Accepted Manuscript

Food applications of emulsion-based edible films and coatings

Sabina Galus, Justyna Kadzińska

PII: S0924-2244(15)00178-8
DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.07.011
Reference: TIFS 1690

To appear in: Trends in Food Science & Technology

Received Date: 1 December 2014

Revised Date: 18 June 2015
Accepted Date: 14 July 2015

Please cite this article as: Galus, S., Kadzińska, J., Food applications of emulsion-based edible films and
coatings, Trends in Food Science & Technology (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.07.011.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1 Food applications of emulsion-based edible films and coatings

3 Sabina Galus*, Justyna Kadzińska

5 Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Faculty of Food Sciences,

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6 Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW (WULS-SGGW),

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7 159c Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland

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9 Abstract

10 Background

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An increasing awareness among consumers regarding the healthy lifestyle have prompted
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12 research on novel techniques of prolonging the shelf life of food products without the
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13 necessity of using preservatives. Thanks to their ability to improve global food quality, edible

14 films and coatings have been particularly considered in food preservation. Changing
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15 mechanical and barrier properties depending on the main component in the biopolymer matrix
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16 caused an increasing interest in composite structures, which enable to explore the

17 complementary advantages of each component as well as to minimize their disadvantages.

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18 Scope and Approach

19 This review discusses the potential food applications of emulsified edible films and coatings.
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20 The materials, preparation methods, and physical properties are also presented. Lipids are

21 usually added to edible films and coatings to impart hydrophobicity and thereby reduce

22 moisture loss. A very wide range of lipid components is available including natural waxes,

23 resins, acetoglycerides, fatty acids, and petroleum-based, mineral and vegetable oils. The

24 emulsification process of the lipid phase in the aqueous phase is necessary prior to the coating

25 application.

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26 Key Findings and Conclusions

27 Emulsion-based edible films and coatings find application in fresh and processed food

28 products, fruits and vegetables, cheeses, meat, sausages and bakery products. Composite

29 emulsion-based edible materials produced from hydrocolloids and lipids result in better

30 functionality than films produced with one component, especially with respect to their water

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31 barrier properties. In general, more research is needed to improve application processes of

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32 emulsion-based edible materials, especially sensory aspects, to be appropriate for each

33 product.

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34 Key words: edible films, edible coatings, lipids, emulsion, food coating

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37 *Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 22 59 37 579
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38 E-mail address: sabina_galus@sggw.pl (S. Galus)

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40 Introduction

41 An edible coating or film could be defined as primary packaging made from edible

42 components. A thin layer of edible material can be directly coated on food or formed into a

43 film and be used as a food wrap without changing the original ingredients or the processing

44 method. Edible films and coatings have been used to improve the gas and moisture barriers,

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45 mechanical properties, sensory perceptions, convenience, microbial protection, and prolong

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46 the shelf life of various food products (Debeaufort, Quezada-Gallo, & Voilley 1998; Krochta,

47 2002). Edible coatings are applied in liquid form meanwhile edible films are obtained as solid

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48 sheets and then applied to food products (Falguera, Quintero, Jiménez, Muñoz, & Ibarz,

49 2011). Edible films and coatings have been particularly considered in food preservation,

50
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because of their ability to improve global food quality (Chillo, Flores, Mastromatteo, Conte,
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51 Gerschenson, & del Nobile, 2008).
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52 Lipid coatings have been used for centuries to protect food and prevent moisture loss.

53 The first recorded use was in China in the twelfth century on lemons and oranges (Allen,
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54 Nelson, Steinberg, & McGill, 1963). In the sixteenth century in the United States, food
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55 products were coated with lipid coatings to control moisture loss, and later paraffin wax,

56 carnauba wax and emulsion oil-in-water coatings were used for fresh fruits and vegetables
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57 (Cagri, Ustunol, & Ryser, 2004). In the twentieth century, coatings have also been used to

58 prevent water loss and add shine to fruits and vegetables (Baldwin, 1994). Shellac coatings
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59 allow candies to “melt in the mouth and not in your hand” preventing the hand from

60 becoming soiled by coloring matter used for appearance or by underlying chocolate

61 (Dangaran, Nantz, & Krochta, 2006).

