
the design stage, the task of determining and specifying camber deflection that is intentionally built into a
them is made easier. The precaster, constructor, and structural element or formed to improve appearance or
erector must all understand the type of allowances made to nullify the deflection of the element under the effects
in the design stage in order to construct the structure as of loads, shrinkage, and creep.
designed. Clearance-Interface space between two members is
called clearance. Clearance is normally specified to allow
3.2-Definitions for the differing amounts of deviation that can occur
Bowing-An overall out-of-plane distortion, differing within a tolerance envelope and to allow for anticipated
SMOOTHNESS
EXPOSED SURFACE
OF PRECASTCONCRETE
CROSS SECTION CROSS SECTION
CONVEX BOWING CONCAVE BOWING
BOWING
(CROSS SECTION)
10' STRAIGHTEDGE
(TYP.)
lrcExPOSED FACE
g 8 (CONCAVE))
0
$ .. 1/ " ROLLER (TYP.)
MAX. BOWING 8OWNG KLEV.1 a\ -- 2
E . -7
-., ---_ (WON'T FIT ANYWHERE)
s . VARIATION IN
5 LOCAL SMOOTHNESS
PRECAST CONCRETE
PANEL-
~GTN 0F BOW
(CROSS SECTION) MEASURING LOCAL SMOOTHNESS VARIATIONS
PANEL BOWED IN BOTH ANY SURFACE
ELEVATION
ELEVATION & CROSS SECTION
Fig. 3.2.3-Local smoothness variations

Fig. 3.2.1-Bowing definitions for panels
PRECAST
CONCRETE
PANELS
CROSS SECTION OF FACADE
Fig. 3.2.2-Differential bowing of panels
movement caused by volume change, temperature effects,

or elastic deflection. Fig. 3.2..4-Warping definitions for panels
Dimensions-There are basic (nominal) and actual
dimensions. The basic dimension is shown on the con- Variation-The difference between the actual dimen-
tract drawings or called for in the specifications. These sion or location and the basic dimension. When the
dimensions apply to size, location, and relative location permitted variation is symmetrical, the tolerance can be
of the precast member within the structure. The actual expressed as a plus-minus (+) variation from a specified
dimension is the measured dimension after casting or dimension or relationship.
installation of the precast member. Warping-A deviation of the panel from its original
Level- A line or plane perpendicular to plumb. shape or the overall variation from planeness in which
Plumb-A vertical direction radiating from the center the panel comers do not fall within the same plane.
of the earth, commonly determined by a suspended Warping tolerances are stated in terms of the magnitude
weight. of the comer variation as shown in Fig. 3.2.4. This value
Skew-An out-of-square variation from a rectangular is usually given in terms of the allowable variation per
shape. This is normally measured by comparing the foot of distance from the nearest adjacent comer with a
length of the diagonals. “not-to-exceed” maximum value of comer warping.
Surface out-of-planeness-A local smoothness variation
rather than a bowing variation. The tolerance for this 3.3-Reasons for tolerances
variation is usually expressed in fractions of an inch or in Tolerances are needed for product, erection, and
inches per 10 ft. The tolerance is usually checked with a interfacing for the following reasons:
10-ft straightedge or equivalent as shown in Fig. 3.2.3. Structural Considerations-To ensure that the structural
Tolerance-A permitted variation from the basic design properly accounts for factors sensitive to vari-
dimension or quantity as in the length, width, or depth of. ations in dimensional control. Examples include eccentric
a member; the range of variation permitted in maintain- loading, bearing areas, hardware and hardware anchorage
ing a basic dimension should be specified. locations, and locations of reinforcing or prestressing
steel. for rejection. If these tolerances are exceeded, the en-

Performance-To ensure acceptable performance of gineer-architect may accept the product if it meets any of
joints and interfacing materials in the finished structure. the following criteria:
Appearance- To ensure that the deviation from theo-
retical requirements will be controllable and result in an a) Exceeding the tolerance does not affect the
acceptable appearance. Large deviations are objection- structural integrity or architectural performance
able, whether they occur suddenly or cumulatively. of the member.
Cost-To ensure ease and speed of production and b) The member can be brought within tolerance by
erection by having a known degree of accuracy in the structurally and architecturally satisfactory means.
dimensions of the precast members. c) The total erected assembly can be modified to
Legal considerations-To avoid encroaching on build- meet all structural and architectural require-
ing lines. ments.
Contractual-To establish a known acceptability range
and also to establish responsibility for developing, 3.5-Product tolerances for wall panels
achieving and maintaining mutually agreed-on tolerance 3.5.1 General - Product tolerances cover the dimen-
values. sions and dimensional relationships of individual precast
concrete members. All tolerances should be based on a
3.4-Role of the engineer-architect degree of accuracy which is practical and achievable
The engineer-architect should coordinate the toler- while satisfying functional and appearance requirements,
ances for precast work with the requirements of other and preventing costs from becoming prohibitive. This
trades whose work relies on or is adjacent to the precast. requires consideration of the amount of repetition, the
Tolerances should be reasonable, realistic, and within size, and other characteristics of the precast member.
generally accepted limits because manufacturing and Manufacturing tolerances are standardized throughout
erection costs are directly related to degree of precision the precast industry and for economic reasons should be
required. Thus it is economically desirable and practically made more exacting only where absolutely necessary. For
safer to design with maximum flexibility and to keep tol- example, bowing or warping tolerances for flat concrete
erance requirements as liberal as possible. Tolerances panel members with a honed or polished finish might
given in this guide are basic guidelines only. The have to be decreased to 50 percent of typical tolerances
engineer-architect determines whether a deviation from to avoid joint shadows. When design details lead to an
the allowable tolerances affects safety, appearance or alignment problem or provide inadequate joint size, the
other trades. product tolerance may have to be adjusted to compensate
When design involves particular features sensitive to for the joint design problems.
the cumulative effect of tolerances on individual portions, In establishing casting tolerances for panels, the
the engineer-architect should anticipate and provide for following items should be considered:
this effect by setting a cumulative tolerance limit or by
providing escape areas where accumulated tolerances or l Length or width dimensions and straightness of the
production errors can be absorbed. The consequences of precast element will affect the joint dimension, the
all tolerances for a particular design should be inves- dimensions of openings between panels, and perhaps the
tigated to determine whether a change is necessary in the overall length of the structure.
design or in the tolerance level for the design. There l Panels out of square can cause tapered joints and
should be no possibility of minus tolerances accumulating make adjustment of adjacent panels extremely difficult.
so that the bearing length of members is reduced below Sealant application difficulties due to tapered joints can
the required design minimum. The engineer-architect lead to future water leakage problems.
should in this case specify the minimum bearing l Thickness variation of the precast unit becomes
dimensions. critical when interior surfaces are exposed to view. A

Careful inspection of the listed tolerances reveals that nonuniform thickness of adjacent panels will cause offsets
many times one tolerance will override another. The at the front or rear faces of the panels.
permitted variation for one element of the structure
should not be such that it would require another element 3.5.2 Dimensional tolerances - Architectural precast
of the structure to exceed its tolerances. Restrictively concrete panels should be manufactured and installed so
small tolerances should be reviewed by the precaster and that the face of each panel which is exposed to view after
general contractor to ascertain that they are compatible erection complies with the dimensional requirements
with other elements and that they can in fact be met. For shown in Fig. 3.5.2a. Figure 3.5.2a also shows the posi-
example, a requirement which states that “no bowing, tion tolerance for cast-in items within the panel. These
warping or movement is permitted” is not practical. All are for typical, generic panels, and the tolerances may
involved in the design-construction process should under- require adjustment for specific job conditions.
stand that tolerances given herein are for guidance on Cast-in grooves, reglets, or lugs that are to receive
the range of acceptability and not an automatic standard glazing gaskets should be held relatively close to their
a = Overall height and width me asured at the face adjacent o = Warping 1/16 in. per ft of distance
to the mold at time of casting or neutral axis of ribbed from nearest adjacent
members: corner, maximum 1 in.
10 ft or under f l/8 in. p = Location of window
10 ft to 20 ft + l/8 in., - 3/16 in. opening * l/4 in.
20 ft to 40 ft + l/4 in. q = Position of plates f 1 in.
Each additional 10 ft + l/16 in. per 10 ft r = Tipping and flushness
b = Thickness, total or flange + l/4 in., - l/8 in. of plates t l/4 in.
c = Rib width (thickness) 2 l/8 in.
d = Rib to edge of flange f l/8 in. POSITION TOLERANCES: For cast-in items, measured
e = Distance between ribs f l/8 in. form the datum line location as shown on the approved
f = Variation (deviation) of erection drawings
plane of side mold + l/32 in. per 3 in. of
depth or + l/16 in. Inserts f l/2 in.
total, whichever is Weld plates f 1 in.
greater Handling devices f 3 in.
Variation from square or + l/8 in. per 6 ft of Reinforcing steel and
designated skew (difference diagonal or + l/2 in. welded wire fabric** f 1/4 in.
in length of diagonal total, whichever is Tendons 2 1/8 in.
measurements) greater Flashing reglets f 1/4 in.
Length and width of Flashing reglets, at edge
blockouts and openings of panel 2 1/8 in.
within one unit* *l/4 in. Reglets for glazing
h1=location and dimensions of gaskets +- 1/8 in.
blockouts hidden from view Groove width for
and used for HVAC and glazing gaskets + 1/16 in.
utility penetrations f 3/4 in. Electrical outlets, hose
i = Dimensions of haunches + l/4 in. bibs, or other utility
j = Haunch bearing surface embedded items * 1/2 in.
deviation from specified Openings and
plane f l/8 in. blockouts 2 1/4 in.
k = Difference in relative Center line of blockout* f 1/4 in.
position of haunch bearing Haunches, to be placed
surfaces of adjacent panels in form + 1/4 in.
from specified relative
position It 1/4 in. *Some types of window and equipment frames require
1 = Bowing L/360, maximum 1 in. openings more accurately placed, and when this is the case,
m = Differential bowing the minimum practical tolerance should be defined with the
between adjacent panels input of the producer.
of the same design l/2 in. **Tolerance given should be used where position has
n = Local smoothness 1/4 in. in 10 ft structural implications or affects concrete cover, otherwise
use + l/2 in.
Fig. 3.5.2a-Production tolerances for precast architectural wall panels
CROSS SECTION
p = Position of inserts for

a = Length f l/2 in. structural connections f l/2 in.
b = Width f 1/4 in. q = Position of handling devices
c = Depth f l/4 in. Parallel to length A 6 in.
d = Stem width f l/8 in. Transverse to length f 1 in.
e = Flange thickness + l/4 in., - l/8 in. r = Bowing L/360 maximum*
f = Distance between stems f l/8 in. s = Differential bowing between
g = Stem to edge of top flange f l/8 in. adjacent panels of the
h = Variation from specified same design l/2 in. (13 mm)*
flange squareness or skew * l/8 in. per 12 in. t = Position of flashing reglets f l/4 in.
of width, + l/4 in. u = Haunches (noncumulative)
maximum u1 = Bearing elevation from bottom
i = Variation from specified of panel f 1/4 in.
end squareness or skew f 1/8 in. per 12 in. u2 = Relative position of bearing
j = Sweep (variation from straight elevation in verticaI
line parallel to center line plane f l/8 in.
of member) u3 = Haunch bearing surface
Members up to 40 ft long f l/4 in. squareness perpendicular
Members 40 ft or longer f 3/8 in. to applied major load A/8 in. per 18 in.,
k = Position of tendons f l/4 in. f l/4 in. maximum
l = Position of blockouts f 1 in. v = Local smoothness any
m = Size of blockouts surface Al/4 in. in 10 ft*
Finished opening +: 1/2 in. w = Warping 1/16 in. per ft of
Rough opening f 1 in. distance from nearest
n = Position of plates f 1 in. adjacent corner
o = Tipping and flushness of
plates f l/4 in. *Does not apply to visually concealed surfaces. Refer to
Fig. 3.2.1, 3.22 and 3.2.3 for definition.
Fig. 3.5.2b-Dimension (production) tolerances for standard precast ribbed panels used as wall panels
CROSS SECTION
PLAN
-J-r-I h
ELEVATION
a = Length f 1/2 in.

b = Width f l/4 in.
c = Depth f l/4 in.
dt = Top flange thickness
Top flange area defined by the actual measured values of
average dt x should not be less than 85 percent of the Any individual strand should be within 2 1/2 in. of nominal
nominal area calculated by dt x b nominal. vertical position and f 3/4 in. of nominal horizontal
db = Bottom flange thickness position and shall have a minimum cover of 3/4 in.
Bottom flangearea defined by theactual measured values k = Position of plates f 2 in.
of average db xxb shall not be lessthan 85 percent of the l = Tipping and flushness of plates f 1/4 in.
nominal area calculated by db nominal x b nominal. m = Local smoothness l/4 in. in 10 ft*
e = Web thickness
The total cumulative web thickness defined by the n= Camber applications requiring close control of
summation of actual measured values of e shall not be less differential camber between adjacent members of the same
than 85 percent of the nominal cumulative width calculated design should be discussed in detail with the producer to
using summation of e nominal. determine applicable tolerances.
f = Blockout location f 2 in.
g = Flange angle 1/8 in. per 12 in., PLANK WEIGHT: Excess concrete material in the plank
l/2 in. maximum internal features is within tolerance as long as the measured
h = Variation from specified end weight of the individual plank does not exceed 110 percent
squareness or skew f 1/2 in. of the nominal published unit weight used in the load
i = Sweep (variation from straight line capacity calculations.
parallel to centerline of member) f 3/8 in.
j = Center of gravity (CG) of the strand group *Doessnot apply to top deck surface left rough to receive a
The CG of the strand group relative to the top of the plank topping or visually concealedsurface.
shall be within 2 l/4 in. of the nominal strand group CG.
Fig. 3.5.2c-Dimensional tolerances for hollow core slabs used as wall panels
correct location. Misalignment of these reglets at corners, 3.6-Erection tolerances for wall panels
or casting them in a warped or “racked” position will 3.6.1 Discussion-Erection tolerances are required for
restrict proper installation of the glazing gasket. In the functional matching of the precast elements with the
addition, gasket manufacturers place very restrictive building structure. The engineer-architect should set
tolerances on the groove width and surface smoothness them to be compatible with the desired architectural ex-
necessary to obtain a proper moisture seal of the gasket. pression and detail appropriate to the building structure
Dimension tolerances for standard precast ribbed and site conditions. Erection tolerances should be set to
panels are shown in Fig. 3.5.2b. Dimension tolerances for achieve uniform joint and plane wall conditions, consid-
hollow-core slabs used as wall panels are shown in Fig. ering the individual element design, shape, thickness,
3.5.2c. Standardized ribbed and hollow-core members, composition of materials, and overall scale of the ele-
typically used for roof and floor units, are frequently ment in relation to the building. Erection tolerances
adapted for use as wall panels. The tolerances for these affect the work of several trades and must be consistent
standardized units are generally more liberal than those with the tolerances specified for those trades. It is the
for architectural panels. If the engineer-architect cannot responsibility of the engineer-architect to see that tol-
accept the standard tolerances of ribbed and hollow-core erances are compatible.
units when using them as wall panels, they should specify The engineer-architect should review proposed erec-
other tolerances as required or the architectural toler- tion tolerances with the panel manufacturer and the erec-
ances as given in Fig. 3.5.2c. tor before erection commences. Proposed changes by
3.5.3 Warping and bowing - Warping and bowing are manufacturer or erector from the original plan should be
defined in Section 3.2. Nonsymmetrical placement of stated in writing and noted on erection drawings. Agree-
reinforcement may allow warping due to lack of restraint ment should be reached before scheduling equipment for
of drying shrinkage and thermal movements. Note that panel installation.
surface out-of-planeness (also defined in Section 3.2) is The general contractor, in consultation with the
differentiated from bowing because it is not a charac- precast concrete erection contractor, should check dimen-
teristic of the entire panel shape, but rather a local sions and location of the in-place structure before placing
smoothness variation. The tolerance for local smoothness the precast panels on the building. Any dimensional dis-
is checked with a straightedge or the equivalent as shown crepancies that may affect erection should then be
in Fig. 3.2.3. The measurement of warping is shown in reviewed and resolved with the engineer-architect before
Fig. 3.2.4. starting erection. The contractor may have to make
Table 3.5.3 shows a relationship between overall flat corrections to the interfacing structure.
panel dimensions and cross-sectional thickness. If the Location or erection tolerances for wall panels should
thickness is less than suggested in Table 3.5.3, warping be noncumulative. The recommended tolerances are list-
tolerances should be reviewed for the possibility of ed in Figs. 3.6.1 and 3.6.2. Figure 3.6.1 shows erection
increasing the tolerance. Panels thinner than those in tolerances for precast wall panels while Fig. 3.6.2 shows
Table 3.5.3 should not automatically be subjected to the erection tolerances for structural wall panels.
standard tolerances for bowing and warping. Ribbed 3.6.2 Control points and benchmarks - To ensure
panels and panels manufactured using aggregates larger accurate application of erection tolerances, the general
than 3/4 in. exposed at the surface also need further con- contractor should establish and maintain accurate control
sideration in the establishment of bowing and warping points and bench marks, in areas that will remain undis-
tolerances. Tolerances for flat panels of nonhomoge- turbed until final completion and acceptance of a project.
neous materials, such as two widely different concrete The contractor should provide the erector with a building
mixes or natural stone veneer with concrete backup, perimeter offset line at each floor approximately 2 ft
should be reviewed; these tolerances may have to be from the edge of the floor slab and bench marks on all
increased or reduced to meet design criteria. perimeter columns. Offset lines and bench marks should
Table 3.5.3-Guidelines for panel thicknesses for overall panel stiffness consistent with suggested normal panel
bowing and warping tolerances
Panel
dimensions 8 ft 10 ft 12 ft 16 ft 20 ft 24 ft 28 ft 32 ft
4 ft 3 in. 4 in. 4 in. 5 in. 5 in. 6 in. 6 in. 7 in.
PRECAST WALL PANELS
-8LDG.Y GRID DATUM
-4-i-
BLDG. Y DATUM
ll
a
-
ST CONCRETE PANEL
STEEL STRUCTURE
--BLDG. X GRID DATUM
- - BLDG X DAT
STEEL STRUCTURE
-t OF STEEL
I PLAN
PLAN
h-k
PRECAST CONCRETE PANEL

/
BLDG. ELEV. DATUM
d d
ELEVATION
a = Plan location from building grid datum * f 1/2 in. * For precast buildings in excess of 100 ft tall, tolerances a
a1 = Plan location from center line of steel ** f l/2 in. and d can increase at the rate of l/8 in. per story over
b = Top elevation measured from nominal top elevation 100 ft to aamaximum of 2 in.
Exposed individual panel f 1/4 in.
Nonexposed individual panel f 1/2 in. **For precast elements erected on a steel frame, this
Exposed relative to adjacent panel 1/4 in. tolerance takes precedence over tolerance on dimension a.
Nonexposed relative to adjacent panel 1/2 in.
c = Support elevation from nominal elevation
Maximum low l/2 in.
Maximum high 1/4 in.
d = Maximum plumb variation over height of
structure or 100 ft, whichever is less* 1 in.
e = Plumb in any 10 ft of element height l/4 in.
f = Maximum jog in alignment of matching
edges l/4 in.
g = Joint width (governs over joint taper) f l/4 in.
h = Joint taper maximum 3/8 in.
h10 = Joint taper over 10 ft l/4 in.
i = Maximum jog in alignment of matching
faces l/4 in.
j = Differential bowing or camber as erected between
adjacent members of the same design l/4 in.
Fig. 3.6.1-Erection tolerances for precast wall panels

