Elkom dan Gelombang

1
Mikro
2 Materi

 Pengantar Elektronika Komunikasi

 Modulasi Amplituda
 Modulasi Frekuensi dan Phasa
 Radio Pemancar dan Penerima
 Pengantar system komunikasi gelombang mikro
 Saluran Transmisi
 Resonator dan Filter Sistem komunikasi Gelombang Mikro
 Amplifier dan Osilator Sistem komunikasi Gelombang Mikro
 Rangkaian Aktif Gelombang Mikro
3 Referensi

 Louis Frenzel, “Electronic Communication System”, Mc Graw Hill, 2016

 Richard A. Poisel “Introduction to Communication Electronic Warfare
Systems” -Artech Print on Demand (2002)
 Dennis Roddy, “Microwave Technology”, Reston Pub Co (January 1, 1986)
 Donna Reiss, Dickie Selfe, Art Young, “Electronic Communication Across the
Curriculum” , National Council of Teachers of English (1998)
4 Aturan Kuliah

 Datang Tepat waktu

 Kumpul Tugas Tepat Waktu
 Minimal 13 pertemuan
 Sakit / ijin : ada keterangan
5 Penilaian

 Kuis + Tugas : 15%

 Softskill : 25%
 UTS : 30%
 UAS : 30%
6 Pendahuluan

 What is communication?
 Communication is the process of exchanging information. People
communicate to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others.
 The process of communication is inherent to all human life and includes
verbal, nonverbal (body language), print, and electronic processes.

 Hambatan? Distance

Language
7 Pendahuluan cont’

 For many years, long-distance communication was limited to the sending

of verbal or written messages by human runner, horseback, ship, and later
trains.
 Human communication took a dramatic leap forward in the late
nineteenth century when electricity was discovered.
 The telegraph was invented in 1844 and the telephone in 1876. Radio
was discovered in 1887 and demonstrated in 1895
8 Pendahuluan Cont’

A general model of all communication systems

9 Transmitter

 The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits

designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission
over a given communication medium.
 Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and
filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and
other circuits
 The first step in sending a message is to convert it into electronic form
suitable for transmission.
 Transducers convert physical characteristics (temperature, pressure, light
intensity, and so on) into electrical signals.
10 Channel

 The communication channel is the medium by which

the electronic signal is sent from one place to another.
 Many different types of media are used in
communication systems, including wire conductors,
fiber-optic cable, and free space.
 Alternating-current (ac) power lines, the electrical
conductors that carry the power to operate virtually all
our electrical and electronic devices, can also be used
as communication channels
11 Receivers

A receiver is a collection of electronic

components and circuits that accepts the
transmitted message from the channel and
converts it back to a form understandable by
humans.
Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers,
tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or
detector that recovers the original intelligence
signal from the modulated carrier.
12 Transceivers

If Electronic communication is two-way, so both

parties must have both a transmitter and a
receiver.
As a result, most communication equipment
incorporates circuits that both send and
receive.
Telephones, handheld radios, cellular
telephones, and computer modems are
examples of transceivers.
13 Attenuation

Signal attenuation, or degradation, is

inevitable no matter what the medium of
transmission.
Attenuation is proportional to the square
of the distance between the transmitter
and receiver.
14 Noise

The measure of noise is usually expressed in

terms of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR),
which is the signal power divided by the noise
power and can be stated numerically or in
terms of decibels (dB).
Obviously, a very high SNR is preferred for best
performance.
15 Types of Electronic Communication
16 Duplex
17 Analog Signals vs Digital Signals
18 Modulation and Multiplexing

 Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the medium.
 Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently over
a single medium
 Whether the original information or intelligence signals are analog or digital,
they are all referred to as baseband signals
 baseband information signals can be sent directly and unmodified over the
medium or can be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over the medium.
 Normally used to modulate a high-frequency signal called a carrier.
 The electromagnetic signals, which are able to travel through space for long
distances, are also referred to as radio-frequency (RF) waves, or just radio
waves
19 Broadband Transmission

 This process is called broadband transmission

  The carrier is usually a sine wave generated by an oscillator.
20
 The carrier is fed to a circuit called a modulator along with the baseband
intelligence signal.
 The intelligence signal changes the carrier in a unique way.
 The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna for transmission.
 Consider the common mathematical expression for a sine wave:
21

 Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation

22  The three ways to make the baseband signal change the carrier sine wave
are to vary its amplitude, vary its frequency, or vary its phase angle.
 Varying the phase angle produces phase modulation (PM).
 Phase modulation produces frequency modulation; therefore, the PM
signal is similar in appearance to a frequency-modulated carrier.
 FSK and PSK
23 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same
medium or channel.
 A multiplexer converts the individual baseband signals to a composite signal
that is used to modulate a carrier in the transmitter.
 There are three basic types of multiplexing: frequency division, time division,
and code division.
 In frequency-division multiplexing, the intelligence signals modulate subcarriers
on different frequencies that are then added together, and the composite
signal is used to modulate the carrier.
 In optical networking, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is equivalent to
frequency-division multiplexing for optical signal.
 In code-division multiplexing, the signals to be transmitted are converted to
digital data that is then uniquely coded with a faster binary code. The signals
modulate a carrier on the same frequency. All use the same communications
channel simultaneously. The unique coding is used at the receiver to select the
desired signal
24
25 Frequency and Wavelength

 Frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occurs in a

given time period.
26  The electromagnetic spectrum used in electronic communication.
27
28 Bandwidth
 Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied
by a signal.
 It is also the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic
circuit operates.
 More specifically, bandwidth is the difference between the upper and
lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation range.
 The upper frequency is f2 and the lower frequency is f1.
 The bandwidth, then, is
29 Channel Bandwidth

 The modulation process causes other signals, called sidebands, to be

generated at frequencies above and below the carrier frequency by an
amount equal to the modulating frequency.
 In other words, the modulation process generates other signals that take up
spectrum space.
 For example, in AM broadcasting, audio signals up to 5 kHz can be transmitted.
If the carrier frequency is 1000 kHz, or 1 MHz, and the modulating frequency is 5
kHz, sidebands will be produced at 1000 - 5 = 995 kHz and at 1000 + 5 = 1005
kHz.
 The term channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to
transmit the desired information.
 So the channel bandwidth from example above become difference between
the highest and lowest transmitting frequencies: BW =1005 kHz - 995 kHz =10 kHz.
In this case, the channel bandwidth is 10 kHz.
30 Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels

 Gain means amplification

31 Example
32 Attenuation

 Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component.

 If the output signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit has loss,
or attenuation.
33 Attenuation Cont’

 It is common in communication systems and equipment to cascade circuits

and components that have gain and attenuation
34 Decibels

 The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (dB), a unit of

measurement that was originally created as a way of expressing the
hearing response of the human ear to various sound levels
35
36 Decibel Calculations

 Remember that the logarithm y of a number N is the power to which the

base 10 must be raised to get the number.
37 Example

a. An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the gain in

decibels?
b. A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW. What is the
gain or attenuation?
c. A power amplifier with a 40-dB gain has an output power of 100 W. What is
the input power?
d. An amplifier has a gain of 60 dB. If the input voltage is 50 μV, what is the
output voltage?
38 dBm

 When an absolute value is needed, you can use a reference value to

compare any other value.

 Here Pout is the output power, or some power value you want to compare
to 1 mW, and 0.001 is 1 mW expressed in watts.
 The output of a 1-W amplifier expressed in dBm is

 -50 dBm ?
39 Example

 A power amplifier has an input of 90 mV across 10 kV. The output is 7.8 V

across an 8-V speaker. What is the power gain, in decibels?
 Hint : You must compute the input and output power levels first.
40 dBc

 This is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the carrier.
 For example, if the spurious signal is 1 mW compared to the 10-W carrier,
the dBc is :
41 Example

 An amplifier has a power gain of 28 dB. The input power is 36 mW. What is
the output power?
 A circuit consists of two amplifiers with gains of 6.8 and 14.3 dB and two
filters with attenuations of 216.4 and 22.9 dB. If the output voltage is 800 mV,
what is the input voltage?
 Express Pout 5 12.3 dBm in watts ?
42 Tuned Circuits
 Circuits made up of inductors and capacitors that resonate at specific
frequencies
 All tuned circuits and many filters are made up of inductive and capacitive
elements, including discrete components such as coils and capacitors and
the stray and distributed inductance and capacitance that appear in all
electronic circuits.
 Both coils and capacitors offer an opposition to alternating-current flow
known as reactance, which is expressed in ohms.
 Like resistance, reactance is an opposition that directly affects the amount
of current in a circuit.
 In addition, reactive effects produce a phase shift between the currents
and voltages in a circuit
 Capacitance causes the current to lead the applied voltage, whereas
inductance causes the current to lag the applied voltage.
43 Reactive Components
Capacitors
 A capacitor used in an ac circuit continually charges and discharges.
 A capacitor tends to oppose voltage changes across it.
 The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the value of
capacitance C and operating frequency f.
44 Capacitors Cont’