62 Recently, most research works from the edible materials field have focused on

63 composite or multicomponent films to explore the complementary advantages of each

64 component as well as to minimize their disadvantages (Galus, Lenart, Voilley, & Debeaufort,

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65 2013; Kurek, Galus, & Debeaufort, 2014). Most composite films or coatings associate a

66 hydrophilic structural matrix and a hydrophobic lipid compound resulting in better

67 functionality than pure hydrocolloid films, especially with respect to their moisture barrier

68 properties. Composite materials can be obtained as either bi-layers or emulsions. In a bi-layer

69 composite system, the lipid forms the second layer over the polysaccharide or protein layer. In

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70 the emulsified structure, the lipid is dispersed in the biopolymer matrix.

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71 The main disadvantage of bi-layers films is that the preparation technique requires four

72 stages: two casting and two drying stages. This is why laminated films are less popular in the

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73 food industry despite providing good barriers against water vapor (Debeaufort & Voilley,

74 1995). Research has also shown that the bi-layer films tend to delaminate over time, develop

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pinholes or cracks and exhibit non-uniform surface and cohesion characteristics (Quezada-
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76 Gallo, Debeaufort, Callegarin, & Voilley, 2000). The emulsified materials are obtained during
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77 only one film-forming casting and one drying process. Their properties depend on preparation

78 techniques, type and quantity of components (hydrocolloid and lipid) and their compatibility,
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79 as well as the microstructural heterogeneity (Fabra, Pérez-Masiá, Talens, & Chiralt, 2011).
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80 Prolonging the shelf life of fresh citrus fruits by application of lipids has been known

81 for centuries. Nowadays, consumer demand for ready-to-eat products with longer shelf life
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82 has prompted research on novel techniques. Preparation of emulsion systems for coating

83 techniques creates opportunities to link the properties of hydrocolloid compounds and lipid
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84 compounds, providing a controlled, effective barrier. A number of studies have been recently

85 published on the incorporation of lipids into the biopolymer film matrix including vegetable

86 oils (Kokoszka, Debeaufort, Lenart, & Voilley, 2010; Cerqueira, Souza, Teixeira, & Vicente,

87 2012; Valenzuela, Abugoch & Tapia, 2013; Pereda, Dufresne, Aranguren, & Marcovich,

88 2014), waxes (Talens & Krochta 2005; Fabra, Talens, Gavara & Chiralt, 2012; Chiumarelli &

89 Hubinger 2014; Janjarasskul, Rauch, McCarthy, & Krochta, 2014) or fatty acids (Zahedi,

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90 Ghanbarzadeh, & Sedaghat, 2010; Fabra, Pérez-Masiá, Talens, & Chiralt, 2011; Jiménez,

91 Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2012; Jiménez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2013a; Chiumarelli &

92 Hubinger 2014; Perdones, Vargas, Atarés, & Chiralt, 2014) to cause the modification of

93 several properties of hydrocolloid films. However, a review on potential food applications of

94 emulsion-based films and coatings is not available. These films can be applied to various food

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95 products in order to improve their quality by prolong the shelf life. Thus, in this work, the

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96 trends in the research about the different applications of emulsion-based edible films and

97 coatings have been reviewed, as well as the latest advances on their composition (lipid

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98 compounds used in the structural matrix), formation methods and functional properties were

99 described.

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101 Components
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102 Edible films and coatings are usually classified according to their structural material:

103 proteins, polysaccharides, lipids or composite. The main advantage of such structures as
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104 potential food packaging materials is their biodegradability. The popular proteins used as
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105 edible films and coatings are collagen, gelatin, caseins, whey protein, corn zein, wheat gluten,

106 soy protein, egg white protein, myofibrillar protein, quinoa protein, and keratin. Starch,
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107 cellulose and its derivatives, pectin, chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, pullulan and gellan gum

108 are the main polysaccharide materials tested as edible packaging materials (Han & Gennadios,
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109 2005). Plasticizers (i.e. glycerol, sorbitol, monoglycerides, polyethylene glycol, glucose) are

110 often used to increase flexibility and elasticity of bio-based materials.