BLDG. Y GRID DATUM
T CONCRE TE PANEL
B L D G X GRID DATUM
CAST-IN-PLACE
OR PRECAST CONC RETE
PLAN h
-M--h-
CAST-IN-PLACE
s1c CONCRETE
-it f I P’ 1 b. * o-i
t ’ e
b
.* 0 ' . . s,;
_----__-- _
h *
.-----
. I
I-----_--_-_--_o -b--~-_*-1
A‘ ‘*
’ .
. . ~ ‘0.
A 0
I I .
>c ,
b A ’ p .
c v. :
. b. ’ .
. .
- BLDG. ELEV. ;
DATUM
NOM. JT. WIDTH -ct_
CAST-IN-PLACE FOUNDATION
OR PRECAST CONCRETE SUPPORT
ELEVATION
a = Plan location from building h = Joint taper over length of panel 1/2 in.
grid datum* *l/2 in. h10 = Joint taper over 10 ft length 3/8 in.
a1 = Plan location from center- i = Maximum jog in alignment of matching
line of steelt +I/2 in. faces
b = Top elevation from nominal Exposed 3/8 in.
top elevation Nonexposed 3/4 in.
Exposed individual panel *l/2 in. j = Differential bowing, as erected,
Nonexposed individual panel *3/4 in. between adjacent members of the
Exposed relative to adjacent panel l/2 in. same design* 1/2 in.
Nonexposed relative to adjacent 3/4 in.
panel
c = Bearing elevation from nominal *For precast buildings in excess of 100 ft tall, tolerances
elevation "a" and "d" can increase at the rate of l/8 in. per story over
Maximum low l/2 in. 100 ft to a maximum of 2 in.
Maximum high 1/4 in. $For precast elements erected on a steel frame, this
d = Maximum plumb variation over tolerance takes precedence over tolerance on dimension “a.”
height of structure or 100 ft,
whichever is less* 1 in.
e = Plumb in any 10 ft of
element height l/4 in.
f = Maximum jog in alignment of
matching edges l/2 in.
g = Joint width (governs over
joint taper) +3/8 in.
Fig. 3.6.2-Structural wall panels

be maintained until final completion and acceptance of engineer-architect should provide for proper clearances
the work. They may be scored into columns and floor (purposely provided space between adjacent independent
slabs, or laid out as chalk lines and lacquered for materials) between the theoretical face of the structure
protection. and the back face of the precast element. The face of
3.6.3 Jointproblems - Width variations between adja- structure may be precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete,
cent joints can be minimized by setting out joint center masonry, or a structural steel frame. Adjacent materials
lines equally spaced along an elevation and centering include products such as glass or subframes that are
panels between them. The larger the panels, the wider installed after the precast panels are in place. The
the theoretical joint should be in order to accommodate clearance space provides a buffer where erection, pro-
realistic tolerances in straightness of panel edge, in slope duct, and interface tolerances can be absorbed.
of edge, and in panel width. Alignment for exterior Where matching of the manufactured materials
elements should be controlled by assuming that the depends on work at the construction site, interface
outside face of the element is critical. Variations from tolerances should equal erection tolerances. Where the
true length or width dimensions of the overall structure execution is independent of site work, tolerances should
are normally accommodated in the joints. Where this is closely match the standard tolerances for the materials to
not feasible or desirable, variations should be accom- be joined. Fabrication and erection tolerances of other
modated at the corner elements, in expansion joints, or materials must be considered in design. Precast elements
in joints adjacent to other wall materials. must be coordinated with and accommodate the other
Joint widths should be designed as liberally as possible structural and functional elements comprising the total
if variations in overall building dimensions are to be structure. Unusual requirements or allowances for inter-
absorbed in the joints. This may be coupled with a closer facing should be stated in the contract documents.
tolerance for variations from one joint to the next for 3.7.2 Building frame tolerances - Erection tolerances
appearance purposes. The individual joint width toler- for precast panels are of necessity largely determined by
ance should relate to the number of joints over a given the actual alignment and dimensional accuracy of the
building dimension. For example, to accommodate rea- building foundation and frame. The general contractor is
sonable variations in actual site dimensions a 3/4 in. joint responsible for the plumbness, level, and alignment of
may be specified with a tolerance of +: 1/4 in. but with the foundation and structural frame including the loca-
only a 3/16 in. differential allowed between joint widths tion of all bearing surfaces and anchorages for precast
on any one floor, or between adjacent floors. products. Many engineer-architects fail to recognize the
Where a joint has to match an architectural feature critical importance of controlling foundation and building
(such as false joints) a _ + 1/4 in. variation from the frame tolerances. It is not uncommon to find specifica-
theoretical joint width may not be acceptable and a tions which make no mention of tolerances for the struc-
tighter tolerance specified. Adjustment in building length ture to which the precast is connected. Likewise, it is not
will then have to be accommodated at the corner panels uncommon to find architectural or structural drawings on
or in joints adjacent to other wall material. which clearance dimensions fail to take into account the
If reasonable tolerances and adjustments have been normal product and erection tolerances. If precast ele-
designed into the construction details and are adhered to, ments are to be installed plumb, square, and true, the
the erector should be able to: actual location of surfaces affecting the precast elements’
alignment (including the levels of floor slabs and beams,
lminimize joint irregularities such as tapered joints the vertical alignment of floor slab edges and the plumb-
(panel edges not parallel) ness of columns or wall) must be known before erection
lminimize jogs at intersections begins.
lminimize nonuniformity of joint width Concrete cast-in-place frames to which precast ele-
lmaintain the proper opening dimensions ments are attached should meet the tolerances shown in
lproperly construct all precast connections Table 3.7.2 in addition to ACI 301 or ACI 117 require-
lalign the vertical faces of the units to avoid offsets ments. Greater variations in height of floors are more
lprevent the accumulation of tolerances. prevalent in cast-in-place structures than in other struc-
tural frames. This affects location or mating of the insert
A more precise installation and general improvement in the precast with the cast-in-place connection device.
in appearance are thus achieved. Tolerances for cast-in-place structures may have to be
increased further to reflect local trade practices, the
3.7-Interfacing considerations complexity of the structure, and climatic conditions.
3.7.1 General- Interface tolerances and clearances Figure 3.7 shows erection tolerances for beams and
are those required for joining of different materials and spandrels, particularly precast element to precast ele-
to accommodate the relative movements between such ment, precast to cast-in-place concrete and masonry, and
materials during the life of the building. They cover precast to steel frame.
products installed after the precast members are in place 3.7.3 Mixed construction - It should be recognized
as well as materials installed before precast erection. The that ACI 117 applies only to reinforced concrete and ma-
Table 3.7.2-Supplementary tolerances for cast-in-place concrete frames to which precast concrete is to be attached
Footings, caisson caps, and pile caps

Variation of bearing surface from specified elevation /4 ‘Y2it-L
Piers, columns, and walls
Deviation from the level or grades specified in the drawings
Any bay or wall length less than 20 ft l/2 in.
Any bay or wall length greater than 20 ft 3/4 in.
Deviation from column cross-sectional dimensions
or wall thickness + % in., - % in.
Anchor bolts
Variation from specified location in plan * l/in.
Variation from specified elevation: 2 l/2 in.
Anchor bolt projection + % in., - % in.
Plumbness of anchor bolt + l/16 in. per ft
Floor Elevations
Variation from specified level * ‘! in. in 10 ft
* % in. in 30 ft or greater length
sonry buildings, and the AISC Code of Standard Practice tural members. If the frame deflection is sensitive to the
only to steel building frames. Tolerances in neither of location or eccentricity of the connection, tolerances for
these standards apply to buildings of mixed construction location or eccentricity should be given. Consideration
(for example, concrete floor slabs carried by steel beams should be given to both initial deflection and to long-
or concrete encased structural steel members). Obviously, term deflections caused by plastic flow (creep) of the
the location of the face of the concrete on an encased supporting structural members. Beam and column loca-
steel member and the location of the steel member itself tions should be uniform in relation to the precast units
are both critical. Since the alignment of mixed construc- with a constant clear distance between the precast con-
tion members and encased members is not controlled by crete and the support elements.
referencing the above standards, the engineer-architect A structural steel frame presents different erection and
should require that the location of all such materials connection problems from that of a concrete building
contiguous to the precast unit be controlled within some frame. For example: structural steel cross sections, fre-
stated limits. One recommendation is that the tolerances quently relatively weak in torsion compared to concrete
be no more than those specified in ACI 301 for rein- cross sections, generally require that the load be applied
forced concrete buildings. Should there be some doubt as directly over the web or that the connection be capable
to the appropriate magnitude of mixed construction tol- of supporting the induced torsional moment. This in turn
erances, the precast concrete manufacturer may be con- can require a stronger connection, as well as creating
sulted for advice. erection problems when the rolling tolerances of the steel
3.7.4 Steel building frames - Precast concrete panels beam approach their limits. When detailing precast ele-
should be erected as uniformly as possible around the ments for attachment to steel structures, allowance must
entire perimeter of the structure to avoid pulling the be made in the precast element for sway in tall, slender
steel framing out of alignment. Steel building frames steel structures with uneven loading, and deflections due
have different tolerances from those discussed above. to thermal effects.
The tolerances for steel frame structures make it im- Designs must provide for adjustment in the vertical
practical to maintain precast concrete panels in a true dimension of precast concrete panels supported by the
vertical plane. Based on the allowable steel frame steel frame. An accumulation of axial shortening of
variations, it would be necessary to provide for a 3 in. stressed steel columns will result in the unstressed panels
adjustment in connections up to the 20th story and a supported at each floor level being higher than the steel
5 in. adjustment in connections above the 20th story if frame connections to which they must be attached. Some-
the engineer-architect insists on a true vertical plane. times the non-load-bearing precast elements will become
Adjustments of this magnitude in connections are not load-bearing even though the design does not allow for
economically feasible. Therefore the precast concrete load. This can result in cracking.
wall should follow the steel frame. The clearance necessary for erection of the wall will
In determining tolerances, attention should also be depend on the wall design, the dimensional accuracy of
given to possible deflections and/or rotation of structural the building frame or other construction to which the
members supporting precast concrete. This is particularly wall is connected, and the limits of adjustment permitted
important for bearing on slender or cantilevered struc- by the connection details. If connections to the face of
a = Plan location variation from building *For precast elements erected on a steel frame, this
grid datum + 1 in. tolerance takes precedence over tolerance dimension a.
a1 = Plan location variation from center line
of steel* + 1 in. **Or member top elevation where member is part of a
b = Bearing elevation variation** from nominal frame without bearings.
elevation at support
Maximum low l/2 in. *** This is a setting tolerance and should not be confused
Maximum high 1/4 in. with structural performance requirements set by the
c = Maximum plumb variation over height of engineer-architect.
element 1/8 in. per 12 in. height
1/2 in. maximum
d = Maximum jog in alignment of matching edges
Architectural exposed edges l/4 in.
Visually noncritical edges l/2 in.
e = Joint width variation from specified
Architectural exposed joints f l/4 in.
Hidden joints + 3/4 in.
Exposed structural joint -not
visually critical -t- l/2 in.
f = Bearing length*** (span direction) f 3/4 in.
g = Bearing width*** f l/2 in.
Fig. 3.7-Erection tolerances for precast beams and spandrels required for proper interface with precast wall panels
spandrel beams or to columns are required, more clear- assumed in the connection design, the structural ade-
ance will be needed to install the fasteners than when the quacy of the installation should be checked and the
anchors are located on the top and/or bottom faces of connection design should be modified if the tolerances
beams and the sides of columns. are exceeded. No element should be left in an unsafe
support condition. Adjustments in the prescribed tol-
3.8-Clearances and tolerances for constructibility erances should be made only after approval by the
3.8.1 Suggested minimum clearances - Clearance, or engineer-architect.
interface space between members, should be specified to
facilitate construction. Some suggested minimum clear-
ances are: CHAPTER 4-MATERIALS
Between adjacent precast member Y2 in. 4.1-Introduction

Between precast and Basic materials used in the fabrication and erection of
cast-in-place concrete 1 in.; 11/2 in. preferred precast concrete wall panels are the same as those used
Between precast members and steel frame 1 in. in cast-in-place structural concrete. However, precast
Between precast members and the frame of concrete wall panels also make extensive use of special
tall irregular structures 2 in. materials, including exposed aggregates, admixtures, in-
Between precast column serts and specialty coatings to enhance esthetic appear-
cladding and the column 11/2 in; 3 in. preferred ance. This chapter describes the following materials as
used in precast concrete panel construction:
If clearances are realistically assessed, they will solve
many tolerance problems. The nominal clearance dimen- Portland cement
sion shown on the drawings should be equal to the actual Aggregates, both standard and decorative for facing
clearance required plus the outward tolerance permitted Admixtures
for the adjacent construction. The nominal clearances Insulating materials
should be determined on the assumption that the con- Reinforcement and inserts
struction will be as far out of position in the wrong Curing materials and sealers
direction as is allowed. Connections should be designed Joint sealants and fillers
to accommodate the clearance plus the inward tolerance. Surface retarders
3.8.2 Connection problems - Connections should have Form release agents
the maximum adjustability that is structurally or arch-
itecturally feasible. Closer tolerances are required for Most of these materials are considered in more detail
bolted connections than for grouted connections. Con- by other ACI committees.
nections should provide for vertical, horizontal, and
lateral adjustments of 1 in. minimum to accommodate 4.2-Portland cement
any misalignment of the support system and the precast 4.2.1 General - Usual practice is to use white, buff, or
elements. Location of hardware items cast into, or gray portland cement which meets ASTM C 150 require-
fastened to the structure by the general contractor, steel ments for Type I or Type III. White cement usage should
fabricator, or other trades should be determined with be clearly specified, when it is required. Cement Types II,
specified tolerances for all site placement. Unless some IV, and V are seldom used in precast panels. When using
other value is specified by the engineer-architect, any special cement it is important to take every pre-
tolerances for such locating dimensions should be + 1 in. caution to assure that early concrete strengths are
in all directions (vertical and horizontal) plus a slope adequate.
deviation of no more than + ‘/4 in. for the levelness of 4.2.2 Single source - On any given project, enough
critical bearing surfaces. cement for the entire project should be procured from a
Connection details should provide for the possibility of single source so that all cement is the same brand and
bearing surfaces being misaligned or warped from the type. Some precasters prefer to obtain a single, one-time,
desired plane. Adjustments can be provided by the use of one-batch shipment for a given project to minimize color
drypack concrete, nonshrink grout, or elastomeric pads variations due to the cement. Total elimination of color
if the misalignment from the horizontal plane does not variation is not possible since variables in other materials
exceed 2 % in. and in panel manufacturing may also have some effects.
Where possible, connections should be dimensioned to 4.2.3 Storage - Dry, covered storage areas should be
the nearest % in. The minimum clearance between parts provided for bulk or bagged cement. Bagged cement
within a connection should not be less than l% in., with should be stored off the ground, preferably on wooden
95 in. preferred. The minimum clearance or shim space pallets and out of contact with outer storage building
between various connection elements should be a mini- walls where condensation could occur. To avoid “pack
mum of 1 in. set,” bags should not be stored more than two pallets
Where a unit is not erected within the tolerances high, or 7 ft total height. Bulk cement should be stored
so that contact with tanks or walls where condensation sally recognized, and some aggregate producers may have
can occur is minimized. their own standards. Panel producers should be aware
4.2.4 Sampling - A sample should be taken from each that small aggregates, 1/8 in. and smaller, may pull out of
cement shipment and kept in a full, sealed container at exposed aggregate finishes during surface finishing.
least 6 months or until the shipment is exhausted, in case 4.4.2 Types and quality of facing aggregates
of problems with either strength or color uniformity. 4.4.2.1 General- Decorative facing aggregates are
normally used only in the exposed panel faces because of
4.3-Aggregates for structural or backup concrete cost. The thickness of the face layer depends on the size
Normal weight or lightweight aggregates conforming of aggregate, but it should be thick enough to prevent
to ASTM C 33 or C 330, respectively, should be used in the backup concrete from showing on the exposed face.
backup or structural concrete for precast panels. Grading The face concrete thickness should be 1.5 times the max-
requirements for a backup mix may be waived if it is imum size of coarse facing aggregate but not less than 1
intended or necessary to provide a backup concrete with in.
mechanical or physical properties similar to that of the Aggregates for facing mixes should be stocked in suf-
facing or decorative aggregate concrete in order to min- ficient quantities from the particular source to complete
imize bowing or warping. the entire project. Failure to plan appropriately may
Aggregates for backup concrete should be stored in cause unwanted changes in color or texture.
clean areas that are well drained and, if possible, in 4.4.2.2 Specific surface color and texture - Special
identifiable bins. The bins should be designed to avoid aggregates selected for facing use include naturally
segregation, contamination or intermixing of different occurring aggregates such as selected gravels, granites,
aggregates or aggregate sizes. traprock, marble, limestone, and quartz, quartzite,
feldspar and obsidian. Selection should be based on
4.4-Facing aggregates performance of the facing aggregate in approved panel
4.4.1 Grading samples. Approval should be based on both manufactur-
4.4.1.1 General - Uniform aggregates used for ing and esthetic acceptability.
regular concrete are usually selected by standard sieve 4.4.2.3 Durability concerns - Some limestones,
sizes to provide a balance of both fine and coarse sizes. marbles, and sandstones are not durable on exposed
The ideal grading is one that combines aggregate sizes to exterior surfaces. All facing aggregates should have
produce the maximum weight of aggregate per unit vol- proven service records or be shown to be acceptable
ume of concrete. Most concrete mixes are chosen with under laboratory test conditions before being used in
this in mind but are often limited on the upper end of precast panels. Appropriate tests include petrographic
the coarse aggregate size by: examination and expansion tests (ASTM C 227).
Facing aggregates that have passed laboratory dura-
1. The dimensions of the panel to be cast bility testing or have good service histories rarely have
2. Clear distance between reinforcement problems with alkali-aggregate reactivity. If such a
3. Clear distance between the reinforcement and the reaction is suspected from a new or unknown combin-
form surface ation of aggregates and cement, the aggregate should be
4. The desired finish. examined petrographically, and expansion. should not
exceed ASTM C 33 limits. If the limits are exceeded, it
4.4.1.2 Gap grading of facing aggregates - Since is recommended that a low alkali cement, with a maxi-
precast concrete panels frequently use exposed aggregate, mum of 0.6 percent Na2O equivalent according to
the desired surface finish, appearance, and texture fre- ASTM C 150 or a material that has a proven record to
quently dictate the grading of both the fine and coarse prevent harmful expansion, that is, fly ash, be used with
aggregates. Gap grading may be used to achieve a consis- that aggregate. Occasionally materials that have been
tent, uniform panel face with a maximum of aggregate shown to prevent harmful expansion, such as fly ash, may
surface exposed. A gap-graded combination of fine or be used if the matrix color meets architectural appear-
coarse aggregates has one or more sizes missing from the ance requirements.
range of standard particle sizes. Producers may also elect 4.4.2.4 Staining - Occasionally, coarse facing
tighter or more restrictive gradings in an attempt to aggregates may contain particles with an iron content
improve uniformity. Common sizes of gap-graded fine high enough to result in unsightly stains. This charac-
aggregates are 30 to 50 mesh and 16 to 30 mesh. The use teristic usually shows up at a later date in finished panels
of the coarse and fine sizes combined can produce a gap- due to oxidation from exposure to the atmosphere. Selec-
graded combination that results in less segregation and tivity by the panel producer and a good working know-
a more uniform surface finish. ledge of aggregate materials and their service records are
4.4.1.3 Schedule of sizes - Table 4.4.1.3 shows four currently the only assurance against long-term iron stains
different size gradings established by precast industry from aggregates. Test for the quantity of iron bearing
suppliers of aggregates for use in exposed aggregate pre- particles in an untried aggregate should be made accor-
cast concrete. However, this size schedule is not univer- ding to ASTM C 641 and the aggregates should show a
Table 4.4.1.3-Typical industry size specifications for exposed aggregate
Percent of indicated size aggregate passing

