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http://www.cigre.org 14-110 © CIGRÉ

Load-flow control in EHV networks

Feasibility study on the possibilities of application of FACTS
elements in the German power system

R. Gampenrieder B. Gick T. Weß M. Häusler

(Bayernwerk, München) (FGH, Mannheim) (FGH, Mannheim) (ABB, Mannheim)

J. Rittiger W. Glaunsinger*) U. Zimmermann

(Siemens, Erlangen) (Deutsche Verbund- (Deutsche Verbund-
gesellschaft, Heidelberg) gesellschaft, Heidelberg)

(Germany)

Summary A concrete solution concept is described below as an

example of superordinate FACTS control (master con-
In the framework of a feasibility analysis, the troller).
possibilities of using Flexible-AC-Transmission-
Systems (FACTS) in the closely meshed German grid
were investigated under technical and economic Keywords:
aspects. The calculations were carried out on the basis Load-flow control - overload area - network meshing -
of a realistic model network. current limitation - control power - efficiency - master
controller - interaction - temporary/permanent control
The results of the model calculations show that the use action - transit conduct - coordination.
of FACTS elements in the closely meshed German
power system with a view to increasing the
transmission capacity can be profitable only in the 1 Introduction
case of a high load increase with generation partly
remote from consumption centres and with Flexible-AC-Transmission-Systems (FACTS) are net-
considerable superimposed power transports. In such work elements which permit a very rapid change of
cases, FACTS elements are temporarily used until their electric parameters by means of power electronic
remedy of the overload situation. equipment; they can thus be used for a wide variety of
From the technical point of view, the use of FACTS control functions in electric power systems.
elements could be particularly advisable if they carry
out additional functions, such as damping of low-fre- The technology of FACTS elements being relatively
quency oscillations. new, the effects of their use in the meshed German
power system were hardly known to date.
Under competitive aspects, FACTS elements basically Therefore, discussions on this issue were mainly based
permit to influence power flows for strategic purposes on industry publications and on the experience gained
which require a permanent action of FACTS elements. by a few foreign network operators which are using
In the concrete case, the desired load-controlling FACTS elements for special applications.
effects necessitate a high technical expenditure which
has to be compared to the economic benefit of power By means of a model analysis describing the use of
transmission by means of FACTS. FACTS elements in a model network with
The model analysis permitted to derive basic technical characteristic topological conditions of the German
findings as well as the requirements that have to be met power system, the benefits and drawbacks of a
by a load-flow control concept. However, a verification utilization of this technology in German transmission
on quantitative terms can only be obtained through a networks are analyzed assuming realistic load, load-
concrete case of planning. coverage and transmission scenarios.

*)
Deutsche Verbundgesellschaft e. V., Ziegelhäuser Landstr. 5, 69120 Heidelberg
 2

The "Forschungsgemeinschaft für Hochspannungs- und eration in the capacitive range. Particular advantages of
Hochstromtechnik e. V." (FGH)/Mannheim carried out the equipment are the compact construction and the
the necessary calculations and analyses commissioned generation of reactive current irrespective of the net-
by the "Deutsche Verbundgesellschaft e.V." (DVG)/ work voltage.
Heidelberg; the work was closely coordinated with the
DVG and its member companies as well as with the 2.2 Influence on the impedance
German industry. The impedance of a transmission line can be influenced
Essential results are described and explained from the through series compensators. Thyrisor-controlled series
DVG companies' planning point of view. Adequate compensation (TCSC, Figure 2.3) offers the possibility
conclusions are also drawn from the study [1]. of continuous and rapid changes of the impedance [6].
This permits rapid load-flow changes in a meshed net-
2 FACTS elements for load-flow control work as well as damping of power oscillations or of
possible subsynchronous oscillations.
Load flows in alternating-current networks can be
concept operating diagram inadmissible
influenced primarily through the three parameters: area
IL |Z|
"voltage", "impedance" and "transmission angle". One
or several of these parameters can be simultaneously I Th
controlled by the electronic power equipment already capacitive
inductive
available or under development. [2, 3].
attributes 90 ° ignition angle α 180°