111 Numerous compounds are used in the preparation of emulsified edible films and

112 coatings. Different lipids (fats and oils) are incorporated into film-forming solutions to form

113 the emulsion-based structure. However, among them animal and plant waxes, vegetable oils

114 and fatty acids are the most popular (Table 1). Properties of emulsion-based edible materials

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115 depend not only on the compounds used in the polymer matrix but also their compatibility

116 and preparation techniques. The compatibility between components, as well as its miscibility,

117 is directly related with the microstructure of the films, which affects their final properties. The

118 high degree of components compatibility results in more cohesive, homogeneous film

119 structure. However, the continuous emulsified film matrix can change to more irregular when

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120 incompatibility of used components is observed or the lipid addition is high, due to the

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121 heterogeneous distribution of components with areas of different mechanical resistance. As a

122 result of this behavior phase separation can occur, a hydrocolloid-rich phase and a lipid-rich

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123 phase, due to the lack of compatibility between both components. The lower structural

124 cohesion of emulsion-based films caused by the non-compatible compounds was reported as

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an oily upper surface of the films (Yang & Paulson, 2000; Shaw, Monahan, O’Riordan, &
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126 O’Sullivan, 2002; Kokoszka, Debeaufort, Lenart, & Voilley, 2010).
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127 Vegetable oils (corn oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil) are easily available, low

128 cost, non-toxic, non-depletable and non-volatile, and, furthermore, they are a source of
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129 monounsaturated fatty acids, and their incorporation as edible coating to food products is
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130 associated with various positive health benefits (Ma, Tang, Yin, Yang, Wang, Liu, & Wei,

131 2012). Waxes are esters of long-chain aliphatic acids with long-chain aliphatic alcohols. They
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132 are more resistant to water diffusion than most other edible film materials because of their

133 very low content of polar groups and their high content of long-chain fatty alcohols and
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134 alkanes There is a variety of naturally occurring waxes, derived from vegetables (e.g.,

135 carnauba, candelilla, and sugar cane waxes), minerals (e.g., paraffin and microcrystalline

136 waxes), or animals including insects (e.g., beeswax, lanolin, and wool grease), while some

137 other waxes are synthetically produced, such as carbowaxes and polyethylene wax. The

138 partial esters (triglycerides) or esters (mono- and diglycerides) of fatty acids with glycerol can

139 also be used as edible coating materials. Long-chain triglycerides are insoluble in water,

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140 whereas short-chain molecules are partially water soluble. Unsaturated fatty acids have

141 significantly lower melting points and increased moisture transfer rates than the

142 corresponding saturated ones (Rhim & Shellhammer, 2005). Of the lipids, waxes produce the

143 best water vapor barrier properties, but produce fragile and/or brittle films (Bourtoom, 2009).

144 Various essential oils (garlic, lemon, oregano, thyme, rosemary) are often incorporated

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145 into edible films in an emulsification process and because of their antioxidant and

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146 antimicrobial efficiency play a role as active materials (Bakkali, Averbeck, Averbeck, &

147 Idaomar, 2008). Emulsifiers and active surface agents such as lecithins, mono- and di-

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148 glycerides or mono- and di-glyceride esters have often been added to emulsion film and

149 coating formulations to improve their functional characteristics by stabilizing dispersed

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systems and increasing the particle distribution in composite emulsion-based edible films
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151 (Debeaufort & Voilley, 1995).
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152

153 Formation of emulsion-based films and coatings

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154 There are many technologies that can be used to make edible films and coatings. The
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155 emulsification process of the lipid phase in the aqueous phase is necessary prior to the casting

156 for film formation or coating application. Droplet size is a determining factor for emulsion
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157 stability and also affects its viscosity and other important properties. Different

158 homogenization techniques are used to prepare the film-forming emulsions. Rotor-stator
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159 homogenizers are often used and are able to achieve a particle size of 1 µm (Vargas,

160 Perdones, Chiralt, Cháfer, & González-Martínez, 2011; Ma, Tang, Yin, Yang, Qi, & Xia,

161 2012). This can be further reduced by applying high-pressure homogenizers to the system

162 (Bonilla, Atarés, Vargas, & Chiralt, 2012). Microfluidization can provide emulsions with

163 narrower particle size distributions by shearing force of ultrahigh-pressure homogenization as

164 well as severe stress of head-on collision (Sherwin, Smith, & Fulcher, 1998).

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165 Microfluidization and sonification are capable to produce nanoemulsions of the size range of

166 150-700 nm. The particle size decreases with increasing microfluidization pressure and

167 duration or with increasing sonification time (Jafari, He, & Bhandari, 2006). Fig. 1. presents

168 the formation of emulsion and nanoemulsion layers by rotor-stator and ultrahigh

169 homogenization method, respectively.