Size D size c Size B Size A
Sieve opening 13/8 to 7/s in. ‘h to ‘h in. % to l/4 in. ‘/4 to 3/32 in.
in. mm (35 x 22 mm) (22 x 13 mm) (13 x 6 mm) (6 x 2 mm)
1 1/ 2 38 100
1 3/ 8 35 95-100
1 25 30-60 100
‘h 22 20-40 95-100
% 16 0 -10 30-50 100
‘/ 13 10 -25 95-100
‘A 9 0 -10 40-70 100
‘/ 6 5-20 95-100
‘! 3 1 -10 15-35
3/32 2 0 -10
stain index less than 20. to the mix. The typical curing period for precast panels
4.4.2.5 Glass or ceramic aggregates-Glass or cer- is often too short to allow pozzolanic action for increased
amic aggregates that may be used for bright color or for strength.
special effects should be nonreactive with the cement 4.5.4 Accelerating admixtures - Accelerating admix-
used. The “quick chemical test” in ASTM C 289 may be tures, ASTM C 494 Types C and E, reduce concrete set-
used for detection of glass or ceramic aggregates which ting time and produce rapid early strength gain which
are reactive. Ceramic aggregates may exhibit brittleness can aid in panel casting operations. Rapid strength gain
and breakdown during casting. Glass aggregates have low may also be accomplished with higher cement content,
absorption and good durability, but have the disadvan- use of Type III high early strength cement, heated water
tage of low compressive strength and low bond strength and aggregates, or by steam curing.
with the cement paste. Production testing of glass and Accelerators containing calcium chloride or thiocy-
ceramic faced panels is highly recommended. anate ions may contribute to corrosion of reinforcement.
Calcium chloride also affects color. The committee
4.5-Admixtures recommends that accelerators containing more than 0.1
4.5.1 General- Chemical or mineral materials may be percent calcium chloride be used only when it can be
added to the concrete mix to bring about specific changes demonstrated that they neither initiate nor promote
in the mix properties. ACI 212.3R contains recommenda- corrosion of steel in any precast panel, or adversely affect
tions for the use of chemical admixtures, including limits color of the panel.
on chloride content of hardened concrete (see also Sec- 4.5.5 Retarding admixtures - Chemicals to retard the
tion 4.5.3). For protection of reinforcement from corro- set of concrete, ASTM C 494 Types B, D and G, are nor-
sion, ACI 222 recommends limits the acid-soluble chlor- mally not used in precast concrete wall panels except in
ide ion content in hardened concrete. All prestressed hot weather. Retarders delay the time of set and allow
concrete and any reinforced concrete exposed to longer finishing time. They generally do not fit into a
moisture or chloride in service falls into one category and high speed casting operation.
any reinforced concrete that is dry or protected from 4.5.6 Water reducing admixtures - Water reducing ad-
moisture in service falls into the other category. mixtures, ASTM C 494 Types A and F, are used in pre-
4.5.2 Air-entraining agents - Air-entraining agents cast concrete wall panels where it is desirable to reduce
should be used in all concretes that may be exposed to the bleed water or to increase the workability of the
freezing and thawing cycles when saturated with water. concrete without adding water. This group includes high
The added protection against freeze/thaw deterioration range water-reducers (super-plasticizers) for conditions
far outweighs any loss of strength or density. A “normal’ where placing concrete is difficult. Laitance, bleeding and
dosage of air-entraining agent, the amount that will pro- efflorescence can be minimized by reducing water
vide about 9 percent air in the mortar fraction of the requirements. Water reducers may be helpful in harsh
concrete, is recommended. Because of the unusual nature mixes or where gap-graded aggregates are being used.
of most facing mixes, a specification for the amount of Water reducing components must meet the requirements
air-entraining admixture rather than a fixed percentage of ASTM C 494 Type A, and should be checked for com-
of air is recommended. Refer to ASTM C 260 and patibility with the cement and with any air-entraining
C 185. admixture to be used.
4.5.3 Mineral admixtures and pozzolans - On rare oc- 4.5.7 Coloring materials - Both pigments and dyes are
casions where a particularly smooth surface is desired, used to enhance the color tone of concrete in precast
the addition of fine minerals or pozzolans may be made panels. It is important to have tests or performance
records that reliably indicate the color stability of any will have high initial rates of water absorption and can
coloring agent. Experience shows that there is generally absorb water from the fresh concrete placed over and
poor color stability with organic blacks, blues, and greens. around them. Glass batts and granules should be en-
4.5.7.1 Pigments - Pigments commonly used to closed in plastic bags to prevent absorption and rapid
color concrete are finely ground natural or synthetic drying of the surrounding concrete. Open-cell board
mineral oxides. Synthetic oxides are usually more satis- insulation should have a waterproof membrane coating
factory since they are manufactured in more shades, have applied before use.
more consistent properties, give better color intensity and
have longer permanence. Synthetic pigments may possibly 4.7-Reinforcement
react with other products used on concrete facing mixes Reinforcement for precast panels includes prestressing
such as retarders or muriatic acid. All pigments should be materials, deformed bars, and welded wire fabric. Rein-
tested prior to use and should conform to ASTM C 979. forcement also includes those ribs or metal shear ties
Iron oxides produce shades of yellow, buff, tan, brown, used in three-layer sandwich panel construction to con-
red, maroon, and black. Chromium oxide produces green nect the two outer layers of concrete. The shear ties may
shades. Cobalt oxide produces shades of blue. Varying be made of expanded metal and are commercially pro-
amounts of these oxides, added as a percentage of the duced as masonry reinforcement or building studding.
cement content by weight, produce various shades. Metal shear ties generally incorporate diagonal members
Amounts in excess of 5 percent by weight of cement for proper resistance to horizontal shearing deformation
seldom further increase color intensity. Amounts greater in sandwich panels. Some sleeve anchors do not have dia-
than 10 percent may adversely affect concrete quality and gonals but may still be acceptable.
are not recommended. 4.7.1 Deformed reinforcing bars - Deformed reinfor-
Pigments used with white cement will produce clearer cing bars are manufactured by hot rolling deformations
and brighter shades than if used with gray cement. Dry onto steel and are made in accordance with ASTM
mixing of the pigment with the cement prior to concrete A 615 (billet steel), ASTM A 616 (rail steel) ASTM
mixing is preferred. Some cement manufacturers can pro- A 617 (axle steel), and ASTM A 706 (low-alloy steel).
vide premixed or pigmented cements. Bars are normally used in straight lengths but can be
4.5.7.2 Dyes - Organic phthalocyanine dyes have bent to form hooks required for anchorage purposes.
been successfully used to produce light to dark shades of ASTM A 496 presents requirements for deformed wire
blue and green in concrete. While their cost per pound used as concrete reinforcement.
is high, they are used in quantities of less than 1 percent 4.7.2 Welded wire fabric - Welded wire fabric (WWF)
by weight of cement and can be dispensed in the mixing is available in a wide variety of mesh spacings and wire
water, eliminating the need for preblending. Although gauges with both plain and deformed wire being used.
certain organic phthalocyanine dyes work well, others WWF should be manufactured in accordance with ASTM
may fade quickly upon exposure to sunlight. A 185 and A 497 for plain and deformed wire, respec-
tively.
4.6-Insulating materials 4.7.3 Prestressing materials - Steel wire, bar, and
A wide variety of insulating materials is available to strand for prestressed concrete should meet requirements
provide the desired thermal properties for sandwich wall of ASTM A 416, A 421 and A 722.
panels. Since thermal conductivity usually varies with 4.7.4 Corrosion protection of reinforcement - When
density of insulating material, the unit weight is used to esthetic considerations cause reduction of the concrete
classify insulating materials as follows: minimum cover below that ordinarily specified or recom-
a) Density of 15 lb per cu ft or less mended, reinforcement in thin precast concrete panels
Plastic materials such as polyurethane foam boards; (under 4 in.) may be susceptible to corrosion. In such
polystyrene foam boards or granules cases, the long-term appearance and durability of the
Glass materials including foamed glass boards or panels may require corrosion protection for reinforcing
granules; glass fiber batts materials or the use of stainless steel reinforcement or
Paper materials such as paperboard honeycombs other reinforcement clad with copper or other metals less
filled with insulating granules or aggregate; likely to corrode than uncoated reinforcing steel.
cellulose granules. 4.7.4.1 Galvanizing - Galvanized welded wire fabric
b) Density of 16 lb per cu ft to 50 lb per cu ft is readily available and the cost premium is relatively low
Foamed concrete: autoclaved cellular concrete in comparison to the unprotected product. Galvanized
boards; nonautoclaved cellular concrete boards reinforcing bars are not as readily available and the extra
of granules cost may be substantial. Use of galvanized bars may be
Mineral aggregate concrete: vermiculite concrete minimized or avoided by proper design, maintenance of
boards or granules; perlite concrete boards or minimum cover, and manufacture of the panels so that
granules. bar location, concrete placement, and consolidation are
precisely controlled. Galvanizing procedures should
Being very porous, many of these insulating materials conform to ASTM A 767 and A 153, including supple-
mentary requirements. ware used with exposed insert connections, should be

4.7.4.2 Epoxy coating - Epoxy-coated reinforcing zinc or cadmium plated. The use of hex lock nuts with
bars (ASTM A 775) and welded wire fabric (ASTM nylon locking washers is suggested.
A 884) have been used extensively in severe exposure
environments, but only minimally used in architectural 4.9-Curing materials and sealers
precast panels. The report by ACI 222 discusses the 4.9.1 Curing materials- Although not generally used,
corrosion mechanism and corrosion protection in detail. curing compounds are preferred over water, burlap, or
Development length must be increased for epoxy coated other wetted coverings where additional curing of the
bars as required by ACI 318, Section 12.2.4.3. concrete is required. A wide range of curing compounds
These bars are very resistant to corrosion if the is commercially available; they should be supported with
coating is uniform. Bars coated when straight and sub- test data and user experience before acceptance. Steam
sequently bent have shown that bending has no effect on curing is discussed in Section 5.7.3.2. Curing compounds
the coating integrity. If the coating is damaged of non- and sealers may have to be removed if the panel surface
uniform, the bars have to be touched up with commer- is to be painted.
cially available epoxy compounds to prevent serious 4.9.2 Surface sealers - The use of clear, protective,
corrosion. Bar tying should be done with nylon or plastic water-repellent sealers, often also referred to as coatings,
coated tie wire rather than black wire. Bar supports to maintain panel appearance remains an area of contro-
should be stainless steel, epoxy coated or solid plastic. versy with panel producers. A justification for use of
4.7.4.3 Other coatings - Other coatings available for sealers is the potential improvement of weathering qual-
corrosion protection include various paints such as inor- ities in urban or industrial areas. A sealer may reduce
ganic zinc-rich types, epoxy paints, and certain proprie- attack of the exposed concrete by airborne industrial
tary chemical compounds which combine with oxide chemicals. Laboratory exposure tests and long time
coatings to form a protective layer. These materials may outdoor exposure plots have yielded a wide range of
be brush, bath, or spray applied. In evaluating these results. Some sealers produce severe discoloration within
coatings, known performance characteristics and test data an exposure period varying from one week up to several
should be considered. months. Panel surfaces that have been sealed may dis-
color because: (a) some sealers attract hydrocarbons to
4.8-Inserts and miscellaneous hardware the surface of the sealer; (b) some sealers have little
Inserts are items cast into the panel for lifting, resistance to discoloration by the sun’s ultraviolet rays;
holding, or attaching the precast panel to other structural and (c) other sealers may be affected by temperatures of
members. Installing inserts after casting by drilling into 145 F or above.
place is not recommended unless something happened to Tests have shown that sealers do not improve resis-
the cast-in inserts and a field solution is required. tance to freezing and thawing. Freeze/thaw durability is
Such items as channel sections, framing, studs, best achieved with air-entraining agents as outlined in
anchors, expansion anchors, and inserts should be made Section 4.5.2.
from materials that are permanently ductile. When rein- The use of sealers should be based on prior experience
forcing bars are used as anchors or inserts, precautions and a careful study of test data for conditions of similar
(Section 5.4.2.3) should be followed to ensure adequate exposure. They should be applied in strict accordance
strength and ductility when their connections are welded. with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Sealers gener-
Brittle materials such as grey-iron castings should not be ally should not be applied on surfaces that will be in
used. Specifications for bolts include ASTM A 307, contact with joint sealants.
A 325 and A 490. Specifications for stud welded anchors 4.9.2.1 Silicone sealer performance - Surfaces
include ASTM A 108 and A 496. treated with silicone formulations vary widely in per-
4.8.1 Expansion anchors - Expansion anchors should formance. The service life of silicone sealers is
conform to applicable bolt specifications and be per- controversial and probably shorter than advertised.
formance tested in accordance with ASTM E 448. All Experience with silicone sealers indicates that they
items should have documented chemical and physical should not be used on exposed quartz aggregates, and
properties and be used in accordance with the manu- that durability results with use on other aggregates are
facturer’s recommendations and/or test data. marginal. In urban areas, some silicone sealers attract
4.8.2 Corrosion protection - Where corrosion protec- airborne hydrocarbons resulting in premature discolor-
tion is required for embedded or exposed hardware, ation of white or light colored panels within a short
noncorrosive materials such as stainless steel, in period.
accordance with ASTM A 276, or the hardware may be Silicone sealers interfere with the bonding of patches
protected with a coating such as zinc, cadmium, epoxy, or and prevent the bonding of joint sealants. If used,
corrosion resistant paint may be used. Care must be silicone-based materials should be applied only after
taken so that the protective coatings do not interfere with patching and joint sealing are completed. Committee 533
subsequent fit of the nuts onto threaded portions of the does not recommend the use of silicone-based sealers.
fasteners. Hex nuts and washers, or other matching hard- 4.9.2.2 Other sealers - Better results have been ob-
tained with methyl methacrylate forms of acrylic resin on 4.11-Chemical retarders

exposed aggregate surfaces. Satisfactory results have also 4.11.1 General - Chemical retarders are specialized
been achieved with other acrylic copolymers, silanes and chemicals which temporarily delay the cement paste from
siloxanes. hardening at the surface of the precast panel. After the
A wider range of acceptable sealers is available on less base concrete of the panel hardens (normally overnight),
delicate surfaces such as plain or ribbed concrete panels. the retarded cement paste is removed by brushing, high
Sealers that do not perform well on exposed aggregate pressure water washing, or sandblasting to expose the
surfaces or very light colored surfaces are often accept- aggregates. Brushing or water washing will not change
able on plain or ribbed concrete. the natural look of the aggregates, but sandblasting may
dull the surface.
4.10-Joint sealants and fillers Two types of chemical retarders are used in precast
4.10.1 Mortars -Cement mortars are not extensible panel fabrication. Form retarders, usually fast drying
and cannot accommodate panel movement. Although solvent-based materials, are applied to the form surface.
they are not suitable as sealants, mortars may be used for These retarders are designed to resist the abrasion
packing joints in connections in combination with other inherent in the placement of concrete. Surface retarders
sealers. Mortars are ideal for the base of load-bearing are water based materials applied to the top surface of
panels supported by shims. freshly placed concrete. They are usually sprayed on with
4.10.2 Elastomeric sealants - Only elastomeric mater- garden-type spray applicators. Before the retarder is
ials should be used as sealants in precast panel instal- sprayed on, additional aggregate may be placed on the
lation. Elastomeric sealants (also referred to as caulks) surface and troweled in to provide a more uniform fin-
include polysulfides, silicones and urethanes. They may ished surface.
be one- or two-part compounds but either is to be pre- 4.11.2 Depth of reveal- Form and surface type retar-
ferred over oil base types. Despite higher initial cost, ders are available to etch the concrete to different depths
elastomeric sealants are preferred because of lower allowing for design flexibility. As a general rule, the
maintenance costs, better weathertight joints, and longer retarder should expose not more than 40 percent of the
life. Consult ACI 504 and ASTM C 962 for detailed diameter of the aggregate at the surface. Retarders can
information. be used to produce finishes from the lightest reveal
Nonstaining elastomeric type joint sealants should be which just removes the surface skin to deep reveals using
selected to prevent the possibility of bleeding and heavy aggregates up to 11/2 in.
dirt accumulation. High performance one- or two-part
sealants such as polysulfides, urethanes, silicones or other 4.12-Form release agents
sealant material are recommended for weatherproofing 4.12.1 General- Modern release agents are formu-
joints in precast panels. These sealants should withstand lated from a variety of ingredients to perform several
joint movements of at least + 25 percent. If greater seal- functions. Their primary purpose is to release the panel
ant movement capacity is required, consult with manufac- (aid in debonding) from the form. Other functions in-
turers of low modulus sealants. The sealant selected clude, minimizing or eliminating bug holes and stains,
should match as closely as possible the color of the minimizing form clean up time, keeping cementitious
precast panel. This will reduce the visual effect of materials from building up on the form facing, not
variations in joint dimensions. interfering with the bonding of condstruction and/or
4.10.3 Joint fillers - Backup fillers are needed in joints architecturally esthetic materials to the hardened
to control the depth of the sealant, to facilitate tooling of concrete surface, not degrading (and thereby causing
the sealant, and to serve as a bond breaker to prevent stains) form facing materials, not staining concrete when
the sealant from bonding to the back of the joint. The steam curing is used, contributing towards the production
filler material should be nonstaining to the sealant. of high visual impact concrete surfaces and being easy to
Asphaltic (bitumastic) fillers should not be used. The apply in all seasons.
sealant manufacturer can advise which filler materials 4.12.2 Chemically active release agents - Chemically
would be compatible with the selected sealant. The active release agents are the most common type. Their
recommended shape factor should be listed. releasing ability is due to the chemical reaction of free
Acceptable fillers are those which compress into the lime from the fresh cement paste with chemicals in the
joint and respond to panel movement. A round filler release agent coating the form surface. This chemical
profile provides maximum edge area with minimum cross reaction produces a slippery, water-insoluble soap or
section for best sealant adhesion. The best filler profile grease, which provides for easy form removal. Typically
is a rod of spongy or foamed material that is closed cell the chemically active ingredients are fish oils, vegetable
to prevent moisture retention. If a stiff filler material oils, animal fats, or combinations thereof.
such as cork, wood, hard rubber or concrete mortar must 4.12.3 Emulsion type agents - Some release agents use
be used, a strip of polyethylene sheet or similar material water emulsions for a carrier instead of petroleum
is recommended to break the bond between the filler and derived oil. Some emulsions are chemically active agents
sealant. while others facilitate form release by producing a barrier
film, much like fuel oil does. Generally, emulsion type ities will be affected by the size, weight, and volume of
release agents will not harm any of the form facing the products produced and by the climate and proximity
materials that would be sensitive to petroleum derived of marketing areas. At times the requirements of a speci-
oils. Cold weather operations require storage and use fic project warrant casting on the job site. A site pre-
considerations different from other release agents. caster faces a few more problems than a plant precaster
4.12.4 Petroleum derived agents - Release agents made such as: lack of tightly controlled batching conditions and
entirely from petroleum derived oil, that is, fuel oil, less than ideal curing and protection from the elements;
kerosene, etc., function by producing a barrier between possible difficulty of obtaining a skilled labor force; and
the form face and the concrete. This barrier type release possible lack of management or supervisory group exper-
agent generally causes more bug holes, staining, and ienced in precasting operations. Recommendations in this
poorer form release than chemically active types. guide will help to overcome these possible deficiencies.
4.12.5 Application of release agents to formwork - The manufacturing facility, whether at the site or in a
Release agents should be applied in a thin uniform plant, should adequately provide the following:
coating on clean dry form facings. Usually this is done by
spraying. The release agent should be applied in a . Facilities to receive and store raw materials such as
manner and schedule so as to avoid coating the rein- cement, aggregates and reinforcing steel
forcement. . Facilities for controlled proportioning and mixing of
concrete
. A covered area for manufacturing of molds and
CHAPTER 5-PANEL FABRICATION forms
AND DELIVERY . An area for assembly and fabrication of rein-
forcement
5.1-General requirements . An enclosed or covered area (depending on the
5.1.1 Preparation of design calculations and production climate) for the casting operations (see Fig. 5.1.2)
and erection drawings - The precast manufacturer pre- . Additional space for the finishing and curing
pares erection and production drawings for the precast operations
panels, complete with all necessary details for the . Adequate space for convenient and proper storage
fabrication, handling and erection of the precast pro- . Equipment capable of lifting and handling panels of
ducts. In order to do this the manufacturer should have the size and weight to be manufactured
all applicable contract documents, including specifi- . Facilities for prestressing the precast wall panels, if
cations, architectural, site and structural drawings. required
Erection drawings and hardware from other trades must
be provided within contractual schedules. Detailing 5.1.3 Production and storage areas - Facilities for
methods vary with the manufacturer; however, elevations batching and mixing concrete should be in accordance
and horizontal dimensions should be shown which locate with ACI 304, providing for accurate batching of aggre-
and mark each precast element and give its relationship gates, cement, admixtures, and water. Equipment should
to windows, openings, and adjacent building components. be available to determine the amount of free moisture in
Details should provide size, shape, dimensions and pro- the coarse and fine aggregates. Moisture compensation
files of each member. Connections, reinforcement, and based on devices using conductivity is known to vary with
individual mark numbers should be shown. Erection the density of the aggregates and is not recommended.
drawings should show the following: (a) proposed Facilities should be provided and monitored to prevent
sequence of erection, if required; (b) location and details frozen aggregates being introduced into the concrete.
of hardware embedded in or attached to the structural Mixing equipment should be adequate for the size of the
frame; (c) method of plumbing (adjusting the vertical operation and capable of thoroughly and uniformly
orientation) panels and adjusting connections and (d) mixing the concrete ingredients. Panel production areas
handling loads and additional reinforcement due to trans- should be protected against rain, wind, dust, and direct
portation and erection stresses. Joint and joint sealant sunlight and have heat control to prevent concrete tem-
details should be shown where applicable. Further, spe- peratures from dropping below 50 F. Panel storage areas
cial fittings such as stripping, lifting or erection inserts, should afford easy access and ready handling of the
anchoring details, reglets, cutouts, pipe sleeves, other stored units. The surface should be clean, hard, level, and
embedded items and openings should be carefully located well-drained to permit well-organized storage, and to
and dimensioned. minimize or prevent warping, bowing, chipping, cracking,
Drawings and calculations prepared to show the above discoloration, staining or soiling of the precast panels.
should be forwarded to the general contractor and the
engineer-architect for approval as recommended in 5.2-Molds (forms)
Section 1.3.4. 5.2.1 General- Wood, concrete, steel, plastics, plas-
5.1.2 Manufacturing facilities - Facilities for the pro- ter, polyester resins reinforced with glass fibers and
duction of precast panels vary widely. Production facil- combinations of these have all been used successfully as
Fig. 5.1.2-Precasting plant and storage yard
Fig. 5.2.1.1-Mold for casting precast panel
a mold or form material for precast panels. Various Typically the panel producer selects the proper mold,
patterns made of rubber, pressed metal, or vacuum- based on considerations of cost, maintenance, method of
formed plastic may be combined with the basic materials consolidation, reuse, details of the panel, possible salvage
for special effects. For complicated details, molds of and on the desired finish and texture of the product.
plaster, gelatin, or sculptured sand have been combined Where the engineer-architect requires a special mold or
or reinforced with wood or steel, depending on the size finish or a particular mold material, these requirements
of the panel to be cast. See Figs. 5.2.1.1 and 5.2.1.2. must be clearly set forth in the contract documents.
Fig. 5.2.1.2-Panel stripped from mold
5.2.1.1 Dimensional stability and integrity - All ground smooth and coated with an epoxy or similar
molds, regardless of material, should conform to the material adequate to hide the joint imperfections. A test
shape, lines and dimensions of the precast panels to be section should be cast at the joint to determine that the
produced They should be sufficiently rigid to meet the joined area can produce an acceptable finished product.
casting tolerances recommended in Chapter 3. Molds If a prestressing force is to be applied to the form, the
should be sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of mortar self-stressing form must be strong enough to resist the
or cement paste, and should be designed to prevent prestressing force without buckling or wrinkling.
damage to the concrete from: (a) restraint as the con-
crete shrinks; (b) the stripping operation when the unit
is lifted from the mold; and (c) dimensional changes
during prestressing. For prestressed (pretensioned) units
it may be desirable to design the molds strong enough to
support the prestressing force (i.e., self-stressing forms).
In molds longer than 20 ft, allowance for shrinkage
and thermal expansion or contraction should be consid-
ered in the design of the master pattern and/or the mold.
Master molds (described in detail in PCI Architectural
Precast Concrete) are sometimes used to cast panels of
several different designs by pre-engineering a number of
D:ll
‘_
mold adjustments (see Fig. 5.2.1.3).