 The wire leads of a capacitor have resistance and inductance, and the
dielectric has leakage that appears as a resistance value in parallel with
the capacitor.
45 Inductors
 An inductor, also called a coil or choke, is simply a winding of multiple turns
of wire.
 When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is produced around
the coil.
 If the applied voltage and current are varying, the magnetic field
alternately expands and collapses.
 This causes a voltage to be self-induced into the coil winding, which has
the effect of opposing current changes in the coil.
 This effect is known as inductance.
 When an inductor is used in an ac circuit, this opposition becomes
continuous and constant and is known as inductive reactance
46
47 Inductors Cont’

 Another important characteristic of an inductor is its quality factor Q, the

ratio of inductive power to resistive power:
48 Resistors
 At low frequencies, a standard low-wattage color-coded resistor offers
nearly pure resistance, but at high frequencies its leads have considerable
inductance, and stray capacitance between the leads causes the resistor
to act as a complex RLC circuit
 To minimize the inductive and capacitive effects, the leads are kept very
short in radio applications.
 The tiny resistor chips used in surface-mount construction of the electronic
circuits preferred for radio equipment have practically no leads except for
the metallic end pieces soldered to the printed-circuit board.
49 Tuned Circuits and Resonance
50

 When XL equals XC, they cancel each other, leaving only the resistance of
the circuit to oppose the current.
51 Tuned Circuits and Resonance Cont’
 The basic definition of resonance in a series tuned circuit is the point at
which XL equals XC.
 With this condition, only the resistance of the circuit impedes the current.
 The total circuit impedance at resonance is Z = R.
 For this reason, resonance in a series tuned circuit can also be defined as
the point at which the circuit impedance is lowest and the circuit current is
highest.
 Since the circuit is resistive at resonance, the current is in phase with the
applied voltage.
 Above the resonant frequency, the inductive reactance is higher than the
capacitive reactance, and the inductor voltage drop is greater than the
capacitor voltage drop.
 The circuit is inductive, and the current will lag the applied voltage.
52
 At very low frequencies, the capacitive reactance is much greater than
the inductive reactance; therefore, the current in the circuit is very low
because of the high impedance.
 Because the circuit is predominantly capacitive, the current leads the
voltage by nearly 90°.
 As the frequency increases, XC goes down and XL goes up. The amount of
leading phase shift decreases.
53

 The narrow frequency range over

which the current is highest is called
the bandwidth.
 The upper and lower boundaries of
the bandwidth are dei ned by two
cutoff frequencies designated f1 and
f2.
 These cutoff frequencies occur where
the current amplitude is 70.7 percent
of the peak current
 Current levels at which the response is
down 70.7 percent are called the
half-power points because the power
at the cutoff frequencies is one-half
the power peak of the curve.
54

 The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is determined by the Q of the circuit.

 Since the bandwidth is approximately centered on the resonant frequency, f1 is

the same distance from fr as f2 is from fr .
 For a linear frequency scale, you can calculate the center or resonant
frequency by using an average of the cutoff frequencies.
 If the Q of a circuit resonant at 18 MHz is 50, then the bandwidth is BW = 18/50 =
0.36 MHz = 360 kHz.
55

 If the circuit Q is very high (>100), then the response curve is approximately
symmetric around the resonant frequency. The cutoff frequencies will then
be roughly equidistant from the resonant frequency by the amount of
BW/2.
56

 The bandwidth of a circuit is inversely proportional to Q. The higher Q is, the

smaller the bandwidth. Low Qs produce wide bandwidths or less selectivity.
In turn, Q is a function of the circuit resistance.
57
58 Parallel Resonant Circuits

 Parallel resonant circuit currents. (a) Parallel resonant circuit. (b) Current
relationships in parallel resonant circuit.
59
60

 If the Q of the parallel resonant circuit is greater than 10, the following
simplified formula can be used to calculate the resistive impedance at
resonance:
61