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170 Among all emulsification methods, which differences refer to the time, rate or pressure,

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171 the rotor-stator homogenization is most popular. The combined homogenization techniques

172 are often used to obtain the stable film-forming emulsion (Fabra, Jiménez, Talens, & Chiralt,

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173 2015). Fabra, Pérez-Masiá, Talens, & Chiralt (2011) applied rotor-stator homogenizer in first

174 step and microfluidizer in second step to prepare the sodium caseinate films containing oleic

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acid and stearic acid. The intensification of homogenization conditions of film-forming
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176 emulsion affects the size of the lipid structures in the dried films, promoting mechanical
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177 resistance, gloss and transparency of the films.

178 Hydrocolloid films are usually applied in liquid form by dipping or spraying the food
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179 item or part of it, using a solution or a dispersion of the polymers (Karbowiak, Debeaufort &
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180 Voilley, 2007). To achieve a continuous layer of the film, the solvent is afterwards eliminated

181 during drying at ambient or controlled conditions. When producing the emulsion films, the
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182 temperature of the solution must be above the lipid-melt temperature but below the

183 temperature for solvent volatilization of the structural network. The preparation of the
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184 emulsion films requires only one casting and one drying stage.

185 The formation of coating directly from film-forming solutions is the simplest way to

186 obtain coated products. The material will absorb an appropriate amount of solution necessary

187 to form the desired layer, which when dried forms a protective layer at the food surface.

188 Therefore, surface properties play a key role in the coating application. To achieve success in

189 coating operations, specific parameters dealing with the base product to be coated (i.e.

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190 composition, shape, density), processing equipment (i.e. continuous/batch, temperature,

191 static/dynamic), and the coating formulation (i.e. solvent, composition, viscosity) have to be

192 taken into account (Debeaufort & Voilley, 2009).

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194 Functional properties

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195 Edible films and coatings have similar functions as those of conventional packaging,

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196 including as barriers against water vapor, gases, and flavor compounds and improving

197 structural integrity and mechanical-handling properties of foods. Although edible films and

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198 coatings are not meant to entirely replace conventional packaging, the efficiency of food

199 protection can be enhanced by combining primary, edible packaging and secondary nonedible

200
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packaging (Debeaufort, Quezada-Gallo, & Voilley 1998). Because of the wide variety of
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201 chemical compositions and structures of emulsion-based materials (polysaccharides, proteins
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202 and lipids), various film-forming behaviors may occur during film formation. The functional

203 properties of lipids are dependent on their chemical structures (Rhim & Shellhammer, 2005)
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204 and their polarity, which depends on the distribution of chemical groups, the length of
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205 aliphatic chains, and the presence and degree of unsaturation. Therefore, unsaturated fatty

206 acids are less efficient at controlling moisture transfer because of their higher polarity when
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207 compared to saturated ones (Morillon, Debeaufort, Bond, Capelle, & Voilley, 2002).

208 Certainly, properties of emulsified films should be controlled. Proteins and polysaccharides
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209 generally form films with good mechanical properties, but they are poor moisture barriers,

210 because of their hydrophilic nature. Conversely, lipids give rise to good moisture barriers

211 (Hambleton, Perpiñan-Saiz, Fabra, Voilley, & Debeaufort, 2012).

212 Emulsified films show better mechanical properties in comparison with pure lipid

213 layers. Generally, vegetable oils and other liquid lipid substances form layers on the

214 hydrocolloid surface as a bi-layer or multilayer and are not able to form separate films. On the

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215 other hand, waxes form solid but brittle and breakable films. The emulsification process gives

216 the possibility to obtain films with desired mechanical properties. Most of the research

217 describing inclusion of lipid substances in film-forming solutions is focused on improving the

218 moisture barrier efficiency of composite films due to the fact that emulsified films formed as

219 coatings of food surfaces do not require the mechanical properties of stand alone films used as

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220 wraps, pouches, or casings. In general, mechanical properties of emulsified films are similar

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221 to those of pure hydrocolloid matrix and are modified by lipid type and concentration

222 (Hopkins, Chang, Lam, & Nickerson, 2015). The structure and stability of an emulsion are

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223 key parameters strongly affecting mechanical properties of emulsified films.