load-flow voltage transient steady-state

2.1 Influence on the voltage control control stability stability
Voltage in a transmission network can be effectively ** * ** ***
controlled by means of a static var compensator (SVC, Figure 2.3: Thyristor-controlled series compensation,
Figure 2.1). Within the operating diagram, the compen- TCSC
sator can reach through its control any point within
some periods of the network frequency. Static Similar to static compensators, this equipment has also
compensators constitute a technique that has been experienced an advanced development by using the
introduced for a long time [4]. GTO technology. A transformer connected at the
secondary side to a GTO converter with d.c. link is
concept operating diagram connected in series with the line (Figure 2.4). The
UN UN
generation of a boost voltage advancing or lagging
I
behind the line current by 90° affects the voltage drop
caused at the line reactance analogously to the series
US
compensation.
attributes Iind Icap concept operating diagram
UT I capacitve
load-flow voltage transient steady-state inductive
control control stability stability I

* *** * *
Figure 2.1 : Static var compensator, SVC UT
attributes
STATCOM represents an advanced development of Id load-flow voltage transient steady-state
control control stability stability
static compensators (Figure 2.2) [5]. By means of the
GTO-static converter, the plant can produce inductive Ud ** * ** ***

and capacitive reactive power. Figure 2.4: GTO-controlled series compensation,

GTO-CSC
concept operating diagram UN
UN
2.3 Influence on the voltage angle
I The voltage angle can be changed through a quad boost
transformer. Classical transformers of this kind can
US only provide a coarse-step and (owing to the
mechanical tap-changer) slow adjustment of the quad
attributes Iind Icap voltage. To achieve a higher speed and continuity of
load-flow voltage transient steady-state voltage changes in a cross direction, the quad boost
Id control control stability stability
transformer can be equipped with a thyristor-controlled
UD * *** * * tap changer (thyristor-controlled quad boost
Figure 2.2 : STATCOM transformer, TC-QBT, Figure 2.5) [7].
A capacitor bank which is required for the conventional
static compensator is thus no longer necessary for op-

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concept vector diagram 3.2 Load-flow control, permanent action

UT Ua UT In the case of natural (uncontrolled) power transmis-
sions, power flows spread over parallel transmission
Ua Ub
Ub
branches throughout the power system, according to
partial impedances. If a shift of certain transmissions to
attributes predetermined areas (corridor) is requested, it can also
load-flow voltage transient steady-state be implemented by means of the FACTS elements de-
control control stability stability
scribed above. For this purpose, the FACTS elements
*** ** * **
must be in operation permanently.
Figure 2.5 : TC-QBT
FACTS-elements with predetermined quad voltage
2.4 Unified Power-Flow Controller being also fully effective in the case of low power flows,
The equipment described above is able to influence one they are better suited than those with controlled
of the three parameters leading to a change in power reactances which develop their full efficiency at rated
flows. The unified power-flow controller (UPFC, Figure current.
2.6) can simultaneously modify several of these
parameters; it thus offers the possibility of controlling In the following, a distinction is made between two
power flows as well as dynamic network phenomena. control procedures.
The GTO static converter 2 can feed a boost UT to the Direct control means that the FACTS elements are di-
line through the transformer's series winding and rectly connected to some or to all circuits of thetrans-
control the active power flow and the voltage Ub mission corridor (left-hand side of Figure 3.1).
independently of each other. In addition, the GTO Non-direct control means that the FACTS elements are
static converter 1 can independently control the voltage installed on the connection lines between the corridor
Ua. The universal power-flow controller thus constitutes and the surrounding network (right-hand side of Figure
a combination of the STATCOM and the GTO series 3.1).
compensator [8].
concept UT vector diagram UT
Regarding the effects of the transits on third networks
Ub
not involved, a distinction is made between complete
Ua
and incomplete conduct of the transit.
GTO-
Ua Ub
In the case of the complete transit conduct represented
converter 2
in Figure 3.1, FACTS elements control the power flows
attributes along the complete transit route.
GTO-
converter 1
load-flow voltage transient steady-state Incomplete transit conduct occurs in the case of failure
control control stability stability
of one of the FACTS elements which is simply
*** ** *** ***
bypassed in such a case without causing failure of the
Figure 2.6 : Unified power-flow controller, UPFC connected line. This gives rise to more or less
important parallel flows in third networks which are
3 Principles of the use of FACTS elements not involved.
3.1 Line current limitation, temporary action
direct control, non-direct control,
Heavily loaded transmission lines in a network area completely conducted completely conducted
with transmission capacity shortfall can suffer overload
as a result of the loss of parallel lines. The installation transit path F F F
transit path
of FACTS elements on such lines permits to limit the F F
line current to admissible values. The current limitation load load
infeed F F F infeed
of jeopardized lines can be achieved by FACTS
elements for quad voltages' or reactances' control. With
active current limiting function, lines protected by
FACTS elements show the performance of a current Figure 3.1: Possibilities of transit control
source with high internal resistance. F = FACTS element
To limit the expenditure in FACTS elements, their use
has to be restricted to lines with high overload probabil- However, an incompletely conducted transit can be
ity. In the case of network changes of longer duration, intended to reduce the number of necessary FACTS
non-stationary FACTS elements could be used in places elements, on condition that third parties are affected
where they are most profitable. only in the framework of agreed-upon limits.
As the current-limiting elements must be effective only
during the period of overload, their operation is limited As a result, a completely conducted transit is not visible
in time. to the surrounding network and the remaining power
flows in the interconnected network remain unchanged