5.2.2 Steel molds- Steel molds are often selected for
precast members when it is anticipated that numerous ‘.
assemblies and disassemblies of the mold will be .
required. Properly designed steel molds have great poten-

tial reusage; they need be discarded only when damaged,
TYPICAL PANEL ON UPPER FLOORS
or when they show surface imperfections from drilling for CHANGES TO:
changes or from alteration. Steel molds should be well
braced and examined for bulging or buckling. Dimpling,
twisting, or bending may occur if the form surface is not
properly stacked for storage.
When steel plates are used for the base of the mold,
it is desirable to use a single piece which has been
“stretcher-leveled” in the steel plant. Joining of two or
SEVERAL VARIATIONS FROM THE SAME MOLD
more steel plates by welding to form a flat surface is FOR FIRST FLOOR
difficult due to distortion from the heat of the welding
operation. If joining is required, the welds should be Fig. 5.2.1.3-Master mold for large precast panels
5.2.3 Concrete molds- Concrete can be formed into can show successful installations of this finish in a similar
practically any shape and has excellent rigidity, dimen- climate.
sional stability, and the potential for a large number of 5.2.6 Form liners - Textures ranging from muted ex-
reuses. Concrete molds are manufactured by casting over pression to bold relief are obtained with different types
a master model fabricated to very close tolerances. This of form liners (see Fig. 5.2.7). Draft must be considered
model may be used for the production of a series of for all types of liners to prevent chipping or spalling
identical molds. Frequently concrete molds are treated during stripping. Rubber matting is an effective liner,
with epoxy, plastic resins, or paraffin wax to reduce mold reproducing complex patterns faithfully on the concrete
repair and to improve their release capability. These surface. While rubber is generally satisfactory, it should
resins and other coatings, render the concrete nonabsor- be tested for possible staining or discoloration of the
bent and produce a more uniform finish on the precast concrete. Trial castings will also determine the most
product. Concrete molds may also be adapted to become effective time for stripping to ensure that the surface
a self-stressing form for use in prestressing a concrete remains intact and that the liners can be reused.
panel. When concrete molds are used, adequate draft Wood liners, either boards, plywood panels, or nailed-
should be provided on all surfaces in the direction of on inserts, work well. Wood liner surfaces should be
stripping or removal, so that the product may be easily sealed to prevent moisture absorption and then lightly
lifted without damage to either the panel or the mold. coated with a form release agent before casting.
5.2.4 Wood molds - Wood molds vary from simple Plastic sheets may be vacuum formed to provide varied
wooden molds (particularly applicable when relatively patterns on either textured or glossy-smooth concrete
small, flat panels are being produced) to elaborate, surfaces. The extremely fine finish of plastic formed
complicated molds of unusual shapes and large dimen- concrete enhances the attractiveness of integral colors
sions. Molds of wood should be treated to prevent exces- and because of high reflectivity, smaller amounts of
sive absorption, thus contributing to uniformity of panel pigment are required to obtain a given color intensity.
finish. The treatment also tends to stabilize the form Glossy and smooth surfaces are best for indoor rather
dimensions. than outside exposure.
Periodic renovation of wooden molds is necessary, and Polyethylene film laid over uniformly distributed
special care should be exercised to ensure that multiple cobblestones provides dimpled surfaces. Pieces of poly-
use does not cause the mold to swell or bulge. Mold di- styrene foam, shaped and attached to the form, leave
mensions should be checked after each use. Wood molds deeply impressed designs after removal from the concrete
should not be used if steam curing is planned before face.
stripping. Craftsmanship and joiner-y should be of high 5.2.7 Verification and maintenance - Molds should be
quality to achieve joints which are not objectionable in checked in detail after construction and before the first
appearance. The joint location should be preplanned, unit is made. A complete check of the first product from
subject to approval by the engineer-architect. the mold further verifies the adequacy of the mold.
5.2.5 Plastic molds - Fiber reinforced plastics pro- Checking of the mold by evaluating the product is feas-
duced from polyester or epoxy resins have considerable ible only where an element can positively be identified
application because they can be easily molded into com- with the specific mold in which it was cast.
plex shapes and can impart a great variety of patterns to Molds should be cleaned between castings and kept in
the finished product. Properly designed plastic molds good condition to provide a uniform product of high
have excellent performance and reuse expectancy, and quality. Steel forms must be carefully maintained to avoid
the surface may be renovated as needed. discoloration of the concrete from iron oxides. Joints may
Fiber reinforced plastics have a fairly low modulus of open, weldments come loose, rubber sealing strips erode;
elasticity and are somewhat flexible, even though they wood loses its protective coating, absorbs moisture and
have excellent tensile strength. If the mold is made may swell or warp; and side rails bow due to daily pro-
entirely of plastic, it should be well supported along duction. It is therefore necessary to check the molds
edges and flat areas. This may be accomplished by rein- regularly, at least once a week, for their soundness,
forcing it with lumber, steel shapes, or other materials as surface, and dimensional stability, and to repair damage
an integral part of the mold construction. This type of before it affects the quality of the product.
mold is frequently designated a “mold liner,” and requires Forms should be reassembled within the dimensional
a “mother” mold to provide adequate support. limitations specified for the product on the shop
The high gloss finish imparted to a precast panel by drawings. The squareness of the form should be checked
some mold surfaces and/or mold liners (generally plastic) by comparing diagonal measurements between the cor-
may be desirable for indoor decoration. When used for ners of the form. Bulkheads, templates, and similar
exterior work however, the gloss may disappear, usually equipment having influence on the accuracy of dimen-
in a nonuniform manner, because of weathering. Crazing sions and alignment should be regularly inspected and
and other minor surface imperfections may be more ap- maintained. If more than one form is used to produce a
parent on this type of surface. A high gloss finish should given unit, a comparative dimensional check should be
be avoided on exterior work, unless the panel producer made before casting of the initial precast concrete panels.
533R-32 ACI COMMITTE E REPORT
Fig. 5.2.7-Form liner relief patterns
All positioning holes or slots holding any cast-in cess, application of hygroscopic materials or low-slump
materials in a given position should be checked to ensure mixes.
that continuous mold use will not create wear and exceed One of the most important factors affecting color
acceptable tolerances. When using wood molds, these uniformity is variation in the water-cement ratio. The
clamp-on areas should be protected with corner plates. water-cement ratio must be consistent from batch to
batch from the beginning of the project to the end or the
5.3-Concrete proportioning and mixing possibility of precast concrete panel rejects increases
5.3.1 Introduction - Information on mix proportions because of lack of color uniformity. Very stiff mixes using
should be recorded and kept at the concrete batching a minimum of cement and only enough water to hydrate
plant. Although the same technology used for making the cement are economical only in terms of material
cast-in-place concrete must be considered in precasting, costs. These mixes generally require more placing labor,
specific mix proportions and mixing procedures differ and these added placing costs may more than offset any
from those for conventional concrete, particularly in the material cost savings.
emphasis on finish and durability of the concrete surface. Concrete mixes should always have a consistency and
Precast manufacturers usually design and control the con- workability suitable for the conditions of the project.
crete used for the precast product because of the factors Heavily reinforced thin sections require more plastic
listed below. Before a concrete mix can be properly pro- mixtures than large members with little reinforcement.
portioned, several factors must be considered: High-range water-reducers can increase workability while
maintaining a relatively low water-cement ratio. It is
. The finish, size and shapes of units to be cast important that the specifier realize that even with the
. The method of consolidation; must be known to de- same proportions, the slump may vary with changes in
termine the required workability climactic conditions and normal variations in materials.
. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate Concrete mixtures using natural sand and gravel aggre-
. The required compressive strength gates require less water for workability than do concrete
. The required surface finish as it affects the ratio of mixes using crushed sand and crushed coarse aggregate.
coarse to fine aggregate The shape and size of the aggregate will affect water
. Exposure to severe weather or environmental condi- demand, which in turn affects the water-cement ratio.
tions 5.3.3 Proportioning -Concrete mixes should be pro-
portioned in accordance with ACI 211.1 and ACI 211.2
5.3.2 Water-cement ratio and consistency (slump) - to produce a specified compressive strength of at least
With given quantities of cement and aggregate along with 5000 psi measured at 28 days on standard 6 x 12-m
proper curing, the quantity of mixing water determines cylinders. Some decorative aggregates have characteristics
the strength of the concrete. Water should be held to a that do not permit attainment of compressive strength.
minimum to prevent a substantial decrease in strength Caution is advised in selecting such aggregates.
and durability. Excess water in the facing and/or backup The objective of proportioning is to achieve a practical
mix may be removed before initial set by a vacuum pro- combination of materials that will provide the required
qualities of the hardened concrete at an economical cost. of one minute, or as recommended by the mixer manu-
Concrete mixes should be proportioned and/or evaluated facturer, until all ingredients are thoroughly distributed
for each individual project with respect to strength, ab- and the mix is homogeneous. All concrete should be dis-
sorption, and resistance to freezing and thawing as charged while the mixer drum or blades are rotating.
appropriate to the intended environment. The required mixing time varies with characteristics of
For normal weight aggregate concrete mixes, the ratio the concrete mix and mixer. A timer should be used to
by volume of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate usually ensure the same mixing time for identical sized batches.
is on the order of 1:3 for facing mixes, whereas standard Pan-type mixers designed for horizontal countercurrent
mixes are usually in the range of 1:l to 1:2 or 1:3. For forced mixing are frequently better for very low slump
lightweight aggregate concrete mixes, the volume ratio concrete (0 to 1 in.).
may vary depending on the type of lightweight aggregate 5.3.4.2 Cold weather - When heated water or ag-
used. The aggregate producer should be consulted about gregates are used to warm the mix and satisfy cold
specific material characteristics and recommended mix weather requirements, the addition of cement should be
designs. The lower ratio of fine to coarse aggregate delayed until after the aggregates and water have entered
results in a more uniformly textured finish caused by a the mixer and have been thoroughly mixed for at least
maximum concentration of coarse aggregate in the facing one minute. This allows the water or aggregates to cool
mix. All mixes for panels exposed to freeze-thaw condi- sufficiently to avoid flash set when the cement is placed
tions should include entrained air for increased dura- in the mixer.
bility. 5.3.4.3 Hot weather - If the aggregates and water,
5.3.3.1 Facing and backup mixes - Differing aggre- when combined, have a temperature of over 100 F, the
gate gradings and mix proportion designs for facing mix ingredients of the mix should be cooled before mixing to
concretes make it impossible to specify a given percen- avoid flash set, cold joints or loss of slump. Flake ice or
tage of air for these mixes. Consult the PCI Manual for well crushed ice of a size that will melt completely during
Quality Control for Plants and Production of Architectural mixing should be substituted for all or part of the mixing
Precast Concrete Products for added information. water. To provide products that are uniform in color, it
Standard mixes may be used as backup mixes if the is important that the concrete temperature be controlled
physical characteristics are similar to the facing concrete. between a maximum (90 F) and minimum (50 F)
Where a precast unit consists of a face and backup mix, throughout all seasons of the year.
the mixes should have reasonably similar shrinkage, ther- 5.3.4.4 Lightweight concrete - Most lightweight
mal coefficients of expansion and modulus of elasticity to aggregates should be prewetted before introduction into
avoid undue bowing or warping. Consequently, these the mixer. This will eliminate a loss in workability due to
mixes should have similar water-cement and aggregate- rapid absorption of the mixing water. The lightweight
cement ratios. The combination of a normal weight face aggregate (and sand, if used) and most of the water are
mix and a backup concrete with lightweight aggregates normally placed in the mixer and mixed thoroughly
may increase the possibilities of bowing or warping. before the cement and remainder of water are added.
5.3.4 Mixing -The mixing procedures used in the 5.3.4.5 Architectural concrete - Architectural con-
manufacture of precast wall panels vary due to the vari- crete requires careful observance of good, uniform mixing
ety of equipment and methods of panel manufacturing. practices. Mixers must be properly cleaned after each
To maintain batch-to-batch uniformity, materials period of production. Blades or liners should be adjusted
should be properly sequenced and blended during or replaced per manufacturer’s recommendations to en-
charging of the mixers. Good mixing practices include the sure that the mixing is sufficient and adequate. When
following: facing mixes of pigmented concrete with buff or white
. The mixer should be operating while all materials cement are used in conjunction with gray cement backup
are being charged. concrete, separate mixers and handling arrangements are
. All admixtures should enter the mixer with the water required. Alternatively when separate mixers are not
and be charged into the mixer at consistent times in the available, the equipment must be flushed several times
mixing sequence. Batching air-entraining agents simul- and completely cleaned to remove all concrete residue
taneously with water reducers or retarders can cause the before being used for mixing where specialty cements or
combination to gel. pigments are required.
. Pigments should be preweighed and batched from
packages that are of a size appropriate for a single batch. 5.4-Reinforcement
The aggregates and cement should be introduced to- 5.4.1 Prestressing
gether. 5.4.1.1 General - Panels are sometimes prestressed
. Where mixers of 1 cu yd capacity or less are used, to avoid cracks, to control warping or bowing, or to rein-
the aggregates may be placed into the mixer first and force particularly large units. Firm anchorage of the pre-
then the cement and water introduced together. stressing steel in a prestressing bed or in suitably
5.3.4.1 Mixing time - After all materials have designed individual molds is necessary. The concrete
entered the mixer, they should be mixed for a minimum compressive strength when the prestressing force is
released should be adequate to meet the design and of Standard Practice and Placing Reinforcing Bars. Rein-
handling requirements of the precast panel. In the case forcement for precast wall panels is usually preassembled
of prestressed architectural panels, special attention into rigid cages using a template or jig before the steel
should be paid to the transfer of the prestress force to is placed in the form. Cage assemblies should be con-
the panel, particularly if it is a heavily sculptured precast structed to close tolerances, and the various pieces
panel or has many openings. should be rigidly connected by tying or welding. When
Accurate location of strands is important to avoid cages are tied, soft stainless steel #16 gauge or heavier
inducing permanent bowing or warping. Strand ends must tie wire is desirable. Reinforcement cages should be
be recessed and backfilled with epoxy or special grout, securely suspended from the back of the molds and held
or otherwise carefully protected to avoid corrosion. clear of any exposed surface. The suspension system must
Strands are normally tensioned in two increments. The firmly hold the assembly in its proper position during
first increment applies enough load to the strands to concrete placing and consolidation. Permanent spacers or
straighten them, eliminate slack, and provide a starting chairs supported on the form of an exposed concrete sur-
point for measuring the elongation. The second stress face may mar the appearance of the precast panel. If
increment is then applied until the strands reach their possible, the use of chairs should be avoided. If used,
final stress and elongation. Gauge readings and elong- spacers should be of a type and material that will not
ation measurements must be taken and recorded for each cause spalling of the concrete, rust marks, or other
strand being stressed. deleterious effects.
Prestressing strand, rod, or wires should never be All reinforcement, at the time concrete is placed,
welded as the high temperature may produce crystalliza- should be free of grease, oil, wax, dirt, paint, loose rust
tion and cause the steel to lose a considerable amount of or mill scale, or other contaminants that may reduce
strength and fail when under tension. bond between steel and concrete or stain the surface of
5.4.1.2 Stringing the strands - Strands are normally the concrete. Reinforcing steel should not be bent after
supplied in reel-less packs where the strands may be being embedded in plastic concrete.
pulled from the center of the spool. They should be 5.4.2.1 Welding of reinforcement - Tack welding is
placed in the form in a way that avoids entanglement only recommended for increased rigidity and should not
during the stressing operation. Strands for pretensioned be indiscriminately used. When absolutely necessary,
products should also be free of dirt, oil, grease or any welding should be done by certified welders with written
foreign substance which can affect their bond to con- approval of the engineer-architect and in accordance with
crete. The strand chucks should be clean, well lubricated the provisions of the American Welding Society (AWS)
and free from cracks, capable of anchoring the loads D1.4.
induced by the strand without allowing excessive slippage. If coated bars are to be welded, the coating should be
5.4.1.3 Jacking - Hydraulic jacks with gauging sys- removed by acid etching and rinsing the bar in clear
tems are normally used to tension strands. The hydraulic water, or by mechanical means such as wire brushing,
gauges should be accurate to within 1 percent the applied abrasive blasting, or grinding. All surfaces to be welded
pressure. Strand force should be determined by observa- should be bright and clean. The clean area should be at
tion of jack gauge pressure and measurement of the least 1 in. larger than the weld area on all sides of the
strand elongation. The two control measurements should weld.
agree with their computed theoretical values within a Welding of galvanized reinforcement requires a special
tolerance of 2 5 percent. Additionally, these two values type of welding rod. Welding removes a portion of the
should algebraically be within 5 percent of each other. If zinc coating in the area of the weld. Since zinc fumes are
the strand readings are not within this range, tensioning toxic, adequate ventilation must be provided to remove
should be stopped and corrective measures taken. fumes.
5.4.1.4 Strand detensioning - Detensioning should Small tack welds give substantial stability to rein-
not begin until the concrete has attained adequate forcing bar cages but are not recommended for attach-
strength to resist the compressive forces induced by the ment to main reinforcement due to the possibility of steel
strand and to adequately bond the strand to the concrete crystallization (embrittlement or metallurgical notch).
in pretensioned construction. Strand transfer is normally Tack welds which do not become a part of permanent
undertaken when the concrete is at about 3500 psi, but welds of reinforcing steel are prohibited by AWS D1.4,
this can vary with design. Each of the strands should be unless approved by the engineer. However, tack welding
simultaneously and slowly cut at each end of the panel or of reinforcement at locations where neither bar has a
prestressing bed. Detensioning should be performed in structural function should be allowed. For example,
such a manner as to keep forces symmetrical about the welding the ends of the outside bars (within 10 bar dia-
panel vertical and horizontal axes. meters from the free end of the bar) may be an aid in
5.4.2 Reinforcement cage assemblies - Information on fabrication of reinforcing cages. Reinforcing bars should
detailing and placing reinforcing bars and welded wire not be welded within 2 bar diameters or a minimum of
fabric may be found in ACI 318, ACI 315, and in the 2 in., with 3 in. preferred, from a cold bend as this can
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute publications Manual result in unpredictable behavior of the reinforcing bar at
the bend. Tack welding must be carried out without sig- vibrators operate at varying frequencies and amplitudes.
nificantly diminishing the effective steel area or the Vibrating tables or forms should be sufficiently rigid to
reinforcing bar area should be one-third larger than transmit the vibration uniformly over the entire surface
required. A low heat setting should be used to reduce the of the panel without any form damage. A vibrating table
undercutting of the effective steel area of the reinforcing works best for flat or low-profile units.
bar. 5.5.3.2 Drop-table vibration - Drop-table vibration
Welding of higher strength steels should be discour- is used in some precasting plants to consolidate concrete
aged unless proper welding procedures, identifying type with a low total water content. The drop table rises and
of preheat and welding rods, are written. Welding should falls an average of 3/8 in. at a low frequency of approxi-
be prohibited near prestressing steel. mately 260 cycles per minute.
5.5.3.3 Internal vibration - Internal vibration is
5.5-Concrete placement done with a tamping type motorized jitterbug or with a
5.5.1 Transportation- Concrete for casting precast spud vibrator. Spud vibrators should not be used to con-
wall panels is transported from the mixer and placed in solidate facing mixes. Because backup mixes are generally
forms by various methods depending on the precasting thicker and stiffer, they can be placed and vibrated in the
operation layout or the type of panel being manufac- same way as regular structural concrete using internal
tured. Many precasting plants have stationary mixers and vibration. Vibrators should not be allowed to contact
deliver the concrete to the forms by buggies, buckets, interior form surfaces, because contact may damage the
conveyors, pumps or other equipment. Some precasting form or mar the concrete surface.
plants operate from a controlled ready-mixed concrete At times, a combination of external and internal
plant and transport the concrete by mixer trucks. Truck vibration is required to properly consolidate the concrete.
mixer delivery (ASTM C 94) is more often used for large When high slump concrete is placed, segregation may
volumes of concrete. In addition to speed and economy, occur. With normal weight concrete materials, the coarse
avoiding segregation is a prime concern in transporting aggregate tends to settle to the bottom and the fines will
concrete. Before the delivery of a new batch of concrete, rise to the top. With lightweight aggregates, the opposite
hardened concrete and foreign matter should be removed occurs.
from the surfaces of the transportation equipment. 5.5.3.4 Layering - Layering is the fourth consolida-
5.5.2 Segregation- The amount of segregation varies tion procedure, based on placing differing slumps and
with the mix consistency and the aggregate grading. Sec- mix proportions at different depths in the concrete. This
ondary factors which may affect segregation are weather, process for consolidation is normally used for deep sec-
as it affects consistency, and the mechanism of trans- tions, such as large returns at panel edges. A high cement
portation. Equipment should be used that will provide content and high slump concrete is placed in the first
the least amount of jarring and segregation from the time layer, and then in subsequent layers the slump is reduced
the concrete is placed in the transport carrier until it is and the mix changed to provide less fines. Increasing
delivered to the forms. Concrete must be discharged into stiffness of the mix in the succeeding layers allows for
the forms while in its original mixed or plastic state absorption of excess water and for accommodation of
without separation of coarse aggregate and paste. paste from the previous layer. The color of concrete may
5.5.3 Consolidation- Concrete used in the manufac- change as the mix design and slump change. This may be
ture of wall panels should be completely and uniformly satisfactory if the return is not exposed or the color does
consolidated by internal or external vibration, by not affect appearance.
vibrating screed, by impact, or by a combination of these 5.5.4 Facing concrete- Facing concrete should be
methods. Although the available consolidation systems carefully placed and worked into all parts of the form.
vary widely, most have been successful when properly This is particularly important in external and internal
applied. ACI 309 has presented detailed recommenda- corners for true and sharp casting lines. Each batch of
tions for good consolidation practice and the control of concrete should be placed as close as possible to its final
surface defects. position. The whole mass should be consolidated by
Even concretes containing high-range water-reducers vibration with as little lateral movement as possible. The
should be consolidated by minimal vibration. Regardless thickness of a face mix after consolidation should be at
of the type of consolidation, the goal is to avoid seg- least 1 in. or 1.5 times the maximum size of aggregate,
regation and excessive bleeding while consolidating the whichever is larger. The facing concrete should be thick
concrete into a dense, uniform mass with a surface as enough to prevent any backup concrete from showing on
free of defects as possible. Four typical vibration tech- the exposed face.
niques are described hereafter. It is recommended that In deep returns, excessive air pockets are often created
the consolidation method be left to the panel manufac- on the formed surface. This can generally be overcome
turer. by rodding the concrete at the return surface with thin
5.5.3.1 External vibration - External vibration is round nose sticks after the concrete has been vibrated
usually achieved by mounting high frequency vibrators internally. The technique of two-stage casting or sequen-
directly on the forms or by using a vibrating table. These tial casting is discussed in the next section.
5.6-Sur face finishes finishes on all exposed faces as well as minimize air
5.6.1 General methods -When a precast panel project pockets; then they are joined with dry joints as illustrated
reaches the fabrication stage, approval of both color and in Fig. 5.6.1. This method of casting enables all panels to
texture will usually have been given. This is generally
accomplished by submitting a small sample, or in some
cases a full size unit, for approval of the engineer- PROJECTING REINFORCEMENT
,‘I
architect.
Surface finishes can be achieved in many ways,
depending on the desired architectural effect. Some
surface treatments or finishes are executed on plastic
concrete, some on hardened concrete.
Finishes on plastic concrete generally use one of the
following methods:
Chemical surface retarders