224 The transparency of edible coatings is an important parameter since it is a key to good

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acceptance by consumers and it has a direct impact on the coated product appearance. The
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226 lipid fraction and droplet particle size distribution in film-forming emulsions plays an
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227 important role in optical properties of dried films. Generally, emulsified films present high

228 lightness values with a slightly decreasing tendency correlated with the increasing
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229 concentration of lipid (Monedero, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2010; Pereda, Aranguren, &
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230 Marcovich, 2010; Hopkins, Chang, Lam, & Nickerson, 2015). The high transparency of

231 emulsion-based films is associated with a greater homogeneity in the film structure (Ortega-
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232 Toro, Jiménez, Talens, & Chiralt, 2014). The lipid droplets dispersed in the film matrix affect

233 transparency by preventing light transmission through the film (Pereda, Amica, & Marcovich,
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234 2012). Therefore, the high increase in opacity values is observed due to the addition of lipids

235 to hydrocolloid films (Yang & Paulson, 2000; Shaw, Monahan, O’Riordan, & O’Sullivan,

236 2002; Pereda, Aranguren, & Marcovich, 2010; Guerrero, Nur Hanani, Kerry, & de la Caba,

237 2011; Ma, Tang, Yin, Yang, Wang, Liu, & Wei, 2012; Pereda, Amica, & Marcovich, 2012).

238 Villalobos, Chanona, Hernández, Gutiérrez, & Chiralt (2005) pointed out that the presence of

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239 a non-miscible, lipid phase promotes opacity as a function of the differences in the refractive

240 index of the phases, as well as concentration and particle size distributions.

241 Barrier properties of emulsion-based films, as well as hydrocolloid films, depend on

242 temperature and relative humidity. Oxygen permeability increases slightly at lower relative

243 humidity and decrease sharply at high (> 0.75 %) humidity conditions (Guilbert, Gontard, &

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244 Gorris (1996). Miller & Krochta (1997) pointed out that the hydrophobic compounds are

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245 more permeable to gases due to their greater chemical affinity and solubility. Therefore, the

246 increase in oxygen permeability is observed as a result of addition of lipid to hydrocolloid

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247 films (Habmleton, Debeaufort, Bonnotte, & Voilley, 2009; Navarro-Tarazaga, Massa, &

248 Pérez-Gago, 2011; Jiménez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2013b). However, the carbon dioxide

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permeability of emulsion-based films depends strongly on chemical composition of lipids.
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250 Ayranci & Tunc (2001) noticed that addition of palmitic and stearic acid to cellulose films
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251 caused the decrease in carbon dioxide transmission when addition of lauric acid showed an

252 opposite effect. This phenomenon can be explained by the shorter hydrocarbon chain length
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253 of lauric acid which makes attraction forces between lauric acid molecules weaker.
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254 The water vapor permeability of films plays an important role in deteriorative reactions

255 of foods; therefore, it is the most extensively studied property of films (Rao, Kanatt, Chalwa,
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256 & Sharma, 2010). Generally, most papers report a decrease in water vapor permeability due to

257 the hydrophobic character of lipids and among them waxes are the best moisture barriers
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258 (Bourtoom, 2009). Anker, Berntsen, Hermansson, & Stading (2002) reported 0.5 (emulsion)

259 and 70 (bi-layer) times reduction of water vapor permeability when the acetylated

260 monoglyceride was added to whey protein films. Emulsion-based films are a less efficient

261 water barrier than bilayer films, as a homogeneous distribution of lipids is not achieved.

262 However, they exhibit good mechanical strength and require a simple process for their

263 manufacture and application, whereas multilayer films require a complex set of operations

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264 that depend on the number of coatings. The smaller the size of particles or lipid globules and

265 the more homogeneously they were distributed, the lower water vapor permeability was

266 observed in emulsion-based films (Debeaufort & Voilley 1995; Pérez-Gago & Krochta,

267 2001). Emulsion stability is promoted since the flocculation rate decreases and creaming is

268 inhibited when solvent evaporates. As was mentioned in previous section, the intense of

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269 homogenization affects the decrease of lipid particle size in emulsions, which is correlated

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270 with reduction of water vapor permeability of dried films (Fig. 1). The principle benefit of the

271 barrier films or coatings could be improved by enhancing the coating properties by preparing

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272 nanosized emulsions to fabricate nanocomposite films that exhibit better barrier, mechanical

273 and functional properties and thus maintain the quality of the fresh produce for longer time

274 (Kalia & Parshad, 2015).