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or develop in accordance with agreements concluded After determination of the particular applications, the
for the operation of the interconnected network. technical, operational and economic advantages and
drawbacks of this equipment were to be compared to
3.3 Efficiency of FACTS elements conventional solutions.
The efficiency of a FACTS element on its location can On the basis of model transmission scenarios, the
be determined by means of the ratio of the necessary impact which the use of FACTS elements for load-flow
control voltage UT to the resulting change of the line control would have on interconnected operation under
current ∆I. The efficiency depends on the following competition aspects was to be analysed subsequently,
parameter factors: and conclusions should be drawn on the technical,
− inverse value of the internal network impedance at operational and organizational consequences.
the point of installation (ZNET in figure 5.3), Furthermore, the required investment expenditure was
− operation of additional FACTS devices nearby in assessed by means of an example.
parallel with the place of installation.
5 Results
The second influence factor can be reduced to the first 5.1 Use of FACTS elements with temporary
one as the application of a FACTS element determines operation for current limitation
the resulting internal network impedance.
In the case of major changes of the network topology, 5. 1.1 Areas with capacity shortfalls
an adaption of the control voltage of the FACTS Significant overloads on lines in the model network
elements may be necessary. For this reason, adequate were observed in the case of a distinct load increase
system state indications are required for operation. with simultaneous imports (2500 MW) and orthogonal
4 Objectives and methodology of the study superposition of a 3000-MW-transit after failure of
The model analysis was based on a model network rep- critical interconnecting lines and generating units.
resenting characteristic topological conditions of the For these cases, two areas with capacity shortfalls were
interconnected German 380 kV network. determined in the model network (cf. Figure 5.1 and
The model network comprises approximately 200 sites Table 5.1):
of switching and transformer stations fed by model gen- − area 1 of a central position in the model network;
erating units, as well as a model surrounding. The local overloads due to failures.
active power supplied from the 380 kV network to non- − area 2 at the periphery of the model network;
modelled subordinated networks totalled some 45 GW overloads over the entire area as a result of failures.
in the base case with generation close to consumption Important characteristics of the areas with capacity
centres. The network mainly consisted of double-circuit shortfall are represented in Table 5.1.
overhead lines, circuit lengths varying between 30 and In the case of outage of a 1300 MW power station and a
100 km. simultaneous circuit failure, the circuit overloads regis-
The following aspects of the use of FACTS were to be tered in area 1 amount to 46 % and those in area 2 vary
analysed in principle: between 14 % and 55 %.
− Can FACTS elements be integrated into network Problems concerning voltage control were not observed.
planning in addition to classical components? Therefore, the types of FACTS SVC, STATCOM and
− What technical and operational prerequisites for the UPFC were not taken into consideration in the subse-
use of FACTS have to be satisfied in an electric quent analyses.
power system and which consequences result there-
from?
− Do FACTS elements permit to obtain an economic
benefit or do they contribute to a more efficient net-
work operation?
− To what extent can other investments into the net-
work development be delayed through the use of
FACTS elements?