Brooming, floating or troweling of the back face
Water washing and/or brushing THIRD CAST WITH PROJECTING
Special form finish REINFORCEMENT CAST IN, LAPPED
WITH REINFORCEMENT IN FACE,
Sand casting NOT SHOWN
Surface texturing using formliners
Clay product veneer-faces
Stone veneer-faces
Surface treatment of hardened concrete requires more

labor and can at times be more susceptible to variations. \_&JOI T
Available methods include:
. Hand brushing and/or power rotary brushes FINAL PROFILE RECESS TO CAMOUFLAGE JOINT
. Acid etching
. Sand
. Honingor and
other abrasive blasting a) Separate casting stages of large returns
. Bushhammeringpolishing
. Artificially created
or other mechanical tooling
broken rib texture (hammered
WEL DED
WIRE
(a)
FABRIC
ribs or fractured fins) I
Additional finishes and further discussion of finish

treatments can be found in PCI Architectural Precast Con- (b)
crete.
Regardless of the type of finishing method, factors
such as type and brand of portland cement, aggregates, FACE MIX
compressive strengths (at time of final architectural fin-
ishing), and curing techniques used will affect the final
appearance. When finishes remove part of the surface of
the concrete, the resulting panel must have adequate
cover over the reinforcement to prevent corrosion and
staining.
All methods of finishing must be studied for a project
before entering into full production. The precast manu-
facturer must develop quality requirements for all (d)
architectural finishes before undertaking production of
such finishes. The finishing process must produce an
acceptable uniform appearance without loss of required
concrete qualities. When two or more different mixes or
finishes are on the same panel, a demarcation (reveal) +d ie l-- DRIP
feature is necessary. 3/4 "
Panels with large or steep returns (such as channel

column covers and some spandrels) may be cast in sepa- b) Alternate casting positions
rate pieces in order to achieve matching high quality Fig.5.6.1-Two-stage/sequentialprecasting
be cast face-down with the same aggregate orientation concrete aggregate can be easily exposed. Form retarders
and concrete density using conventional precast concrete are usually fast drying, solvent-based materials designed
forming methods; backforming is not required. Also, a to resist the abrasion inherent during the placement of
combination of face mix and backup mix can be used, the concrete into forms coated with a retarder. Retarders
rather than 100 percent face mix. If this is the indicated applied to the top surface of freshly placed concrete are
production method, attention must be paid to suitable usually water-based materials. Both types of retarders
corner details and reinforcement at the dry joints. come with retardation strength formulated to produce
Although the dry joint may not show with certain mixes different depths of reveal. Usually, the one selected after
and textures, a groove or quirk will help to mask the suitable testing will give 30 to 40 percent exposure of the
joint. Where desired, this joint can be recessed deep aggregate intended to be exposed at the surface.
enough to allow installation of a small backer rod and Retarders can be applied by roller, brush, or spray.
placement of a 1/4 in. bead of joint sealant, Fig. 5.6.1 Extreme care should be taken to ensure uniform appli-
Sometimes precautions may be necessary to ensure cation of the retarder to the mold or concrete surface.
watertighness of the dry joints. Since the most suitable period for providing the final
5.6.2 Chemical surface retarders - Chemical surface surface treatment may vary from 12 to 24 hours after
retarders are available in varying concentrations to casting, preliminary tests should be performed under job
control the depth of aggregate exposure. They may be conditions before planning the casting for a large con-
used to treat the finished surface whether it is cast up or tract. When the concrete matrix is removed by water
is on the bottom of the panel, as cast. Retarders being scrubbing or other mechanical processes, the operation
considered for a project should be thoroughly evaluated should begin immediately after stripping and before the
under prevailing project conditions before production. matrix becomes excessively hard. Unformed surfaces may
The retarder selected should be compatible with the par- be treated at anytime after initial set has taken place.
ticular type and source of cement, aggregates, and speci- Surface retarded concrete is shown in Fig. 5.6.2.1.
fic mix selected for the panels. The effectiveness of 5.6.3 Abrasive blasting to expose aggregate - The age
surface retarders varies when the heat of hydration of the of concrete for abrasive blasting is not as critical as for
cement is altered. The heat of hydration may be altered other methods of exposing aggregates. Ideally the con-
by larger concrete masses, depth of precast product, crete should not be more than about 3 to 5 days old, and
changes in temperature and/or humidity, by use of all panels should have approximately the same compres-
ins-ulated panels or by changing cements. sive strength. The concrete mix used and the compressive
5.6.2.1 Applying the retarder - Chemical surface strength at time of abrasive blasting affect the final
retarders are specialized chemicals that delay but do not exposure, as do the grading and hardness of the abrasive.
prevent the set of the surface cement paste so that the Sand or abrasive blasting will produce a muted or frosted
Fig. 5.6.2.1-Aggregate exposed using surface retarders

effect which tends to lighten the color and subdue the Exposed aggregate finishes are popular because they
luster of the aggregate. The diameter of nozzle, air are reasonable in cost and provide a good variety in
pressure, and type of abrasive should be determined by appearance. This variety is achieved by varying the type,
experimentation. color, and size of aggregate, color of matrix, method of
If sand is used as the abrasive, the effect of the sand’s exposure, and depth of exposure.
color on the panel should be reviewed. With certain com- The different degrees of exposure are:
binations of blasting sand grading, pressure, and volume,
some of the blasting sand can become embedded in the a) Light exposure - where only the surface skin of
surface of the concrete. In this case, a blasting sand of cement and sand is removed, just sufficiently to
similar color to the sand in the concrete matrix should be expose the edges of the closest coarse aggregate.
used. However, this situation can be minimized by a b) Medium exposure - where a further removal of
change in the amount of material that hits the surface, cement and sand has caused the coarse aggregate
the grading of the blasting abrasive and the pressure at to visually appear approximately equal in area to
the blasting nozzle. Once the blasting sand has been the matrix.
selected, the same sand and grading should be used c) Deep exposure - where cement and sand have
throughout the project. Surface retarders used in con- been removed from the surface so that the coarse
junction with sandblasting can help reduce sandblasting aggregate becomes the major surface feature.
time and labor.
The surface of large flat panels should be separated The extent to which aggregates are exposed or “re-
into smaller sections with rustication strips or by the use vealed” is largely determined by their size. Reveal should
of ribs and form liners in order to minimize the visual not be greater than one-third the average diameter of the
perception of textural differences. coarse aggregate particles or one-half the diameter of the
Materials used for blasting operations are washed sil- smallest sized coarse aggregate.
ica sand, certain hard angular sands, aluminum carbide, All sandblast operators should be protected with heavy
blasting grit such as power plant boiler slag, carbonized gloves, aprons or protective clothing and air-fed respir-
hydrocarbon, crushed chat, and various organic grits such atory protection equipment. Caution, relative to environ-
as ground nut hulls and corncobs. Deep exposure of the mental pollution, is advised in selecting abrasive grits that
coarse aggregate requires a finer gradation of sand abra- produce very fine particles of grit after impacting the sur-
sive to obtain uniform results. Trials of different abrasive face. Different equipment may be required for wet
materials with sample panels are made to check the tex- blasting.
ture and color tones. Sandblasted concrete having light 5.6.4 Honing and polishing- Honing and polishing of
to medium exposure is shown in Fig. 5.6.3. surfaces provides a smooth exposed aggregate surface.
Fig. 5.6.3-Aggregate exposed by sandblasting

Honing is generally accomplished by using grinding tools removed from the form. Secondary curing may be less
in stages, with successive degrees of grit fineness varying important in precast concrete because design strengths
from approximately a No. 24 coarse grit to a fine grit of are established to enable the panels to resist maximum
about No. 300. Polishing can be done with finer grits. stresses usually occurring during stripping and handling.
Generally, honing alone provides a sufficiently smooth Concrete mixes for precast panels generally contain Type
surface for precast panels. III high-early-strength cement or very finely ground Type
Grinding elements are made with carborundum I cement, with cement contents high enough to assure
bonded by resin, or with diamonds set in the grinding adequate strength at stripping (usually at least 3000 or
surfaces. The diamond elements cut faster and wear 3500 psi). This strength often is achieved within 12 to 16
longer, but are initially more expensive. Equipment for hours while the precast panel is still in the form. Addi-
honing and polishing may vary from a hand grinder to an tional information on curing may be found in ACI 308
elaborate multihead machine. Air voids in the concrete and ACI 517.2R.
surface should be filled with a cementitious paste when 5.7.2 Curing recommendations - It is recommended
the matrix is exposed during the initial grinding oper- that two different stages of curing be established for
ations; careful inspection is required to find and fill air precast panels. The first 16 to 20 hours is the initial stage
voids after initial grinding. Subsequent grinding opera- and the most crucial. Steps should be taken during this
tions should be delayed until the fill paste material has period to both provide heat (if necessary to maintain
gained adequate strength. Strength of the concrete and minimum temperatures) and to prevent loss of moisture
fill past material should be 5000 psi before any grinding from the panel. The exposed portion of the fresh con-
or polishing operations are started. Uniform appearance crete in a wall panel should be covered during this initial
requires that a minimum of concrete matrix area show, phase.
as the aggregates polish better than the concrete matrix. After removal from the form, the secondary stage of
5.6.5 Acid etching - Due to the many types of aggre- curing should be continued until a compressive strength
gates used in architectural concrete, caution on the use of 3500 psi has been attained and confirmed by standard
of acids is in order. Before acid etching a thorough study tests. During this period, precast panels should be pro-
should be made of the effect of various concentrations of tected from excessive moisture evaporation and from
acid used for exposing aggregates or for the cleaning of temperatures below 50 F.
panels. The concrete aggregates should be quartz, gran- It may be necessary to interrupt the secondary curing
ite, or other acid resistant stone. Limestones, dolomites, to examine the surface finish and to do any required
and marbles will either dissolve or discolor when exposed patching. It cannot be overemphasized that curing at the
to muriatic acid. Acids may increase chemical reaction early ages is extremely important to the strength and
between silicates in the aggregate and the free lime lib- durability of the concrete panel.
erated from the cement. This may lead to calcium silicate 5.7.3 Curing techniques - Any changes in curing tech-
deposits on the panel surface if residue is allowed to niques during a given production run may result in
harden on surface. Acid washes may also damage the gal- changes in color, texture, or uniformity of the wall
vanizing of exposed hardware and reinforcing bars if less panels. Therefore, curing procedures should be consistent
than recommended cover is used. and uniform from precast panel to precast panel as well
When acid is applied, it must be continuously brushed as from day to day. Burlap and other similar coverings
or scrubbed to ensure uniform reaction with the cement may cause staining or discoloration on certain finishes
surface. Acid washing should not be done until the con- and should be avoided in these cases. Because of their
crete in the precast panel has reached a minimum tendency to discolor, curing compounds should not be
strength of 3500 or 4000 psi. All personnel exposed to used, except on the backs of panels before the removal
any acid from the surface application method must wear of forms, or on surfaces that will receive a finish later.
protective clothing and covering to prevent injury from Since some curing compounds and sealers may interfere
acid spattering. Acid should be completely neutralized with adhesion of surface coverings, coatings, and joint
and flushed from the concrete with clear, clean water to sealants, compatibility with these materials should be
prevent yellowing or other discoloration. Acid should not investigated.
be allowed to remain on the concrete surface for more 5.7.3.1 Curing temperature - All curing of concrete
than 10 to 15 minutes as an absolute maximum. Deep should take place at temperatures above 50 F. If temper-
etch exposure should be achieved by multiple treatments atures fall below this level during the first 20 hours,
rather than prolonged contact. either external applied heat or heat retention measures
are required. However, it must be remembered that trial
5.7-Concrete curing mix proportions are usually prepared and tested at room
5.7.1 Introduction - Curing of concrete takes place as temperatures of 70 to 75 F. When concrete is cured at
long as sufficient moisture is present and favorable tem- lower temperatures, such as 50 F, the concrete strength
peratures are maintained. In the manufacture of precast may be lower than laboratory tests have indicated. If
concrete, the initial curing usually takes place in the panel curing temperatures are expected to be lower than
form. Secondary curing takes place after the product is trial mix temperatures, some allowance should be made
for the slower gain in strength and the early form mean the panels need to be a covered area or must be
stripping time adjusted accordingly. covered. The need for protection will depend on the con-
5.7.3.2 Steam curing - Curing with steam simul- figuration of the units, the length of storage time, and
taneously provides both heat and moisture. Where steam the local environment. To protect against freezing dam-
curing is used, recommended procedures such as those of age, inserts and other embedded items should be pro-
ACI 517 must be observed to achieve desired results. tected against penetration of water or snow during cold
Steam should not be applied until after the initial set weather.
period of the particular concrete mix. The initial set Storage must be planned carefully to ensure delivery
(delay) period should be determined by ASTM C 403. and erection of the panels in an acceptable condition.
The rate of temperature rise can be from 40 to 80 Even though the panels may require washing after erec-
degrees F per hour as long as a proper initial set (delay) tion, protection may still be necessary against engine
period precedes the heating period.8 Maximum tempera- exhaust fumes or soil staining.
ture should not exceed 180 F. Cooling rates should also 5.8.3 Storage of thin flat panels - Flat panels less than
be carefully controlled. Extremely close control of steam 4 in. thick or panels with a length to thickness ratio
curing procedures is required in connection with chem- greater than 60 should be stored and shipped in a verti-
ically retarded exposed aggregate surfaces. Steam curing cal or near vertical position. Two-point supports spaced
can produce a greenhouse effect (dripping of moisture approximately at the fifth points are recommended for
from the covering on to the panel) and induce staining storage or lifting. Protective resilient material should be
on the exposed panel surfaces.9 provided at points of bearing and contact. All blocking,
5.7.3.3 Curing in storage - Strength gain can con- packing, and protective material should be clean and of
tinue after panels are moved to the storage area. Care a type that will not cause damage, staining, or disfig-
should be taken to prevent rapid loss of moisture when urement of the precast panels. Blocking and support
panels are placed in a storage yard. When ambient rela- members should be positioned and secured in a manner
tive humidity is high, additional protection from rapid to prevent slippage, chipping at the chains, excessive
drying may not be required. In areas where hot, dry binding, or excessive stresses. Staggered or irregular
weather prevails, care should be taken to allow the blocking should be avoided. Precast units should be
panels to dry slowly. stacked so they are supported on both sides to equalize
New concrete is vulnerable to damage from even one loading and to avoid overturning.
freeze-thaw cycle until it reaches a nominal compressive
strength of about 500 psi, since the concrete is in a 5.9-Delivery
saturated condition at early ages. At a typical concrete Most precast panels are delivered over the highways
strength above 3000 psi, early freezing is not a problem by semitrailer trucks (see Fig. 5.9). A few are shipped by
and the precast concrete panels may be immediately rail, barge, or other modes of transportation. Precast
stored outside. However, panels of any strength will not plant facilities do not generally restrict the size and
be durable to repeated freezing and thawing unless weight of precast panels which can be produced. How-
adequate air entrainment is provided. Section 5.3.3 ever, shipping problems with oversize panels may greatly
recommends that all concrete mixes should be air-en- increase the cost of construction or delay completion of
trained. the project. Special permits are generally required where
height, width or weight exceed specified limits. The use
5.8-Storage of lightweight aggregate concrete panels can, in many
5.8.1 General - Because of the wide variation in pre- cases, minimize the impact of weight in shipping, hand-
cast panel sizes and shapes as well as in the production ling and erection operations. Travel may be restricted to
facilities, there are no “standard” methods of handling good weather, daylight hours and weekdays. Equipment,
and storage. Precast panels temporarily stored in a gen- such as lowboys or special trailers, may be required for
eral storage area should be supported at the blocking large or heavy panels.
points designated on the erection drawings. Units should All precast panels should be delivered to the site
be stored in a vertical or near vertical position. Handling clearly marked as indicated on the erection drawings,
and storage procedures selected should not cause struc- with the date of production and an identifier that shows
tural damage, detrimental cracking, architectural impair- the final position of the unit on the structure. Precast
ment or permanent distortion when the precast member panels should be selected from storage, loaded, and
is being: (a) lifted or stripped from the mold; (b) moved delivered in the proper order to meet the predetermined
to various locations for further processing or storage; (c) erection sequence.
turned into various positions to provide access for finish- Before scheduling of delivery equipment, a field check
ing and/or surfacing operations: (d) stored before deliv- of the project should be made by the erector to ensure
ery; and (e) loaded onto delivery vehicles. that the foundations, walls and structure generally are
5.8.2 Protection - During storage, the manufacturer suitably constructed to receive precast panel units. The
should keep the precast concrete panels in a clean, prop- site should be checked for crane and delivery truck ac-
erly protected area to prevent staining. This does not cess, as well as possible field panel storage. Most panels
533R-41
Fig. 5.9-Delivery/transportation of panels
should be loaded vertically and supported on A-frames 10 to 14 ft, depending on area or city. Some areas allow
mounted to flat bed trailers. They should be supported overall lengths over 70 ft with a simple permit, escorts
to minimize the effect of road shock and should be front and rear and travel limited to certain times of day.
securely fastened with all contact points protected from
damage. Corners and returns of unusual lengths should
be braced from edge to edge for greater protection in CHAPTER 6-INSTALLATION
transit. All material in contact with the panel should be
nonstaining. 6.1-Planning and preparation
If panels are shipped horizontal, they should be sup- 6.1.1 Coordination - Early in the construction, before
ported at two points with the supports located at the fifth panel manufacture, the panel fabricator, erector,
points of the long dimension to avoid excessive stresses engineer-architect, owner, and the general contractor
which may be induced by twisting and/or racking of the should hold a coordination meeting to establish the
trailer. When the two-point support system is impractical, working relationship, assure that handling techniques are
alternate support systems must be engineered and satisfactory, establish the temporary erection bracing and
checked for feasibility relative to stresses and other establish mutually agreeable delivery schedules.
potential problems. 6.1.2 Access - Access conditions at the site should be
5.9.1 Protection during shipping - Generally, protective reviewed, considering temporary roads for delivery
covering of a precast panel during delivery should be trucks and handling equipment such as cranes. Responsi-
determined by the manufacturer after considering such bility for sidewalks, overhead lines, barricades, truck
factors as size, shape, type of finish, type of aggregate, space at site, sequences, coordination with other trades,
the method of transportation, type of vehicle, weather and panel protection should be discussed at a project co-
and road conditions, and distance of haul. Since manu- ordination meeting. At this coordination meeting the pre-
facturers are responsible for the condition of the cast erector should provide his scheme for the handling,
delivered product, they make the decision on wrapping loading, transportation and erection of the panels. Tem-
unless the engineer-architect has specified a particular porary bracing of the structure, on-site storage, connec-
form of wrapping protection. tions, starting-location and sequence of erection relative
5.9.2 Economical panel sizes - Economical panel sixes to building stability should be discussed.
depend on the plant capability, distance to the job site, 6.1.3 Project meetings - During the precast erection
highway conditions, and shipping and erection restric- phase, the general contractor should conduct frequent
tions. For maximum economy, panels should be limited project meetings between the erector and those subcon-
to a height and width of 8 ft and a weight of 20,000 lb to tractors whose work is affected by the precast. These
allow for two on a truck. In some areas, heights of 13 ft meetings will help to ensure that all necessary provisions
6 in. are allowed without special permit, while in others have been made to facilitate the erection process.
this limit is 12 ft. Restrictions generally exist for loads 6.1.4 Contract documents - The contract documents
over 8 ft in width; maximum permit widths can vary from should state clearly any requirements or sequencing of
erection needed to maintain building stability. Lim- belts and point of contact with the panel. Gangs of pre-
itations on loading of the structure, temporary bracing cast panels should not be removed with belt lifting
requirements, or elevation sequencing need to be clearly devices unless the panels are palletized.
shown before bidding. All details of temporary erection The exterior panel should always be unloaded first
bracing, temporary connections, and shoring should be from a frame or a stack; never slide a panel out from the
reviewed by the engineer-architect. The sequence of middle of a stack. Balance on the trailer should be main-
removal of any temporary erection connections should be tained during unloading by unloading alternate sides of
shown, since leaving these connections in place can result the vehicle. Remaining adjacent panels on the trailer
in structural behavior not intended by the engineer- should be tied or blocked to prevent tipping.
architect. After delivery, a panel may require rotation into a new
6.1.5 Pre-erection check - Before starting erection, position; for example a tall panel delivered on its side
bearing walls, foundations, structural frame, bearing must be rotated to a vertical position. A panel may also
surfaces, notches, embedded plates, angles or bolts, and be delivered flat (horizontal) and then be lifted from the
welded connections should be checked for dimension, delivery vehicle and uprighted in the air. The panel is
location, line, and grade to ensure that the area to normally rotated without being allowed to touch the
receive the precast panels is ready. Any modification to ground. It may be necessary to bolt a support frame to
bearing surfaces or connection hardware should be made the panel before rotating. Usually two lifting lines from
by the general contractor before erection begins. The the crane are used, although special rotating frames have
precast erector should also spot check the access before been developed for use with one crane line.
scheduling the loading and handling equipment. 6.2.3 Lifting devices - Lifting devices should be
secured to panels in accordance with the lifting device
6.2-Unloading and handling manufacturer’s recommendations. Bolts must be threaded
6.2.1 General - Panels should be loaded and deliv- into the inserts 2.5 bolt diameters for coil inserts and 1.5
ered in the erection sequence established at the project bolt diameters for ferrule inserts to prevent stripping of
coordination meetings. Ideally panels should be lifted the bolt or insert threads. At least two connections
from the delivery trucks and placed directly in their should be used whenever the panel is lifted, so that the
proper position on the building. This minimizes handling panel or the lifting line cannot spin and unscrew, causing
damage and is usually the most economical method. the lifting line to become disconnected. Bolts of proper
Many requirements in Chapter 5 concerning the handling length must be used to ensure a full embedment in the
of panels at the fabrication plant, apply equally to jobsite lifting device. Regardless of the load requirements, a 1/2-
activity. in. bolt should be the minimum size used for any precast
The precast erector should set out joint location and panel handling. Expansion bolts, predrilled or self-drilled,
spacing before actual panel installation. This should should not be used for handling and erection purposes.
minimize differential variation in the panel joint width as Occasionally inserts, bolts, or other devices are provided
well as identify problems caused by the building or the only for the convenience of field handling. When these
adjacent materials being out of dimension or alignment. devices are located in finished edges or exposed surfaces,
6.2.2 Delivery sequence - A delivery sequence for bolt and insert holes require filling and repairing. When
panels should be sufficiently flexible to allow for: this is necessary, the engineer-architect should be advised
so that the locations and repair procedure can be ap-
. Full loads, using reasonable “fill-out” units if neces- proved before panel fabrication. Repairs should be pro-
perly executed in accordance with Section 6.6.
. Control of unit position on the trailer with proper
sary
support for safety and economy 6.3-Jobsite storage