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275 The glass transition temperature which can define the stability of edible films is strongly
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276 dependent on film composition and moisture content (Jiménez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt

277 (2013a). Generally, glass transition temperature of an amorphous material decreases as water
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278 content increases (Hambleton, Perpiñan-Saiz, Fabra, Voilley, & Debeaufort, 2012). Zahedi,
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279 Ghanbarzadeh, & Sedaghat (2010) showed that the glass transition temperature of the

280 pistachio globulin protein film was not considerably affected by fatty acid addition. However,
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281 Jiménez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt (2013a) presented decreasing values of glass transition as a

282 result of addition the fatty acids to starch films. The differences in these behaviors can be
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283 explanted by film composition as well as measurement conditions.

284 In general, lipid films lack the structural integrity of protein or polysaccharide films

285 (Gontard, Marchesseau, Cuq, & Guilbert 1995). The addition of lipids induces the

286 development of a heterogeneous film structure featuring discontinuities in the polymer

287 network (Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2008). Therefore, incorporation of lipids into hydrophilic

288 protein or polysaccharide films to decrease their barrier properties can negatively affect film

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289 strength as expressed by tensile or puncture strength measurements (Weller, Gennadios, &

290 Saraiva, 1998). However, composite films made from both hydrocolloids and lipids may have

291 an advantage. Composite films or coatings show a heterogeneous structure, which means that,

292 they are composed of a continuous matrix with some inclusions such as lipid globules in the

293 case of an emulsion, or solid particles in the case of non-soluble substances (Debeaufort,

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294 Quezada-Gallo, & Voilley, 1998).

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295 The functional properties of emulsion-based films obtained by casting methods might

296 be different from those coatings created on the food surface. However, edible film or coating

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297 as an intervening layer should adhere easily to the surface, and should not crack or develop

298 undesirable sensory characteristics during storage.

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300 Application to fruits and vegetables
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301 Nowadays, consumers expect not only local products but also exotic ones on the

302 market. Unfortunately, a long period of storage and transport conditions have a negative
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303 influence on the quality of such products. In order to prolong the shelf life of exotic and
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304 tropical fruit and vegetables, they are candied, dried or osmotically dehydrated. Such

305 preserved fruit, e.g. plums, apricots, raisins or dactyls, are characterized by a high content of
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306 carbohydrates and a low (due to evaporation) content of water. Such product properties favor

307 sticking and agglomeration, which is perceived by consumers as a drawback. Moreover, the
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308 change in water content negatively influences on product properties. Water desorption makes

309 the product less flexible and hard, while water absorption creates favorable conditions for

310 microorganisms’ development, increase in enzyme activity or the mobility of oxidation

311 reactants. Some studies have shown that coating consisting of waxes, starches, pectins,

312 cellulose derivatives or proteins can provide proper protection from such processes

313 (Hagenmaier & Baker, 1993).

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314 Fruits or vegetables stored for a long time are coated with formulations containing lipids

315 (paraffin, natural waxes) incorporated with chemical substances such as fungicides or growth

316 regulators. However, before market distribution or processing these substances should be

317 removed by rinsing or cleaning (Hall, 2012). Edible coatings with lipids reduce the moisture

318 loss of fruits and vegetables, which can also cause high financial losses for producers. Fruits

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319 and vegetables can be coated with stand alone films preformed by casting or extrusion

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320 processes. However, most applications are based on the formation of the film layer directly on

321 the surface of the product by dipping or spraying the coating solution (Dea, Ghidelli, Pérez-

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322 Gago, & Plotto, 2011).

323 Eating fresh, unprocessed fruit and vegetables is considered to be the best for human

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health. Unfortunately, the perishability and the seasonality of fruit and vegetables as well as
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325 consumers’ demands and eating habits cause increasing producers’ interest in processed and
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326 preserved products rather than fresh and unprocessed ones. Therefore, edible films and

327 coatings have been applied to various steps of processing. The success of edible layers for
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328 fresh products strongly depends on the control of internal gas composition (Dhall, 2013).
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329 During storage in raw materials such as fruit and vegetables there still occur life processes

330 such as water loss (transpiration), respiration, ripening and over-ripeness. All those processes
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331 limit the shelf life of fruit and vegetables to a few or several days under normal conditions.