As a first step, load-flow and stability analyses were

used as a basis to determine the possible applications of
FACTS elements for the purpose of
− load-flow control and increase of the network's
transmission capacity in the (n-1) case,
− improvement of voltage control and
− improvement of the dynamic system behaviour.

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380 kV power system

FACTS elements limit the line currents to admissible
values (here: 100 % Id).

UT I d
E

I
U
3

Figure 5.2: Definition of FACTS variables

150 MVA 150 MVA
F
UT control voltage
Id Continously admissible line current
S T = 3 ⋅U T ⋅I d control power (VA rating)

380 kV power system 5.1.3 Mutual influence

FACTS elements with activated current-limiting
function act like current sources with very high internal
L M
resistance (cf. section 3). From the viewpoint of the
H1L 105
MVA remaining network, these network branches constitute
each
244
G
an open link; the internal network impedance at the
H MVA
point of installation ZNET is additionally increased.
For FACTS elements arranged in parallel as in Fig-
120
MVA
320 MVA ure 5.3, this means a decrease in their efficiency and
J
550 550 thus an increase of the necessary control power. This
MVA MVA has to be taken into consideration at the planning stage.
If several FACTS elements are effective in the form of
K a series connection, this may give rise to a reduction of
the necessary control capacity of the different elements.

380 kV power system

Figure 5.1: a) Area 1 Zj
b) Area 2
ZA
lines
Table 5.1: Characteristics of areas with capacity ZB
shortfall FACTS A
Aspect area 1 area 2
Zi Zk
reason of overloadfailure of one system of failure of any one of active adjacent FACTS
the double-circuit line the circuits in
Figure 5.1b FACTS B
place of overload adjacent circuit up to two circuits
simultaneously ZNET
number of control 2 7
elements Z NET

position central peripheral Figure 5.3: Impact of adjacent active FACTS-

elements on the efficiency at the place
5.1.2 Dimensioning of FACTS elements of installation
When determining the necessary control power of the
FACTS elements, it is assumed that only those FACTS
elements become effective whose line circuit would be 5.1.4 Dynamic behaviour
overloaded if no control action was taken. Non-active Apart from the aforementioned steady-state behaviour
FACTS elements are bypassed. The variables used are of FACTS elements in the network, the dynamic
illustrated in Figure 5.2. behaviour was investigated for three-phase short
The efficiency of the FACTS elements depends on the circuits in the network. Network oscillations were very
topology (impedance conditions) of the surrounding well damped, cf. Figure 5.4. Transient stability is
network so that the amount of overload does not permit slightly improved as compared to operation without
to draw an immediate conclusion on the necessary con- FACTS elements. Transient voltage reductions in the
trol power. Figure 5.1 shows the required control ca- event of network faults are of a similar order as in the
pacities of the different FACTS elements determined case of operation without FACTS elements. However,
from the results of the load-flow calculation. The the impact of FACTS elements on transient stability