. Adequate advance notice of shipment 6.3.1 General - If the jobsite storage of precast panels
. Assurance of prompt unloading is necessary to meet the established schedule, the storage
. Provision for some on-site storage areas provided should be relatively level, firm, well-
drained and located where there is little chance of dam-
If possible, panels should be unloaded by handling in age due to other construction activity. Recommendations
a vertical position. This is usually the situation if single for storage in Section 5.8 should be followed. In addition,
story panels are shipped on frames in a vertical or an where long-term storage is necessary, panels should be
upright position. All chains, binders, banding, protective covered to protect them from accumulation of dust, dirt,
packing and bracing should be carefully removed from or other staining materials. Covers of canvas, rubberized
around the panels. Corners and panels with returns of sheets, heavy waterproof paper, reinforced plastic
unusual length are shipped with special bracing which sheeting, or other protective material should be con-
should not be removed until the precast piece has been sidered.
lifted slightly from the truck before installation. If belts The storage area may have to be stabilized so that
are used in unloading, only one panel at a time should be differential settlement or twisting of the stored panel will
removed. Protective material must be used between the not occur. Panels should not be stored on frozen ground
without proper safeguards to prevent uneven settlement clearance and conditions of the ground on which to set
if the ground thaws. the equipment; overhead clearance of wires and adjacent
6.3.2 Panel support -Panels should be stored with buildings.
identification marks clearly visible and supports at the
blocking points shown on the erection drawings. Panels The equipment selected must meet or exceed all pro-
should be blocked to prevent tipping. When panels are ject requirements and have at least a 5 percent working
placed against a frame or support, they should be set on margin of reserve load capacity on every lift for unan-
protective material laid horizontally under or between ticipated problems. When slings are used for panel erec-
the panels. This protective material should be selected so tion, the included angle between the sling lines should
that the blocking material will not stain the panels. never exceed 90 deg (or 45 deg from the vertical).
Plastic chairs, chain guards, and bearing pads are readily Lifting devices must be checked to assure that their
available and do not stain. Wood blocking should be capacity and intended use conforms to the manufac-
wrapped in plastic sheeting to avoid wood stains that can turer’s recommendation. Panels should be handled only
be serious enough to cause panel rejection. Polystyrene at the locations and with the hardware shown on the
foam blocking may dissolve when the solvents of sealers erection shop drawings. If slings are used, the panel
contact it, leaving an unsightly patch of polystyrene that should be marked so that the slings are placed in the
is virtually impossible to remove without defacing the proper location.
panel. When solvent-based sealers are not used, poly- 6.4.3 Bracing and guying - Bracing requirements
styrene foam can provide good protection if it is of should be established before bidding so that proper
adequate size to support the imposed load. allowances can be made. Necessary bracing and guying
6.3.3 Storage on a delivery vehicle - If jobsite storage material should be delivered to the jobsite before
is limited or of short duration, leaving the panels on the erection begins. All bracing and guying methods must be
delivery truck is often more desirable, provided the designed to support all construction loads including wind.
shipper will permit extended truck usage. Leaving the Building design should provide for structural stability
panels on the truck provides a clean safe place and during erection of the precast panels. Until proper align-
eliminates extra handling. This reduces possible damage ment and final connections are made, structural stability
caused from multiple handling and improper jobsite may not be achieved and bracing may be required.
storage techniques. When bracing/guying is used, the manufacturer’s
recommendations must be followed regarding load,
6.4-Installation length, and inclined angle. Special care must be given to
6.4.1 Workmanship - Workers should be properly the location, size and capacity of the insert in both the
trained to handle and erect precast concrete panels. panel and the deadman or floor slab. A brace/guy should
Methods of erection should be planned to avoid soiling, never be connected to a precast panel at a point lower
cracking, chipping and damage to built-in items. Chipping than two-thirds of the panel height. Temporary bracing
and spalling may be repaired at the jobsite after instal- or guying should be arranged so that it does not interfere
lation, if done to the satisfaction of the engineer- with other panels being erected, nor should removal of
architect. one brace remove support from the remaining panels.
6.4.2 Equipment - Handling equipment for precast Removal of temporary bracing/guying should not take
panel erection should be safe and reliable under all place until the building stability has been achieved
anticipated conditions to which it will be exposed. It must through other means or until authorized by the engineer-
not only accomplish the handling/erection quickly and architect.
economically but also eliminate any possibility of hazard 6.4.4 Alignment - Offset lines are normally marked on
to personnel on the site, to the public nearby, or to the floors for multistory buildings or on foundations for
property. Factors involved in equipment selection single-story buildings. Elevations for precast panels are
include: normally established by setting the properly sized shim
pack on the floor or beam. Shim material should have a
l Mobility and cost - availability and cost of the bearing capacity of approximately 1000 psi. Each panel
handling equipment; cost of altering boom length or should be erected to meet the tolerances of Chapter 3.
making other modifications; mobility needed for antici- To hold overall building dimensions, it is necessary to
pated site conditions; whether the panels will be walked work to joint center lines, permitting the joint widths to
or carried vary. If a joint size is detailed as a 1/2 in. and the panel
l Capacity required - the weights, dimensions, and lift tolerance is * 1/8 in., the joint may vary from 3/8 to 5/8 in.,
radius of the heaviest and largest precast panel; the provided approved connection and erection procedures
maximum lift height and radius and the weight to be are followed.
handled at that elevation; the number and frequency of 6.4.5 Connections - Connections should be compat-
lifts ible with both precast and supporting frame tolerances,
l Clearance needs - the clearance between the load be simple in detail, and easily adjustable in the field to
and adequate headroom in which to operate; ground meet special project conditions. Connections should allow
erection to proceed independent of ambient temperature 6.4.5.4 Dowels and grouting - The strength of a
without temporary protection measures. They should be dowel connection in tension or shear depends on the
as standardized as possible in order to minimize plant embedded length and the developed bond. Since place-
and field erection quality control problems. Once agreed ment of a portland cement grout or epoxy grout is re-
upon by the engineer-architect, the erector, and the quired during erection, use of dowel connections usually
precast supplier, the typical connections selected should slows down the erection and may be costly.
be shown on the shop drawings submitted before panel For doweled or grouted connections, setting shims are
fabrication. located and grout holes are filled just before setting pre-
6.4.5.1 Bolted connections - Connections should be cast panels. The concrete in and adjacent to the grout
designed so that members can be safely secured to the holes should be damp or in a saturated surface dry condi-
structure in a minimum amount of time without com- tion. Grout consistency should permit displacement of
pleting alignment and all adjustments. Bolted connections some grout when panels are placed in position. Where
are positive immediately and allow for adjustment with- grout beds are required, the panels may be set on shims
out tying up large handling equipment. Care must be and dry-packed with mortar later. Panels may also be set
taken during adjustment to prevent damage to either the onto fresh grout with the elevation controlled by shims.
panels or the adjacent building materials. Excess grout should be removed if it interferes with other
Standardized attachment hardware (clip angles, bolts, construction activities. Use of epoxy and cementitious
and shims) helps to minimize errors and control inven- grouted connections should be avoided when the ambient
tory. Regardless of the load requirements, a 1/2-in. temperature is below 40 F. Mixing and installation of
diameter bolt should be the minimum size used. Clip epoxy grouts must be in strict accordance to the manu-
angles should be slotted or have oversized holes to allow facturer’s instructions. In selecting methods of doweling
for product tolerances and building movement. and grouting, consideration must be given to how the
6.4.5.2 Welded connections - Where welded con- final joint will be made and how the corners will be
nections are required, welding should be done in accor- joined. Adjustments to the precast panel after the initial
dance with AWS D1.l and with the erection drawings. set of the grout may destroy the grout bond and reduce
These drawings should show the type, size, length of the connection strength. Doweled and grouted connec-
weld, sequence, minimum preheat, interpass temperature, tions should only be used where they are part of the
weld location and, if critical, the type of electrode. Panels structural design concept.
may be shimmed while the initial tack welding is done.
Bracing or other provisions must be adequate to safely 6.5-Cleaning
hold the panel in position while the handling equipment 6.5.1 Protection- Panels should be delivered to the
is released and adjacent panels are placed. jobsite in a clean and acceptable condition. The erector
Before temporary bracing is released, the designated should recoat all welds and abraded steel with a rust
full weld should be in place at every connection in the inhibitor or, in cases of galvanized plates, with a cold
precast panel. To minimize staining, all loose slag and galvanizing coating. The erector is normally responsible
debris should be removed immediately after the welding for any chipping, spalling, cracking and other damage to
is complete. Panel finish and surrounding materials may the precast panels after delivery to the jobsite. The gen-
require protection from sparks and smoke stain. Non- eral contractor assumes responsibility for panel protec-
combustible shields should be used to protect exposed tion after panel erection.
concrete surfaces during welding. Any mortar, grout, plaster, stains, or other matter and
6.4.5.3 Post-tensioned connections-Post-tensioning, droppings on the panels during the course of general
either vertical and/or horizontal, may be used for field construction should be immediately washed off with clean
connection of precast panels using either bonded or un- water or cleaned as otherwise required. Rainwater or
bonded tendons. Bonded tendons are installed in pre- water from construction hoses can wash across building
formed voids or ducts; they are made monolithic with the materials and cause discoloration of exposed precast
member and protected from corrosion by grouting after panels.
the stressing operation is completed. The grout must fill Arrangements should be made by the general contrac-
all voids in and around the tendon for its entire length. tor to provide protection for adjacent materials (such as
Unbonded tendons are connected to the precast panel glass and aluminum) which may be damaged by welding.
only through the anchorage hardware. Anchorage devices Otherwise the adjacent materials should not be installed
for all post-tensioning systems must be aligned with the until the panels are in place, repaired, and cleaned.
direction of the axis of the tendon at the point of If cleaning is required, exposed panel faces should be
attachment. Concrete surfaces against which the anchor- washed with a cleansing agent mixed with hot water.
age devices bear must be in the plane of the tendon and Panels should be thoroughly rinsed with clear water after
normal to the tendon direction. Post-tensioning opera- washing. A good fiber brush should be used for cleaning.
tions require personnel properly qualified and exper- Normal procedure is to begin cleaning panels from the
ienced with the stressing procedures and equipment to be top of the building downward. Individual panels are
used. cleaned by starting at the precast panel bottom and
working up. After first washing from the bottom to the the joints between panels. General guidelines for repair
top, the panels should be rinsed and then washed from of concrete are found in ACI 546. The repairs should
top to bottom, followed by a second rinse with clear conform to the contract documents and be architecturally
water. Cleaning solutions must never be allowed to dry satisfactory. Gross variations in color and texture of
on the concrete surface that will be exposed to view. The repairs from the adjacent surfaces may be cause for
final finish should be sound and have exposed concrete rejection and a request for replacement of the panel.
free of all laitance, dirt, stains, smears, or other 6.6.2 Repair considerations - A certain amount of
blemishes. repair is routinely expected on architectural panels.
6.5.2 Stubborn stains- If stains remain after cleaning Evaluate the imperfections in the concrete to determine
with a stiff brush and cleansing agent, the surface of the if repairs should be attempted. Repairs can accentuate
panel should be thoroughly wetted with clear water and the flaws, rather than remove them. Slight color vari-
then scrubbed with a dilute solution of muriatic acid. The ations can be expected. Attempt hand tooling of surface
concentration of this solution may be increased to a max- blemishes before undertaking patch repairs. Needle
imum of 5 percent muriatic acid, but weaker solutions scaling, bushhammering, or other mechanical tooling can
should be tried first. A thorough washing with clear water be effective in blending in offsets or variations in color
should immediately follow the scrubbing. Acid cleaning and texture.
cannot be done on honed and polished surfaces or if Use the jobsite mockup or a damaged reject panel to
there are soluble aggregates such as limestone or marble develop a patch mix design and practice repair and
on the panel face. Acid cleaning may change the appear- texture techniques. In most cases, it is better to complete
ance of sandblasted surfaces. Care must be taken to pre- the preparation of all finishes on the precast panel before
vent damage to adjacent material corrodible by the acid. beginning any patching or repairs. Recent repair areas
Glass and aluminum trim are especially susceptible can be damaged if repairs are made ahead of the panel
during acid scrubbing and washing. Repeated applications finishing. Epoxy-filled crack repairs should be done
of a cleaning acid on the exposed surface of the precast before sandblasting. Blasting before the epoxy work will
panel may change the color or texture of the panel. The cause the crack to have rounded edges, and it will be
effect on appearance may necessitate extensive washing more difficult to minimize the crack appearance.
of all project panels. Other commercial cleaners may be Cure all patches and repair areas. These will require
desirable in lieu of acid. Because muriatic (hydrochloric) better curing and greater weather protection than the
acid may leave a yellow stain on white concrete, a 3 to 5 original concrete. Proper tools, staging or scaffolds, and
percent phosphoric acid solution may be preferable on safety or protection equipment should be set for all
white or very light concrete panels. finishing personnel. Patch mix designs and finishing tech-
6.5.3 Sandblasting and steam cleaning - High pressure niques should be documented so that new workers can
sandblasting and steam cleaning are also common ways take over repairs if others leave the project.
to clean panels. An experienced operator should be 6.6.3 Chips and spalls - Chips, spalls, and areas of
engaged for sandblasting of precast panels. Sandblasting unsound concrete may be prepared with a hand-held or
may dull the aggregate or change the color or texture so pneumatic chisel. The repair area should be chipped out
that it no longer matches the remainder of the structure. to a depth of 1.5 times the maximum size of aggregate to
A small area, preferably on the mockup panel, should be assist in physically holding the patch mix in place. All
tried and approved before proceeding with the work. dust must be brushed or blown from area to be repaired.
6.5.4 Sealers - If panels that have been sealed before The entire area to be repaired, as well as adjacent sur-
shipping to the site require cleaning, it may be necessary faces, should be prewetted before applying a recom-
to remove the sealer and recoat the panel after cleaning. mended bonding agent. A stiff predesigned patch mix
Surface sealers should never be reapplied until all repairs should be applied onto repair area and compacted for
and cleaning have been completed. maximum density by dry tamping.
Large repair areas will need coarse aggregate in the
6.6-Patching and repair patch mix or the aggregate must be hand placed and
6.6.1 General - Minor chipping of precast panels rodded into the patching grout. Strike the repair area
during transportation and handling at the jobsite can be level and add any surface texturing while the concrete is
expected. Damaged panels can be repaired after erection, still plastic. Begin curing immediately. If the spalled-out
but major spalls or cracks require an engineering eval- piece of concrete is available and fracture surfaces still
uation. Repair work requires expert craftsmanship if the mate, the easiest repair is to adhere the spalled concrete
end result is to be both structurally sound and pleasing back into place using an epoxy adhesive. The fractured
in appearance. Careful planning is required to determine surface of the panel and spalled piece should both be
whether the repairs can economically match the existing painted with the epoxy adhesive. Apply enough epoxy so
surface concrete both in color and texture and be struc- that some epoxy will squeeze out when the mated pieces
turally sound. In some cases, it may be more feasible to are clamped together. Use an epoxy with enough vis-
recast the panel. All patching and repairs should be fully cosity to prevent sagging or running on vertical surfaces.
cured, cleaned, and dry before installation of sealant in It may be necessary to drill through the spalled piece and
into the precast panel to set pins or bars to increase air blowing may be necessary to remove surface contam-
anchorage. inants. After cleaning of the joint area, the joint should
6.6.4 Crack repair- Panels may crack during trans- be wiped with a cloth dampened with an oil-free solvent,
portation and erection. Structural and visual acceptability or as recommended by the sealant manufacturer. To en-
of cracks should be determined by the engineer-architect sure good adhesion between the sealant and the panel
and owner (crack acceptability is discussed in Section concrete surface, some sealant manufacturers recommend
2.5.3.1). The repair method for a crack depends on its a primer. The sealant and primer combination should be
size, location, and the engineering problems causing the as recommended by the manufacturer. Some primers
crack. Cracks that are nonworking or have no significant leave an amber stain if brushed along the exposed panel
structural problems may be chipped or routed out and face. Removal of this stain often requires mechanical
repaired in the same way as chips and spalls (Section means and is expensive. Sealers or sealants should not be
6.6.3). applied directly over silicone or acrylic waterproof
Cracks that are relatively short but that require materials. Further information can be found in ACI
structural repair may be chipped or routed out to a 504R.
minimum depth of 1.5 times the aggregate size and filled 6.7.2 Sealant installation- Sealant application should
with a nonsagging epoxy adhesive or stiff mortar. Where be scheduled when the exterior temperature is from 40
the crack is on the exposed finish face of the panel, the to 90 F. Installation temperature may vary depending
epoxy repair preparation may be taken deeper into the upon sealant material, humidity, and protection available.
panel to allow for application of a surface patch mix to In cold weather, the joint and the sealant may be heated
match adjacent surfaces. depending upon the manufacturer’s recommendations.
6.6.4.1 Epoxy injection- Longer or deeper crack It is desirable to use the minimum amount of sealant
repairs may require epoxy injection using a low viscosity to make a satisfactory joint. A relatively thin bead is less
100 percent solids material. The epoxy color (amber, likely to fail than a thick bead because the thin bead can
gray, white or pigmented) should closely match the deform more uniformly. For joints up to 1/2 in. wide, the
exposed concrete surface. This approach can be used on depth of the sealant should equal the width. For wider
all cracks wider than about 0.002 in. Epoxy injection joints, the depth should equal half the width, but not
depends on temperature of the concrete and viscosity of more than 1/2 in.
the epoxy. The typical epoxy repair procedure is to: Sealant material should be delivered in the manufac-
. Clean the cracked area thoroughly. turer’s original sealed containers with labels intact.
. Drill holes for entry ports along the crack one-half Recommendations of the manufacturer should always be
the thickness of the precast panel and space entry ports followed regarding mixing, surface preparation, priming,
along crack at intervals approximately equal to the pot life and installation procedure. Good workmanship
thickness of the panel. by qualified experienced sealant applicators is the most
. Provide a temporary surface seal with either wax, important factor required for satisfactory performance.
grout, hydraulic cement or epoxy resin sealant. To ensure quality control, sealant subcontractors may
. Inject low viscosity 100 percent solids epoxy into prefer to mix all two-part sealants at their businesses,
ports beginning with the bottom or lowest port. A pres- load into cartridges, and then flash freeze the cartridges
sure of 90 psi is usually recommended. before delivery to the jobsite. If done properly, this will
. Continue to inject at lowest port until epoxy flows eliminate dust, dirt or moisture contamination. The
from the next highest port along the crack. sealant (caulking) gun should have a nozzle of proper
. Plug each injector port after it has been filled. size and should provide sufficient pressure to completely
fill the joint. Joint filling should be done carefully and
Continue the procedure until the entire crack has been completely, thoroughly working the sealant into the joint.
filled. After the epoxy has cured, remove the temporary The sealant should be smoothed and neatly tooled to
surface seals, ports, and extra epoxy. Surface texturizing eliminate air pockets or voids. Since some solutions used
or sandblasting of the repaired concrete area will be to facilitate tooling, have discolored lightly colored
necessary to remove all traces of epoxy or the surface concrete surfaces, tools should be used dry or wetted
seal coat. Further, more detailed, information can be only with water when working next to these surfaces. The
found in ACI 503R and ACI 503.1. final surface of the tooled sealant should fill the joint, be
smooth and free of ridges, wrinkles, sags and air pockets
6.7-Joint sealing (caulking) as much as possible. All sealant smears, primers, solvents
6.7.1 Joint preparation- Before application of a and other materials used in caulking or sealant work
sealant, concrete surfaces should be sound, smooth, clean should be removed immediately and entirely from adja-
and free of all mortar, dust, or other contaminants such cent surfaces as the work progresses. Use the solvent or
as form release agents that may affect adhesion. Some cleaning agent recommended by the sealant manufac-
sealant materials cannot be applied to wet surfaces; no turer, so long as it does not discolor the exposed surface
sealants should be applied to a frozen surface. Use of a of the precast panel.
stiff wire brush, light grinding or sandblasting followed by Backup fillers used in joints to control the depth of
FLUSH BUTT JOINT
RECESSED VERTICAL BUTT JOINT (LEAST DESIRABLE) RECESSED CORNER JOINT
HORIZONTAL
JOINT
\_ 1/2” x MAX.
AGGREGATE OR 3/4" MIN.
ALTERNATIVE PROFILE
RECESSED HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL BUTT JOINT CORNER JOINT DETAIL JOINTS IN PANELS WITH NARROW RIBS
2- 1/2" MIN.
3” PREFERRED
ALTERNATIVE PROFILE
Fig. 6.7.2-One-stage joints
sealant should be installed in the joint with a minimum thereby condensation.