332 Generally, the incorporation of lipids to edible coatings applied to fresh fruits or vegetables
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333 has a role of minimizing the moisture loss. In the literature, the moisture loss of apple slices

334 as a typical model fruit coated with protein or polysaccharide coatings containing lipids was

335 observed to be decreased significantly in comparison to control ones (Falguera, Quintero,

336 Jiménez, Muñoz, & Ibarz, 2011).

337 Transpiration is the process of water movement through a tissue and its evaporation

338 causing the wilting and the loss of turgor. The loss of water from fresh fruits and vegetables

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339 results the weight loss and shriveling leading to unsaleable loss during retail marketing and a

340 direct financial loss (Caleb, Mahajan, Fahad, Al-Said, & Opara, 2013). Therefore, the

341 application of edible coatings containing lipids is interesting process to limit those undesirable

342 changes and extend the shelf life of whole or cut produce. Guilbert (1988) reported that the

343 use of coating based on casein and carnauba wax diminish the loss of water in papaya creating

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344 a barrier around the product which prevents the loss of water vapor. Similar results were

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345 reported by others (Avena-Bustillos, Krochta, Saltveit, & Rojas-Villegas, 1994; Avena-

346 Bustillos, Krochta & Saltveit, 1997; Ayranci & Tunc, 2004).

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347 Respiration involves the oxidation of carbohydrates to produce carbon dioxide, water

348 and heat. This undesirable process causes a decrease in the carbohydrate content and weight

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loss. There is also a risk of a negative change in their color, undesirable odor and taste, and a
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350 decrease in nutritional value resulting in product decay. Barrier properties of edible films and
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351 coatings can be evaluated by the respiration rate of coated products and by the water vapor

352 resistance (Vargas, Pastor, Chiralt, McClements, & González-Martínez, 2008). When using
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353 edible films and coatings on minimally processed fruit and vegetables, a modified atmosphere
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354 can be created around the product reducing the respiration rate and, as a result, the metabolic

355 processes (Rojas-Graü, Tapia, & Martín-Belloso, 2008). In that case, protein and
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356 multicomponent coatings are especially applied, which as hydrophilic ones are a great barrier

357 to nonpolar substances such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. Velickova, Winkelhausen,

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358 Kuzmanova, Alves, & Moldão-Martins (2013) proved that the incorporation of beeswax into

359 coatings based on chitosan causes a significant decrease in the respiration rate of strawberries,

360 even to 227.9 ml CO2·kg-1h-1 for samples coated with composite-emulsion films. A decrease

361 in the respiration rate was also observed for strawberries coated with chitosan-oleic acid

362 coatings (Vargas, Albors, Chiralt, & González-Martínez, 2006), mandarins coated with

363 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-beeswax-fatty acid film (Navarro-Tarazaga, del Río, Krochta,

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364 Pérez-Gago, 2008), plums coated with hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-beeswax film

365 (Navarro-Tarazaga, Sothornvit, & Pérez-Gago, 2008) and carrots with caseinate-stearic acid

366 coatings (Avena-Bustillos, Cisneros-Zevallos, Krochta, & Saltveit, 1994).

367 Two main features of minimally processed food are high water activity (aw > 0.94) and

368 high biochemical activity resulting from mechanical damage caused during, for example,

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369 peeling or slicing. High water activity limits the use of hydrocolloid coatings, which being

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370 soluble may disintegrate and lose their properties. Lipid-based coatings seem to be a good

371 solution due to their stability. Nevertheless, they can negatively influence the sensory

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372 properties of food, for example, leading to a waxy sensation. That is why there are still some

373 studies which aim to create composite edible films and coatings protecting fruit and

374
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vegetables adequately and at the same time having no negative impact on product properties.
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375 Pérez-Gago, Serra, Alonso, Mateos, & del Río (2003) analyzed the effect of whey protein
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376 isolate-beeswax emulsion coatings on fresh-cut apples. The results showed that coated apples

377 had a higher color parameter L* and presented a lower browning index than uncoated apples,
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378 indicating that whey proteins exert an antibrowning effect and increasing beeswax content
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379 decreased enzymatic browning. In later research, Pérez-Gago, Serrab, & del Río (2006)

380 proved that incorporation of ascorbic acid or 0.5% L-cysteine to whey protein concentrate–
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381 beeswax emulsion coatings reduced enzymatic browning of ‘Golden Delicious’ apples

382 significantly, compared to the use of the antioxidants alone. There was also a sensory
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383 evaluation of coated apples. The results indicated the need to reduce emulsion coating

384 viscosity by decreasing emulsion solid content and increasing beeswax content. Velickova,

385 Winkelhausen, Kuzmanova, Alves, & Moldão-Martins (2013) reported that coatings based on

386 chitosan prolonged the shelf-life of coated strawberries for seven days at temperature 20°C

387 and relative humidity of 53%. The incorporation of beeswax as a component in emulsion

388 coating or as a separate layer had a beneficial impact on weight loss reduction, respiration

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389 rate, retention of firmness and color, as well as retention of the titratable acidity, pH, soluble

390 solids and sugars. An effect against fungal infection was also noticed. During the sensory

391 evaluation strawberries coated with chitosan and composite coating obtained higher overall

392 acceptance and intention to buy. However, it must be said that the sensory properties of the

393 three-layer waxy coatings on strawberries were disliked by the panelists, although they

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394 maintained the best quality of the fruit during the storage period.