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and the amount of transient voltage reductions depend bypassed again until line overloads are no longer likely
on the type of FACTS. to occur. The increased inductance in series with the
line circuit tends to have an unfavourable effect on the
30 kV network dynamics.
UG,L1-L2
15 kV Quad boost transformer:
Owing to the low speed of adjustment of the tap-
0 kV changer, presetting is required so as to limit the line
0s 5s 10 s
80° current to the continuously admissible current
ϑG immediately after opening the bypass switch.
Generally, this is only possible in clear-cut cases and
40°
may possibly not be implemented in the case of use of
several control elements in a certain area. Contrary to
0° series reactors, a fine-step adjustment of the line
0s 5s 10 s
4 kA current can be realized within a few minutes.
IH-H1L
2 kA Construction of new lines:
The construction of a new line or strengthening of an
0 kA existing line constitutes the most effective measure.
0s 5s 10 s Apart from the prevention of overloads (the aforemen-
Time
tioned current-limiting means are not required in this
case) further advantages are the increase in system reli-
Figure 5.4: Three-phase short circuit 150 ms in G on a ability, improvement of network dynamics and voltage
circuit G-H1L (see Figure 5.1) stability as well as reduction of transmission losses.
—— a) without FACTS In the case of wide-spread overloads, the only remedy
--- b) with TC-QBT consists in the construction of new lines.
without using PSS in power
stations 5.1.6 Comparison of the economic efficiency of
UG terminal voltage of generator G FACTS elements with conventional equipment
ϑG rotor displacement angle of
generator G The economic analysis took account of all cost compo-
I H − H 1L line current nents which can be assessed in the framework of a
model analysis regardless of the particular financing or
Normally, FACTS elements work autonomously, i. e. project conditions. These cost components are
only on the basis of locally measured variables (such as • investments in plant and equipment until
line current). The use of several FACTS elements in commissioning,
the model network did not require a coordination of • current operating costs,
their controllers. • possible reinvestments after expiration of the
components' service life,
5.1.5 Operation of conventional equipment • residual values after expiration of the period under
Conventional equipment inserting an inductive consideration,
reactance or quad voltage on the overloaded line suit as • savings in cost of losses.
well for current limitation. Just as FACTS elements,
they have to be connected in series with the circuit, and The latter can only be taken into consideration for the
have to be activated in the case of line overload through variant "construction of new lines", as contrary to con-
opening of the bypass breaker. Current limitation must trol elements, the line is continuously operated. Owing
become effective within a few seconds to prevent a to the high system load assumed in the model network,
disconnection of the affected line and possible savings in the cost of losses play an important role in
subsequent disconnections of further lines. The the economic valuation.
corresponding requirements can be met by a series
reactor or by a conventional quad boost transformer. Figure 5.5 shows for the variants considered the
ranking order of cash values for a period of 30 years
Series reactor: corresponding to the service life of FACTS elements.
The series reactor has to be designed in such a way that The Figure reveals that FACTS elements are more cost-
the line current is limited to values below the intensive than conventional equipment for power-flow
continuously admissible current in the case of the most control. The resulting cash value of the "series reactor"
adverse failure situation. The series reactor must not be

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reference variant was determined at about 16 million According to [9], the equations indicated below for the
DM concerning the situation shown in Figure 5.1. control voltage UT and the control power ST are ob-
tained in the case of complete power conduct with a
high degree of meshing, short line lengths and
GTO-CSC 390%
moderate line loads (see also Figure 5.2):
TC-QBT 340% X
UT = PT (1)
TCSC 220% 3U
Conventional
180% I d ⋅X
QBT ST = 3 PT (2)
U
Series reactor 100%

AC line, loss
The required control power thus depends on the
reduction low 160% amount of the transit power PT, the reactance X of the
AC line, loss circuit in series with a FACTS element and on the
-35%
reduction high phase-to-phase voltage U at the place of installation of
0% 200% 400% the FACTS element.
infeed infeed
a) 300 MW b) 300 MW
Figure 5.5: Ranking order of the cost of variants,
related to the "series reactor" variant
1 1
(service life: 30 years)
F
72MVA

The "line construction" variant appears to be cost-effi- 2 2

cient which is attributable to the continuous operation F
57MVA
and savings in the cost of losses in the total system. 3 3
Particularly in the case of high network loading, F F F Σ 163MVA
network E 45MVA
savings can largely offset or even exceed the cost
4 4
expenditure. network I
shortest line
route ca. 500km
Due to their long service life, all variants considered F 93MVA

still show considerable residual values after a short

period under investigation (e. g. 5 years). To ensure an 6 6
economic capital investment, further uses of control
network H
elements should therefore be scheduled and integrated F 104MVA F 148MVA
7 7
into the economic valuation. This assumes that control
F
elements are mobile. 37MVA