compression of 30 percent. If heavy-wall, hollow-core 6.7.4 Fire-resistant joints - When installing a fire-
tubing, block, and rod stock are used as fillers, they resistant joint system, the fire-resisting blanket should be
should be compressed and rolled into the joint in such a installed under a minimum of 10 to 15 percent compres-
way as to avoid linear stretching. Filler rods or blocks sion.10
should not be twisted or braided during installation.
The sealant joints described above are called one-stage
joints. Several typical situations are shown in Fig. 6.7.2. CHAPTER 7-QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
6.7.3 Two-stage joints - When a two-stage joint (see AND TESTS
examples in Fig. 6.7.3) is used, proper venting and drain-
ing are absolutely necessary. All horizontal joints should 7.1-Introduction
have vent tubes, generally located at the junction of the 7.1.1 General - An effective quality assurance and
horizontal and vertical joints. Venting prevents water quality control program in the manufacturing of precast
(either from penetration or from condensation) from col- panels benefits the precaster by reducing the cost of
lecting between the wall structure and facing panels or repairing or remaking products due to errors in fabri-
within the panel joints, if both the exterior and interior cation. Quality control also reduces the chance of struc-
faces of the panels are sealed. tural failure due to reinforcing bars being omitted or
Vent tubes should be 1/4 to 3/8-in. inside diameter poly- mislocated. Precast erectors benefit when panels meet
vinyl chloride or other nonstaining materials. The vent tolerances so they do not have to spend extra time
tube should slope down to the exterior face of the panel looking for a satisfactory way to erect out-of-tolerance
and must penetrate the joint backup filler so that it panels. Overall benefits to the owner accrue in receiving
allows for free movement of air between the outside a structure that meets the requirements within the agreed
environment and the cavity. A minimum of two vent upon budget. The main objective of the quality assurance
tubes per panel or spacing at 6 to 10 ft on center should and quality control (QA/QC) program is to provide com-
be used. Vents should project at least 1/4 in. (6 mm) prehensive production inspection and testing so that
beyond the sealant exterior face. panels will be made within project tolerances and in
When installing a two-stage joint, apply the interior air compliance with the job specifications.
seal or sealant first. This will minimize the escape of 7.1.2 Materials - Project materials should be evalu-
warm moist air from the interior to the joint cavity, ated as they arrive to assure that they meet the specifica-
(a) Two-stage joint-horizontal-using gasket (b) Two-stage joint-horizontal-using field-

molded sealants
SEALANT (IF USED) MUST BE

DISCONTINUED AT INTERVAL S
(VERTICAL JOINTS) TO DRAIN AREA
BETWEEN IT AND AIR SEAL
MINIMUM
" PER INCH)
(c) Minimum requirement for elementary two- (d) Two-stage joint-vertical-using field-molded
stage joint sealants
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL ,112’; MIN.

----. __ ____ - - -.
SEALANT --
BACKING --
1 1/2"
1-1/2" -i-
t t
HORIZONTAL
SEALANT BEAD SEALANT DISCON D
AT HORIZONTAL JOINTS
t%!!;E
(20 DEG.SLOPE PREFER4 BL E) * REVERSE SEALANT AND BACKER ROD WHEN
SOME DESIGNS t
INSTALLED FROM FRONT EXTERIOR
WILL NOT USE FACE
HORIZONTA - L
BEAD.
(e) Modified two-stage joint with air chamber
EXTERIOR INTERIOR
CONTINUOUS AIRTIGHT SEAL

SLOPING GUTTER TO
VERTICAL JOINT (OPTIONAL) /c4”MlN.-mj
AIR CHAMBER (OPTIONAL) PROFILE AT
AIR CHAMBER
AIRTIGHT HORIZONTA ANLD VERTICAL INTERIOR

HORIZONTAL JOINT-m AIR SEA L- CONTINOUS AT INTERSECTIONS
PANEL PROFIL E
FLOOR VERTICALLY WHERE AIR CHAMBER
IS TERMINATED
SLOPE TO EXTERIOR
AIR CHAMBER ( OPTIONAL)
SECTION AT
VERTICAL JOINT
Fig. 6.7.3-Two-stage joints

tions. Inspection records should be kept in a concise, stains evident on the exposed surface
clear form and filed for future reference. Most projects Irregularities-ragged or irregular edges; visible form
require only minimal testing for concrete compressive joints or irregular surfaces
strength and absorption and will not require overly Nonuniform color and texture-panels not matching the
detailed inspection of materials. However, there are approved samples for uniformity of color within a panel
instances where extensive complicated testing, inspection, or from panel to panel; nonuniformity of aggregate color;
and control procedures are needed. This type of sophis- adjacent flat and return surfaces with greater difference
ticated quality control is beyond the scope of this guide. in exposure than the approved samples
7.1.3 QA/QC - Quality assurance and quality control Cracks and repairs-cracks or repairs visible at 30 ft
(QA/QC) programs can simplify and improve the interre- after final installation and finish.
lation among owner, engineer-architect, contractor, and
panel fabricator. In such a program, forms, reinforce- 7.3-Structural adequacy
ment, and embedments should be inspected before con- Precast panels should be inspected carefully to assure
crete placement. The face finish of the panel should be that they are structurally sound. When the inspector finds
inspected after the panel is cured and stripped from the cracks, chips, or spalls in a panel and is unsure of their
form. The finish surface of the panels should be impact, he should refer the problem to the engineer-
inspected for compliance with project requirements for architect so that the condition may be evaluated. Even
color uniformity and texture before shipment. Inspection though repairs may be structural, all repairs should match
procedures should be designed so that panel production the surrounding concrete and meet architectural require-
can proceed at a prescheduled pace with minimum delay. ments.
A good quality control program is simple and con-
sistent. Complicated plant procedures and controls lead 7.4-Prestressing
to uncertainty and confusion. All persons concerned with Prestressing procedures are described in Section 5.4.1.
production and inspection should be fully familiar with The strand must be kept untangled and free of any
specification provisions including the specified tolerances. material that will affect bond to concrete. Strand chucks
It is when tolerances are not properly identified and should be clean, well lubricated, and free of cracks.
anticipated that they are most likely to cause delay and Hydraulic jacks with gauging systems are normally
panel rejection. used to tension the strand. Gauge readings and elonga-
7.1.4 Product finish- There will always be some vari- tion measurements should be taken and recorded for
ation in the color, texture, and finish from panel to each strand being stressed. The gauges, which should be
panel. Acceptable panels should show no obvious surface accurate to within 1 percent of the applied pressure,
defects, other than minor color and texture variations, should be calibrated a minimum of once a year, or
when seen in good typical lighting at a distance of 20 ft. whenever there is cause to question the accuracy of the
The final appearance of the product is difficult to jack load.
evaluate because it is normally subject to the personal
interpretation of the engineer-architect or owner. Where 7.5-Materials
there is a great concern about the color, texture, or 7.5.1 General - The panel materials should be con-
uniformity of the panel, the owner should require mock- tinuously evaluated to assure that they meet their
up panels or samples as recommended in Section 1.4. respective specifications. In some cases, the material
Once the owner or engineer-architect has inspected the evaluation program involves only obtaining and reviewing
samples and selected an acceptable range of finish and mill or material supplier reports. However, in other
texture, the inspector has a tangible standard for situations, it may include extensive testing.
reference. 7.5.2 Reinforcing steel- Reinforcing steel should be
checked to see if it is the proper size and grade. If the
7.2-Unacceptable defects reinforcing steel is to be used as an anchor for welded
Cracks can usually be repaired. The precast fabricator embedment assemblies, the carbon equivalent should
should have an opportunity to make repairs before any meet AWS D.l.4 requirements.
panels are rejected. The following list gives definitions of 7.5.3 Welded assemblies - Welded embedment assem-
unacceptable panel defects that should not remain on the blies should be inspected to assure that the assemblies
finished panels: are fabricated properly with the correct size plates and
number of anchors. Welding procedures should be moni-
Casting defects-Excessive bug holes (air voids) on the tored to assure that welds have adequate strengths.
exposed surface; casting lines evident from different 7.5.4 Concrete - In many instances, concrete for pre-
placements and poor consolidation; areas of backup con- cast wall panels is batched at the site of panel fabrication
crete bleeding through the facing concrete; foreign because of the use of special cements and aggregates.
material embedded in the panel face; reinforcement The control and testing of this concrete is the respon-
shadow lines sibility of the precaster.
Stains-rust or other stains; blocking stains or acid 7.5.4.1 Cement -Cement should be evaluated for
its strength producing characteristics. The cement sup- evidence that the pigment is unsuitable.
plier should provide a certified mill test report with each
shipment and also data as outlined in ASTM C 150. Mill 7.6-Testing plastic concrete
test reports should be kept for at least 2 years. It is also 7.6.1 Consistency- The consistency of concrete
beneficial to obtain a 10 lb sample from each delivery should be tested at least once per day for each mix used.
and store it in an air-tight container for possible future A significant variation in consistency is a good indicator
evaluation in case strength or color problems occur. of variations from batch to batch in the air content, or a
7.5.4.2 Aggregates - Normal weight coarse aggre- change in aggregate moisture content, grading or density.
gates and fine aggregates should meet the requirements Two of the more common methods for measuring con-
of ASTM C 33, except for gradation of aggregates used crete consistency are the slump test and the Vebe consis-
in the face mix. Structural lightweight aggregates should tometer.
meet the requirements of ASTM C 330. All aggregates 7.6.1.1 Slump - The slump test is an easy, fairly
should be sampled in accordance with ASTM D 75, quick test which provides reliable information about the
tested for grading in accordance with ASTM C 136, and consistency of concrete. ASTM C 143 provides detailed
for specific gravity in accordance with ASTM C 128. instructions on the proper test procedure. A tolerance of
Aggregate tests should be made for every 200 cu yd of up to 1 in. above the maximum specified slump may be
concrete produced, but not less often than once every 2 allowed for individual batches provided the slump vari-
weeks. ation does not affect the appearance or other qualities of
7.5.4.3 Admixtures - Admixtures should meet one the concrete beyond the specification limits. Concrete of
of the following specifications: lower than usual slump may be used provided that it can
be properly placed and consolidated.
ASTM C 618 for mineral admixtures 7.6.1.2 Consistometer - The Vebe consistometer
ASTM C 260 for air-entraining admixtures subjects the concrete to a slump test on a vibrating table
ASTM C 494 for chemical admixtures (see ACI 211.3). The measure of the concrete consistency
is the time, in seconds, required to consolidate the slump
Chemical admixture materials should be evaluated in cone mass into a 93/8 in. diameter mass. Concretes that
the laboratory or in trial batches in the field to assure require a Vebe time of more than 61/2 seconds may be
compatibility with the cement used in the concrete. If the difficult to consolidate properly with internal vibration.
admixtures are to be used in architectural precast con- Concretes with Vebe times of less than 41/2 seconds have
crete, they should be evaluated for their effect on the excellent consolidation characteristics.
concrete color and the consistency of color. 7.6.2 Air content- The air content of air-entrained
7.5.4.4 Mixing water -If the water comes from a concrete should be tested at least once a day for each
municipal water system, it may be used in concrete with- mix design whenever strength test specimens are made.
out further testing. If the water comes from an unqual- An air content check should also be made when any of
ified source, it should be tested for use in concrete by the following changes occurs:
obtaining a chemical analysis and by making 2-in. mortar . The slump varies more than + 1 in.
cubes as described in ASTM C 109. Baseline data should . Temperature of the concrete varies more than *
be obtained using a proven water source. If the 7- and 10 F
28-day compressive strengths of concrete made with the . Finishing difficulties develop
unproven water source equal 90 percent of the compan- . Bleeding appears or increases
ion control, the water is satisfactory for use in concrete. . Aggregate grading changes significantly
7.5.4.5 Pigments- The pigment supplier should . There is a change in concrete mix design yield
certify that pigments or other coloring agents are resis-
tant to lime and other alkalies and conform to ASTM 7.6.3 Unit weight- Unit weight tests of backup con-
C 979. A simple test can be made by mixing 20 parts of crete should be carried out at least once per week for
cement with one part of the pigment, using sufficient each mix design used regularly, except for lightweight
water to form a buttery paste. The samples should be concrete which should be tested daily. When air content
kept moist and observed for several days. If considerable tests are made, it is usually quite easy to also determine
fading occurs, the pigments are unsuitable. Under these the plastic unit weight of the concrete.
test conditions, it is possible for the test samples to 7.6.4 Temperature- The temperature of plastic con-
develop efflorescence. The efflorescence should be crete should be recorded whenever strength specimens
removed with dilute muriatic (hydrochloric) acid or 5 are cast. In addition, concrete temperatures should be
percent phosphoric acid followed by copious washing recorded at the start of operations each day and at fre-
with water before the true color can be evaluated. It quent intervals in hot or cold weather. An armored ther-
takes time to test the durability of a color under the mometer accurate to _+ 2 F should remain in the sample
influence of light and sometimes a special artificial light until the reading stabilizes.
can be used to accelerate aging. Pronounced fading of a
colored mortar upon exposure to sunlight for 1 month is 7.7-Testing hardened concrete
7.7.1 General -Concrete mixes should meet the dura- 7.7.5 Molds - Molds for making test specimens
bility specifications and achieve the compressive strength should comply with applicable requirements of ASTM
criteria outlined in ACI 318, Chapter 4. Generally pre- C 31 and C 470. Heavy gauge reusable steel molds,
cast concrete develops strength in excess of the require- rather than single-use molds of paper or lightweight
ments for in-place loads. These higher compressive metal or plastic, are preferred. Any molds that become
strengths allow earlier stripping for reuse of forms, more distorted or do not comply with the dimensional re-
satisfactory attainment of architectural finishes, as well as quirements of the appropriate ASTM specification should
crack resistance during handling and installation. be discarded.
7.7.2 Durability -Due to the vertical orientation of 7.7.6 Compressive strength test specimens
most panels, critical saturation is seldom reached and 7.7.6.1 Test cylinders - Samples for strength tests
freeze-thaw durability has rarely been a major problem. should be taken on a strictly random basis as specified by
When durability tests are deemed desirable for precast ASTM C 172. If choice of times of sampling or the
concrete panels, the tests should follow the procedures of batches of concrete to be sampled are selected on the
ASTM C 666. A minimum allowable durability factor of basis of appearance, convenience, or other possibly
70 is recommended. Air entrainment is recommended for biased criteria, statistical concepts lose their validity. No
panels subject to freeze-thaw conditions, but a specified more than one test should be taken from a single batch
fixed air content level is not recommended (see Section and water should not be added after the sample is taken.
4.5.2). Four compression specimens should be made daily for
7.7.3 Absorption - A water absorption test of the each individual concrete mix (whether facing or backup
proposed facing mixes may provide an early indication of mix), or for each 40 cubic yards of any one mix where
weathering or potential staining properties of the con- the daily consumption exceeds this volume. Two speci-
crete. For the concrete strengths normally specified for mens should be used to determine the stripping strength,
architectural precast concrete, a reasonable water absorp- particularly if the mix is new and its history not well
tion should not be a problem unless cement-rich or high- known. However, one specimen may be sufficient as pro-
slump nonsuperplasticized mixes or both are used. duction progresses. For face mixes, the specimens nor-
7.7.3.1 Procedure for absorption tests - Specimens mally required for determining stripping strength may be
should be tested after the concrete is 28 days old. The omitted when the air temperature is higher than 50 F.
specimens should be dried in an oven at a temperature Test specimens should be made and stored as near as
between 180 and 225 F until the loss in weight in 24 possible to the location where they will be cured in
hours is less than 0.1 percent. Test samples should be accordance with ASTM C 31. Consolidation and finishing
allowed to cool to room temperature, weighed, and then procedures should closely follow ASTM C 31 and C 192
submerged in water to one-half the specimen height. requirements.
After 24 hours they should be submerged in water until Capping procedures should be as specified in ASTM
the water is flush with the specimen top. The water C 617 except when fast-setting high strength sulfur com-
should in both cases be maintained between 65 and 75 F. pounds, specially manufactured for capping, are used.
After another 24 hours, the specimens should be re- Compression testing may be performed after the recom-
moved, the surface water wiped off with a damp cloth, mended cure time for the capping compound.
and specimens weighed on a scale which has a resolution 7.7.6.2 Cube test specimens - Most of the require-
of 0.1 gram. The percentage absorption is the difference ments of Section 7.7.7.1 can be applied directly to cube
between wet weight and oven-dry weight, divided by the preparation and testing. Some slight deviations will be
dry weight and multiplied by 100. This value may be required in the consolidation of the concrete as a result
transformed to volume percentage based on the unit of different specimen size and shape. When using cubes,
weight of the concrete tested. The maximum water ab- it is reasonable to place the concrete in a single 4-in.
sorption for normal weight concrete face mixes should layer for the 4-in. cube and two 3-in. layers for a 6-in.
not exceed about 14 percent by volume. cube. Tamping or external vibration should be done in
The specimens should be clean and free of parting accordance with the appropriate ASTM specification.
agent, form release agent or sealer. Care should be taken Similar to the restrictions for 4-in. cylinders, internal
not to mix any of these agents into the concrete. vibration should not be used to consolidate either size of
7.7.4 Test specimens- Confusion and discrepancies cube.
exist in the selection of the size and shape of test spe- Measured compressive strength for cubes is generally
cimens. Many precast plants prefer 4 x 8-in. or 6 x 12-in. higher than that obtained with concrete cylinders made
cylinders. Others prefer 4-in. or 6-in. cubes for evaluating from the same concrete. Cube data correlation should be
absorption and compressive strength. Generally the made to standard 6 x 12 in. test cylinders if cubes are to
smaller specimens-the 4 x 8-in. cylinder and the 4-m be consistently used as the quality control specimen. If
cube-are not used when the maximum size of aggregate no correlation is available, it is recommended that 80
in the concrete mix is over 1.0 in. Test specimens should percent of the measured cube strength be used as an esti-
be consolidated, cured, and finished similarly to the mate of the strength of the same concrete when tested
products they represent. using cylinders.
7.7.6.3 Curing considerations - In the manufacture irregular cross section and damage from drilling. If the
of precast panels, initial curing of the concrete usually core sample must be broken, wooden wedges should be
takes place in the forms. Test specimens should be cured used to minimize the likelihood of damage. Allow an
with and by the same methods as the units they represent extra 2 in. of core length at the broken end to permit
up to the time of stripping the product from the form or sawing off ends to plane surfaces before capping.
mold. If the precast panel is to be steam cured, the test 7.7.7.2 Rebound hammer- Impact (rebound) ham-
specimen mold should be capable of withstanding ele- mer tests should not be used as acceptance tests for
vated temperature without significant distortion. precast panels, but they are of value for qualitative
When the precast panels are removed from their comparisons at the plant for the same job. The rebound
forms, the test specimens should also be removed from hammer test, conducted in accordance with ASTM
their molds and placed in a continuous moist condition C 805, can be used to locate areas of lower strength
at 73.4 & 3 F. This is the secondary stage of curing. An concrete or to track day-to-day variations in the pro-
alternate method for secondary curing may provide the duction concrete strength.
best measure of the potential strength of a particular 7.7.7.3 Pullout tests- The pull-out test, as
concrete mix. This method calls for approximately two described in ASTM C 900, provides a direct indication of
days of continuous moist curing after removal of the the tensile strength of the in-place concrete. This test
specimens from the molds, followed by storage at approx- involves drilling into hardened concrete and installing an
imately 50 percent relative humidity until the test sample expansion anchor or embedding an anchor disc during
is tested. Since this is not an ASTM designated proce- casting of the concrete. The expansion anchor or embed-
dure, it should be considered only after the engineer- ded anchor disc is pulled out perpendicular to the con-
architect evaluates ambient weather conditions for the crete surface, bringing with it a truncated cone of
project area. concrete. A relationship between pullout force and com-
7.7.7 Tests of finished panels - When questions arise pressive strength of the concrete can be developed for a
about adequate strength of a panel or series of panels, particular project by means of laboratory tests. Good
the quality of the actual concrete can best be established data correlation between field and laboratory compres-
by core tests. Alternate methods such as rebound ham- sion tests is required for this test to give valid results.
mer, pullout tests, and penetration probe tests have been These tests are typically done on the back of the precast
used along with pulse velocity testing. Depending on the panel where minimum repair is needed.
problem, some equipment and procedures may be better 7.7.7.4 Penetration probe- The penetration probe
than others in determining the strength of the concrete test, conducted according to ASTM C 803, is relatively
in the panel. nondestructive, reasonably accurate, and economical.
7.7.7.1 Core tests - Acceptance tests for compres- However, an established relationship between the com-
sive strength in the past have been limited to the taking pressive strength and probe test results must be
of cores. Test cores should always be prepared, condi- developed for each of the different concrete mixes used
tioned, tested and reported in accordance with the rein the precast panels. Once the background comparison
quirements of ASTM C 42. The average strength of three testing on concrete cores and cylinders has been done,
representative cores should be at least 85 percent of the the probe test can give reliable results. Since the amount
specified strength. No single core should be less than 75 of penetration is inversely proportional to the strength of
percent of that specified. The length-to-diameter ratio of concrete, a reading of concrete compressive strength is
the core sample should be as close to 2:l as possible. immediately obtained. Each probe leaves only a small
Any core showing evidence of damage before testing hole which can be easily filled with an epoxy patching
should not be tested and replaced with another core compound.
sample. 7.7.7.5 Pulse velocity- The principle of the ultra-
The engineer-architect should select the location for sonic test (ASTM C 597) is that the velocity of longi-
drilling cores where they will least impair the strength of tudinal ultrasonic pulses traveling in solid concrete
the structure and the exposed surface finish. Cores holes depends on the density and the elastic properties of the
can often be adequately patched without damage to the concrete. The test is not a substitute for other methods
appearance or integrity of a precast panel. When pos- of evaluating compressive strength, but it is a good
sible, cores should be drilled so that the core test load is method for detection of cracks and cavities, for examin-
applied in the same direction as the service load. Often ation of panel damage due to frost, fire, or chemical
top drilling of core samples minimizes or eliminates dam- attack and for assessment of the relative general quality
age to the panel face. Since almost all architectural of concrete.
precast panels are cast flat, top coring of the panel The test requires access to both sides of the panel. Its
produces a representative sample of concrete. Cores use for approximating in-place concrete strength by non-
taken perpendicular to the face of the panel may be up destructive means is limited to those cases where con-
to 15 percent weaker than cores taken parallel to the crete is sufficiently strong to allow pulse transmission at
face of the panel. velocities greater than 11,500 ft/sec. Correlations have
Cores should be drilled with a diamond bit to avoid an been established between pulse velocity and such proper-
ties of concrete as density, the static modulus of 318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
elasticity, and the dynamic modulus of elasticity. The Concrete
measured pulse velocity is an average velocity if the 318R Commentary for Building Code Requirements
facing and backup concrete are significantly different. for Reinforced Concrete
503R Use of Epoxy Components with Concrete
7.8-Documentation 503.1 Standard Specification for Bonding Hardened
Record keeping is an essential part of any quality Concrete, Steel, Wood, Brick and Other
control program. Management should establish, distri- Materials to Hardened Concrete with Multi-
bute, and update operational procedures for record Component Epoxy Adhesive
keeping so that every person employed in the precasting 504R Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Struc-
operation knows what documentation is required. The tures
documentation need not be elaborate; it may require 517.2R Accelerated Curing of Concrete at Atmos-
only an outline or the completion of a simple data form. pheric Pressure-State of the Art
But it is an important part of implementing quality con- 546R Guide for Repairing Concrete Bridge Super-
trol through control of materials, control of concrete structures
mixes, control of production, control of handling, and 551R Tilt-Up Concrete Structures
control of technical services.
Precasters should develop a rational system of analy- American Society for Testing and Materials
zing the production test results and keeping records on A 36 Specification for Structural Steel
materials, breakage/damage, and rejection/rework. Data A 108 Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon, Cold-
concerning inspection and test results should be recorded Finished, Standard Quality
and reviewed particularly when evaluating new materials A 128 Specification for Steel Castings, Austentic
and products. Record keeping must be such that the Manganese
characteristics of all precast panels can be identified with A 153 Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on
a specific mark number that may be tied to a certain Iron and Steel Hardware
mold or form on a specific date. A 185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire, Fabric,
Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
A 276 Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting
CHAPTER 8-REFERENCES Steel Bars and Shapes
A 307 Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs,
8.1-Recommended references 60,000 psi Tensile
A 325 Specification for High-Strength Bolts for
American Concrete Institute Structural Steel Joints
117 Standard Specifications for Tolerances for A 416 Specification for Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-
Concrete Construction and Materials Relieved Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for A 421 Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved
Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete Wire for Prestressed Concrete
211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for A 490 Specification for Heat-Treated, Steel Structur-
Structural Lightweight Concrete al Bolts, 150 ksi (1035 MPa) Tensile Strength
211.3 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for A 496 Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for
No-Slump Concrete Concrete Reinforcement
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete A 497 Specification for Welded Deformed Steel Wire
222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete Fabric for Concrete Reinforcement
224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures A 516 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Car-
224.1R Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in bon Steel, for Moderate- and Lower-Temper-
Concrete Structures ature Service
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for A 582 Specification for Free-Matching Stainless and
Buildings Heat-Resisting Steel Bars, Hot-Rolled or
304R Recommended Practice for Measuring, Mix- Cold-Finished
ing, Transporting and Placing Concrete A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-
304.2R Placing Concrete by Pumping Methods Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
304.3R High Density Concrete: Measuring, Mixing, A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and
Transporting and Placing Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete A 617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and
309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
309.2R Identification and Control of Consolidation- A 706 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed
Related Surface Defects Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
315 Details and Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement A 722 Specification for Uncoated High-Strength
533R-54
Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete ened Concrete