 Note that the Q of a parallel circuit, which was previously expressed as Q =

XL /RW, can also be computed with the expression :

 where RP is the equivalent parallel resistance, Req in parallel with any other
parallel resistance, and XL is the inductive reactance of the equivalent
inductance Leq.
 You can set the bandwidth of a parallel tuned circuit by controlling Q.
 The Q can be determined by connecting an external resistor across the
circuit.
 This has the effect of lowering RP and increasing the bandwidth.
62 Filters
 A filter is a frequency-selective circuit.
 Simple filters created by using resistors and capacitors or inductors and
capacitors are called passive filters because they use passive components
that do not amplify.
 Some special types of filters are active filters that use RC networks with
feedback in op amp circuits, switched capacitor filters, crystal and ceramic
filters, surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters, and digital filters implemented
with digital signal processing (DSP) techniques.
 Low-pass i lter. Passes frequencies below a critical frequency called the
cutoff frequency and greatly attenuates those above the cutoff frequency.
 High-pass i lter. Passes frequencies above the cutoff but rejects those
below it.
 Bandpass i lter. Passes frequencies over a narrow range between lower
and upper cutoff frequencies.
 Band-reject i lter. Rejects or stops frequencies over a narrow range but
allows frequencies above and below to pass.
 All-pass i lter. Passes all frequencies equally well over its design range but
has a fixed or predictable phase shift characteristic.
63 Low-Pass Filter
64 Low-Pass Filter Cont’
65 High-Pass Filter
66
67 RC Notch Filter

 Notch filters are also referred to as bandstop or band-reject filters

68 LC Filters

 Inductors for lower frequencies are large, bulky, and expensive, but those
used at higher frequencies are very small, light, and inexpensive.
 RC filters are used primarily at the lower frequencies.
69 Filter Terminology
 Passband. This is the frequency range over which the filter passes signals. It is the
frequency range between the cutoff frequencies or between the cutoff
frequency and zero (for low-pass) or between the cutoff frequency and infinity
(for high-pass).
 Stop band. This is the range of frequencies outside the passband, i.e., the range
of frequencies that is greatly attenuated by the filter. Frequencies in this range
are rejected.
 Attenuation. This is the amount by which undesired frequencies in the stop band
are reduced. It can be expressed as a power ratio or voltage ratio of the output
to the input. Attenuation is usually given in decibels.
 Insertion loss. Insertion loss is the loss the filter introduces to the signals in the
passband. Passive filters introduce attenuation because of the resistive losses in
the components. Insertion loss is typically given in decibels.
 Impedance. Impedance is the resistive value of the load and source
terminations of the filter. Filters are usually designed for specific driving source
and load impedances that must be present for proper operation.
 Ripple. Amplitude variation with frequency in the passband, or the repetitive rise
and fall of the signal level in the passband of some types of filters, is known as
ripple. It is usually stated in decibels. There may also be ripple in the stop
bandwidth in some types of filters.
70

 Shape factor. Shape factor, also known as bandwidth ratio, is the ratio of
the stop bandwidth to the pass bandwidth of a bandpass filter.
71

 Pole. A pole is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the

circuit. It is also used to describe one RC section of a filter. A simple low-
pass RC filter has one pole.
 Zero. This term refers to a frequency at which there is zero impedance in the
circuit.
 Roll-off. Also called the attenuation rate, roll-off is the rate of change of
amplitude with frequency in a filter. The faster the roll-off, or the higher the
attenuation rate, the more selective the filter is, i.e., the better able it is to
differentiate between two closely spaced signals, one desired and the
other not.
72
73
74 Types of Filters

 The Butterworth filter effect has maximum flatness in response in the pass
band and a uniform attenuation with frequency.
 Chebyshev (or Tchebyschev) filters have extremely good selectivity; i.e.,
their attenuation rate or roll-off is high, much higher than that of the
Butterworth filter.
 Cauer filters produce an even greater attenuation or roll-off rate than do
Chebyshev filters and greater attenuation out of the passband.
 Also called Thomson filters, Bessel circuits provide the desired frequency
response (i.e., low-pass, bandpass, etc.) but have a constant time delay in
the passband.
75
76
77
78
79 Active Filters

 Active filters are frequency-selective circuits that incorporate RC networks

and amplifiers with feedback to produce low-pass, high-pass, bandpass,
and bandstop performance.
80
81 Crystal Filters

 Crystal filters are made from the same type of quartz crystals normally used
in crystal oscillators.
 When a voltage is applied across a crystal, it vibrates at a specific resonant
frequency, which is a function of the size, thickness, and direction of cut of
the crystal.