8 8
5.2 Use of FACTS elements with permanent opera-
tion for power-flow control load load
300 MW 300 MW

The main possibilities of power transmission control completely not completely

conducted conducted
were already illustrated in section 3.
Figure 5.6: Variants of transit conduct in the model
Regarding the remaining effects on third networks, a network,
distinction is made between completely and F = FACTS element
incompletely conducted transits (cf. also section 3.2). A dependency on the topology of the adjacent network
The studies on power-flow control were carried out by and on the load condition does not exist. Given the con-
means of different scenarios. ditions described above, reactive power conditions can
The values indicated below relate to a scenario with a also be left out of account.
power of 300 MW being exchanged between two inter-
connection partners through a third network, the short- In the case of incomplete conduct according to the
est transmission distance amounting to about 500 km. direct control procedure, i. e. if one or several FACTS
elements are omitted (for planning reasons or due to
5.2.1 Complete transit conduct, direct control failure and bypassing), repercussions on third networks
The FACTS elements shall be controlled in such a way cannot be avoided. Calculation equations can be
that the transit power PT flows across the transit derived in simple cases [9]. As far as the non-direct
channel in addition to the normal power flow. procedure is concerned, it is not possible to get
comparable simple relations.

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Primary and secondary control must not be impeded by 5.2.3 Non-direct control
conducted transits. This requires a very slow response A complete transit conduct through non-direct control
of the FACTS elements to fluctuations of power flows would necessitate in the example the installation of 20
for operational reasons. Consequently, the control FACTS elements with about five times the overall con-
voltage of the FACTS elements has first to be set at a trol power as compared to direct control. On the other
constant value and to be adjusted if necessary as a hand, a combination of direct and non-direct control
function of events. can be a satisfactory compromise regarding the
repercussions on third networks caused by a transit, the
In the mentioned example, six FACTS elements have number of FACTS elements and the required overall
to be installed in the transit route (Figure 5.6 a). The control power.
studies reveal a good coherence between the control
powers or control voltages according to the equations 5.2.4 Investment costs
(1) or (2), and the values determined by load flow
For economic reasons, it is necessary to confine to a
calculations. Effects of the transit on networks not
few FACTS elements. In the aforementioned example
involved (third networks) can be completely avoided.
of a 300 MW transit with incomplete transit conduct
Transmission losses in third networks are not changed
and three TC-QBT devices of a total control power of
by the transit. Flows through third networks resulting
some 300 MVA, the estimated investment costs amount
from the transit do virtually not occur, and the loads on
to some 50 million DM.
interconnecting lines of third networks remain
unchanged. Generally, there is a higher increase in
5.2.5 Master controller
losses on the transit route than in the case of an
uncontrolled transit. The specific aggregate control A central master controller for the coordination of con-
power per MW of transit capacity and per km of route trol voltages of the different FACTS elements is not
length amounts in the example to about required in the ideal case of a completely conducted
3 kVA /(MW⋅km). transit along a route. In the case of an incompletely
conducted transit, however, which is much more prob-
The required control power of each FACTS element able in practice, a master controller can become neces-
does not depend on the topology and load condition of sary to recalculate the control voltages of all FACTS
the surrounding network. elements if topological changes, for instance, occur
near the transit route. This requires inter-company
5.2.2 Incomplete transit conduct, direct control information exchange not only during the planning
stage but also in operation. If larger margins are
Taking the same example as a basis, individual FACTS
admissible with regard to the impact on third networks
elements are supposed to be omitted or by-
resulting from a transit, the requirements for master
passed/affected by a failure (Figure 5.6 b), and the
controllers are reduced so that the control voltage of the
inevitable repercussions on third networks with a
FACTS elements have only to be recalculated in the
reduction of the FACTS elements from originally six to
case of considerable changes of topology.
three are analysed. Their control voltages are adjusted
in such a way that the effects on third networks
6 Consequences of a use of FACTS elemets from the
occasioned by the transit are as low as possible. In the
viewpoint of the German interconnected companies
case considered,
- there is an increase of parallel flows through third
Depending on the objective pursued, load-flow control
networks resulting from the transit (however, the
can be realized by means of conventional equipment or
decrease as compared to the uncontrolled transit
by FACTS elements [10].
still amounts to about 75 %),.
- transmission losses in third networks increase,
If only current limitation on one or several circuits is
- the required overall control power is reduced (to
required in the case of failure, reactors or conventional
about 75 % of the capacity with complete conduct).
quad boost transformers will constitute the most favour-
- the individual control power of the FACTS
able variants. In any case, a necessary prerequisite is
elements increase.
that the "commutation" of the current to be displaced in
a closely meshed network can also be realized at times
The control powers of the different FACTS elements
of high load on the sourrounding network without
now depend on the network topology if minimum tran-
increasing the number of appliances to an uneconomic
sit-caused parallel flows through third networks are
quantity.
required.
Additional losses in reactors or quad boost transformers
play only an insignificant role in the case of a
temporary use. Moreover, in meshed networks the