A 767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) C 900 Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Concrete
A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing C 962 Guide for Use of Elastomeric Joint Sealants
Steel Bars C 979 Specification for Pigments for Integrally Col-
A 779 Specification for Steel Strand, Seven Wire Un- ored Concrete
coated Compacted, Stress-Relieved for Pre- D 757 Practices for Sampling Aggregates
stressed Concrete E 488 Test Method for Strength of Anchors in Con-
A 884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and crete and Masonry Elements
Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement
C 31 Test Methods of Making and Curing Concrete American Institute of Steel Construction
Test Specimens in the Field Code of Standard Practice: For Steel Building and
C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates Bridges
C 42 Methods of Obtaining and Testing Drilled
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete American Welding Society
C 94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete AWS Dl.l Structural Welding Code - Steel
C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hy- AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing
draulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-mm Steel
Cube Specimens)
C 136 Test Method for Size and Bulk Density of Re- Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
fractory Brick and Insulating Firebrick Manual of Standard Practice
C 143 Test Method or Slump of Portland Cement Placing Reinforced Bars
Concrete
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
C 172 Method of Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete PCI Design Handbook: Precast and Prestressed Con-
C185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic crete, Fourth Edition, (MNL-120)
Cement Mortar Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production
C 227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of of Architectural Precast Concrete (MNL-117)
Cement-AggregateCombinations(Mortar-Bar Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production
Method) of Precast and Prestressed Concrete Products, Third
C 260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures Edition (MNL-116)
for Concrete Tolerances for Precast and Prestressed Concrete (JR-
C 289 Test Method for Potential Reactivity of Aggre- 307)
gates (Chemical Method) Design and Typical Details of Connections for Precast
C 330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for and Prestressed Concrete, Second Edition, (MNL-123)
Structural Concrete Architectural Precast Concrete, Second Edition,
C 331 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for (MNL-122)
Concrete Masonry Units PCI Drafting Handbook - Precast and Prestressed
C 403 Specification for Time of Setting Concrete Concrete, Second Edition (MNL-119)
Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
C 470 Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Model Building Codes
Test Cylinders Vertically Uniform Building Code
C 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for
Concrete 8.2-Cited references
C 597 Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Con- 1. ACI Committee 533, “Quality Standards and Tests
crete for Precast Concrete Wall Panels, ACI JOURNAL , Pro-
C 617 Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical ceedings, V. 66, April 1969.
Concrete Specimens 2. ACI Committee 533, “Selection and Use of Mater-
C 618 Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined ials for Precast Concrete Wall Panels,” ACI JOURNAL,
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admix- Proceedings, V. 66, Oct. 1969.
ture in Portland Cement Concrete 3. ACI Committee 533, “Fabrication, Handling and
C 641 Test Method for Staining Materials in Light- Erection of Precast Concrete Wall Panels,” ACI
weight Concrete Aggregates JOURNAL , Proceedings, V. 67, April 1970, p. 310-340.
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to 4. ACI Committee 533, “Design of Precast Concrete
Rapid Freezing and Thawing Wall Panels,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 68, July
C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of 1971, p. 504-513.
Hardened Concrete 5. ACI Committee 533, “Symposium on Precast Con-
C 805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hard- crete Wall Panels,” ACI Special Publication SP-11,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1965, Efficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete for Plant-
143 pp. Produced Prestressed Concrete,” PCI Journal, V. 23 No.
6. PCI Board Ad Hoc Committee for Responsibility 2, Mar.-Apr. 1982, pp. 94-107.
for Design of Precast Concrete Structures, “Recommen- 9. Greening, N.R. and Landgren, J.R., “Surface
dations on Responsibility for Design and Construction of Discoloration of Concrete Flatwork,” Journal of the
Precast Concrete Structures,” PCI Journal, V. 33, No. 4, P.C.A. Research and Development Laboratories, V. 8, No.
Jul.-Aug. 1988, pp. 44-52. 3, Sept. 1966, pp. 34-50.
7. Gaylord, Edwin H., Jr. and Gaylord, Charles N 10. Gustaferro, A.H. and Abrams, M.S., “Fire Tests of
(editors), “Structural Engineering Handbook,” Third Joints between Precast Concrete Wall Panels: Effects of
Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing, 1990. Various Joint Treatments,” PCI Journal, V., 20, No. 5,
8. Pfeifer, Donald W., and Landgren, Robert, “Energy- Sept./Oct. 1975.
METRIC CONVERSION
Conversion to International System of Units (SI)
To convert from to
- mu1tiply by
Length
inch (in.) millimeter (mm) 25.4
inch (in.) meter (m) 0.0254
foot (ft) meter (m) 0.3048
yard (yd) meter (m) 0.9144
Area
square foot (sq ft) square meter (sq m) 0.09290
square inch (sq in.) square millimeter (sq mm) 645.2
square inch (sq in.) square meter (sq m) 0.0006452
square yard (sq yd) square meter (sq m) 0.8361
Volume
cubic inch (cu in.) cubic meter (cu m) 0.00001639
cubic foot (cu ft) cubic meter (cu m) 0.02832
cubic yard (cu yd) cubic meter (cu m) 0.7646
gallon (gal) Can. liquid* liter 4.546
gallon (gal) Can. liquid* cubic meter (cu m) 0.004546
gallon (gal) U.S. liquid* liter 3.785
gallon (gal) U.S. liquid* cubic meter (cu m) 0.003785
Force
kip kilogram (kgf) 453.6
kip newton (N) 4448.0
pound (lb) kilogram (kgf) 0.4536
pound (lb) newton (N) 4.448
Pressure or Stress
kips/square inch (ksi) magapascal (MPa)? 6.895
pound/square foot (psf) kilopascal (kPa)T 0.04788
pound/square inch (psi) kilopascal (kPa)t 6.895
pound/square inch (psi) megapascal (MPa)? 0.006895
pound/square foot (psf) kilogram/square meter (kgf/sq m) 4.882
Mass
pound (avdp) kilogram (kg) 0.4536
ton (short, 2000 lb) kilogram (kg) 907.2
ton (short, 2000 lb) tonne (t) 0.9072
grain kilogram (kg) 0.00006480
tonne kilogram (kg) 1000
Mass (weight) per Length
kip/linear foot (klf) kilogram/meter (kg/m) 0.001488
pound/linear foot (plf) kilogram/meter (kg/m) 1.488
pound/linear foot pIf) newton/meter (N/m) 14.593
Mass per volume (density)

pound/cubic foot (pcf) kilogram/cubic meter 16.02
pound/cubic yard (pcy) kilogram/cubic meter 0.5933
Bending Moment or Torque

inch-pound (in.-lb) newton-meter 0.1130
foot-pound (ft-lb) newton meter 1.356
foot-kip (ft-k) newton-meter 1356
Temperature
degree Fahrenheit (deg F) degree Celsius (C) tc=(tF-32)/1.8
degree Fahrenheit (deg F) degree Kelvin (K) tk=(tF+459.7)/1.8
Other
Section modulus (in.3) mm3 16.387
Moment of inertia (in.4) mm4 416.231
Coefficient of heat transfer
(Btu/ft2h/F) W/m2/C 5.678
Modulus of elasticity (psi) MPa 0.006895
Thermal conductivity
(But(Btu-2in.ft2/h/F)
(Btu-in./ft /h/F) Wm/m2/C 0.1442
Thermal expansion in./in./F mm/mm/C 1.800
Area/length (in.2/ft) mm2/m 2116.80
* One U.S. gallon equals 0.8321 Canadian gallon

t A Pascal equals one newton/square meter
ACI 533R-93 was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was approved
according to Institute balloting procedures.

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ACI 533R-93

Guide for Precast Concrete Wall Panels

George F. Baty W. Calvin McCall

ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and

4.8-Inserts and miscellaneous hardware response to client needs.

rection. clearly stated in the contract documents how long the

Panel types: dary forces caused by deflection, variable moment of

Exposed aggregate surface

tectural facing concrete

Fig. 2.3.1.2-Effective thickness of architectural faced panels

Ig = Uncracked moment ot Inertia

Fig. 2.3.1.3-Effective thickness of solid, hollow-core, or ribbed panels

panels should be based on requirements of concrete

h = h 1 or h3 (if wythes are not considered composite)

Design of water drip in relation to Drip or gutter incorporated into head

3/8 ANCHOR WITHIN 6” EACH

EXPERIMENTAL GUTTER INSTALLED

Fig. 2.7.2.1-Design of water drip in relation to slope

Fig. 3.2.3-Local smoothness variations

CROSS SECTION OF FACADE

Fig. 3.2.2-Differential bowing of panels

movement caused by volume change, temperature effects,

steel. for rejection. If these tolerances are exceeded, the en-

dimensions. critical when interior surfaces are exposed to view. A

p = Position of inserts for

a = Length f 1/2 in.

-8LDG.Y GRID DATUM

--BLDG. X GRID DATUM

PRECAST CONCRETE PANEL

BLDG. ELEV. DATUM

Fig. 3.6.1-Erection tolerances for precast wall panels

BLDG. Y GRID DATUM

Fig. 3.6.2-Structural wall panels

Footings, caisson caps, and pile caps

Between adjacent precast member Y2 in. 4.1-Introduction

Table 4.4.1.3-Typical industry size specifications for exposed aggregate

Percent of indicated size aggregate passing

mentary requirements. ware used with exposed insert connections, should be

tained with methyl methacrylate forms of acrylic resin on 4.11-Chemical retarders

Fig. 5.1.2-Precasting plant and storage yard

Fig. 5.2.1.1-Mold for casting precast panel

Fig. 5.2.1.2-Panel stripped from mold

mold adjustments (see Fig. 5.2.1.3).

assemblies and disassemblies of the mold will be .

required. Properly designed steel molds have great poten-

Fig. 5.2.7-Form liner relief patterns

Chemical surface retarders

Surface treatment of hardened concrete requires more

Additional finishes and further discussion of finish

Panels with large or steep returns (such as channel

Fig. 5.6.2.1-Aggregate exposed using surface retarders

Fig. 5.6.3-Aggregate exposed by sandblasting

Fig. 5.9-Delivery/transportation of panels

support for safety and economy 6.3-Jobsite storage

Fig. 6.7.2-One-stage joints

sealant should be installed in the joint with a minimum thereby condensation.

(a) Two-stage joint-horizontal-using gasket (b) Two-stage joint-horizontal-using field-

SEALANT (IF USED) MUST BE

HORIZONTAL VERTICAL ,112’; MIN.