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unfavourable behaviour of such equipment is of minor controlled for transit purposes, the FACTS element
importance with regard to the short-term dynamic, shall be converted from the "transit conduct" mode to
resulting from the lack of adjustment facilities or the "current limitation" mode. If the control voltage is
delayed adjustment. not sufficient, the element has to be bypassed by a
breaker which is also required in the event of nearby
On the other hand, the investigated FACTS elements short-circuits or if damages occur to the appliance.
stand out for their fast controllability; furthermore they Such a measure hardly reduces the availability of the
are able to efficiently improve the system performance circuit connected in series with the FACTS element,
with regard to oscillation damping as well as transmis- though the loss of its controllability has to be accepted.
sion and voltage stability. However, as compared to
conventional equipment, FACTS elements give rise to None of the investigated scenarios reveals that the use
higher investment costs. In any case, appliances of a large number of FACTS elements in the network
limiting the line current are in series with the with fast local control would adversely affect the
controlled circuit. Nevertheless, the availability of the characteristics of oscillation damping.
latter is hardly reduced as the appliances are normally
bypassed. Regarding the transit case, it has to be ensured when
choosing the location of the FACTS elements that flows
The construction of new lines, on condition that they through non-involved third networks caused by a
can be put through, constitutes the most economic transit do not exceed the values agreed upon with the
solution, in spite of high investments, as it permits to partners. Obviously, the number of FACTS elements
considerably reduce overall transmission losses should be kept as low as possible. Besides, they should
depending on the network conditions and to improve only be installed in the networks of partners making a
stability. transit agreement. As a next step, it has to be verified
whether the necessary space is available at the locations
A further aspect is the use of FACTS elements for determined by the studies and whether the
power-flow control in a competitive environment, i. e. constructional prerequisites for the integration exist.
transit conduct on predetermined network areas
through permanent operation of load-controlling The advantage of power electronic and conventional
appliances. Depending on their use (continuously or control elements consists in their mobility. Therefore,
temporarily) and on their location in the network, all when dimensioning the control elements, it should be
load-controlling means have varying effects on internal possible to assess in avance the requirements of the
and partner networks which basically increase overall location with a view to a later shift.
network losses. This requires a close coordination of
measures and the assessement of their effects. The use The results of the study refer to the conditions of a
of several FACTS elements in different partner closely meshed German 380 kV network with
networks, possibly for different purposes, is likely to generation close to consumption centres. The results
necessitate in most cases a coordination of the mode of and the examples used differed considerably from the
operation. This leads to the use of a superordinate studies implemented in other countries, particularly in
master controller which calculates the target values of the USA. These countries have mostly installed their
control voltages to be adjusted on the different generation remote from consumption centres which
appliances. The volume and speed of scanning and means long transmission distances and long
computation depend on the complexity of the power- transmission lines. The resulting large distances
flow control concept. Apart from the determination of between substations and the tendency towards system
the necessary control voltages, the master control oscillations - in contrast to the network conditions in
should be used for supervisory functions to induce, for Germany - give rise to an efficient application of
instance, appropriate remedies in the case of irregular power-flow controlling equipment.
phenomena. Remote-control links between the master
controller and the different FACTS locations are indis- 7 Conclusions, Prospects
pensable. The establishment of such a control centre
The model analysis has shown that FACTS elements
implies that all companies concerned closely cooperate
basically represent a flexible but also cost-intensive
already at the planning stage.
means for solving technical problems in electric trans-
mission networks of the structure considered.
An important requirement is that the interconnected
However, it became apparent that with regard to the
operation of networks must not be adversely affected
German interconnected system, the technical necessity
neither by the temorary nor by the permanent use of
for the use of FACTS with a view to increasing the
power-flow controlling elements. This applies to
transmission capacity implies load-flow situations
normal operation and in particular to emergency
which from today's point of view are not likely to occur
situations. In the case of overload on a circuit

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in the order of magnitude assumed. Parallels to FACTS [3] Erche et al. : Improvement of Power System Per-
projects in other countries cannot be recognized. formance Using Power Electronic Equipment.
As far as possible local bottlenecks are concerned, con- Cigre Report 14/37/38-02, session 1992.
ventional means, such as construction of a new line, are [4] D. Povh, H. Tyll : Statische Kompensatoren für
likely to constitute the preferential solution. Übertragungsnetze. Siemens Energietechnik 4
It became apparent that from the economic point of (1982) Heft1.
view it will generally not be possible to postpone [5] L. Gyugyi et al. : Advanced Static Var Compensa-
network investments through the use of FACTS. The tors Using Gate Turn-off Thyristors for Utility
installation of FACTS elements would only be Applications. Cigre paper 23-203, 1990.
advisable if a high control dynamic or the [6] Cigre WG 14.18 : Thyristor Controlled Series
accomplishment of several technical functions would be Compensation.
a matter of priority. [7] H. Stemmler, G. Güth : Der vollstatische Querre-
Under technical aspects, it may however be possible to gler, eine neue Möglichkeit zur
use FACTS for the damping of low-frequency network Leistungssteuerung in Drehstromnetzen. Brown
oscillations. Boveri Mitt. 3-82.
[8] L. Gyugyi : A Unified Power Flow Control Con-
The often quoted technical possibility of creating cept for Flexible AC Transmission Systems. IEE
"corridors" for power transmission by means of Proceedings-C Vol. 139, No. 4, July 1992.
FACTS, leaving out the networks of interconnection [9] B. Gick, T. Wess: Power transits conducted along
partners that are not concerned, can basically be specified line paths - basic considerations
implemented from today's point of view without giving (submitted to IEEE Power Delivery, 1998).
rise to adverse effects on the interconnected operation. [10] R. Gampenrieder, M. Häusler, D. Povh :
If future studies would nevertheless reveal possible Lastflußsteuerung in Energieversorgungsnetzen
risks, it will have to be clarified on a supraregional Elektrizitätswirtschaft Jg. 95 (1996),
level to what extent load-flow interference may be H. 25, S. 1671 - 1677.
admissible, while ensuring that mutual advantages in
meshed system operation are not endangered.
However, corresponding proposals for solutions are
likely to be little interesting for economic reasons even
in the case of an optimum use of FACTS elements.
This is attributable to the fact that low control
capacities imply relatively high specific costs of devices
in conjunction with an uncertain service life as well as
increased transmission losses. FACTS elements suited
for these purposes have not been implemented yet with
the required standard of performance.

While FACTS elements with temporary operation can

mainly work autonomously, the practical case of simul-
taneous load-flow controlling action of several elements
require superordinate control which possibly implies a
detailed knowledge of operating data. In view of the
lack of an explicit knowledge of a control concept, it
remains to be seen which expenditure will be linked
with data acquisition and whether the interconnected
companies will accept to exchange such highly
sensitive data in a competitive environment.

8 References

[1] DVG:
Möglichkeiten und Bewertung des Einsatzes von
"Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)"
im deutschen Verbundnetz
[2] N.G. Hingorani : High Power Electronics and
Flexible AC Transmission Systems. IEEE Power
Engineering Review, July 1988.

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