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395 Edible coatings containing natural resins such as shellac have a glossy effect on the

396 surface of fruits (apples or citrus fruits) and also play an additional attractive role when used

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397 (Hall, 2012). Chauhan, Raju, Asha Singh, & Bawa (2011) reported limitation of color,

398 firmness and microbial changes of apple slices coated with a coating formulation containing

399
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cassava starch, carnauba wax and stearic acid during 30 days at 6 °C (Chiumarelli &
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400 Hubinger, 2012) or coatings based on carrageenan, caseinate, pectin, or alginate incorporated
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401 with acetylated monoglycerydes (Falguera, Quintero, Jiménez, Muñoz, & Ibarz, 2011).

402 Bósquez-Molina, Guerrero-Legarreta, & Vernon-Carter (2003) observed the potential to

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403 reduce the natural decay rate of Persian limes when the mesquite gum-candelilla wax-mineral
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404 oil coatings were used. Similar formulation, improved by addition of glycerol and calcium,

405 caused about 30% lower weight loss of guava fruit during storage for 15 days (Tomás,
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406 Bósquez-Molina, Stolik & Sánchez, 2005). Similarly, slices of apples, banana and avocado

407 coated with a formulation of candelilla wax and mineral oil showed acceptable quality during
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408 6 days of refrigerated storage conditionss (Saucedo-Pompa, Jasso-Cantu, Ventura-Sobrevilla,

409 Sáenz-Galindo, Rodríquez-Herrera, & Aguilar, 2007).

410 Grape fruits coated with a formulation of pea protein isolate, sorbitol and candelilla wax

411 and stored for 11 days had a significantly higher content of ascorbic acid and reducing sugars,

412 and lower weight losses, which caused the freshness of the fruits to be kept longer. The

413 additional benefit of coating was an attractive sheen of the fruit surface (Kowalczyk & Pikula,

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414 2010). Xu, Chen & Sun (2001) applied emulsion coatings based on pea protein, pullulan and

415 stearic acid to kiwi fruits stored at 15ºC and 50% of relative humidity. After 54 days of

416 storage the moisture loss of coated fruits was 1.78% lower than uncoated ones.

417 Ayranci & Tunc (2004) observed that the application of coatings based on

418 methylcellulose, polyethylene glycol and stearic acid decreased moisture loss of apricot and

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419 green pepper from 19.8 to 7.82% and from 5.02 to 2.87%, respectively, when stored at 25ºC

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420 and 84% relative humidity. The moisture loss was also decreased when the same formulation

421 was applied to cauliflower and mushrooms (Ayranci & Tunc, 2003).

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422 Application of coatings based on pea protein, sorbitol and candelilla wax to Brussels

423 sprouts resulted in a reduction in mass loss and helped to maintain the vitamin C,

424
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polyphenols, and firmness during storage (Kowalczyk, 2011). The same formulation used on
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425 broccoli heads showed higher values of vitamin C and lower texture softening during storage
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426 (Kowalczyk, Pukula, & Baraniak, 2010). The use of caseinate coatings with acetylated

427 monoglycerides significantly reduced moisture loss of zucchini (Avena-Bustillos, Krochta,

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428 Saltveit, & Rojas-Villegas, 1994) and celery sticks (Avena-Bustillos, Krochta & Saltveit,
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429 1997) during storage. Fagundes, Palou, Monteiro & Pérez-Gago (2014) noted the reduction of

430 moisture loss and maintenance of firmness of cold stored cherry tomato fruits when antifungal
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431 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-beeswax edible coatings were used. Additionally, no negative

432 effect on physicochemical characteristic and sensory attributes was observed. Brussels sprouts
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433 coated with corn starch-sunflower oil coating showed the reduction of loss of moisture,

434 vitamin C and polyphenols, and maintenance of color and firmness during 42 days of storage

435 at 0ºC (Viña, Mugridge, García, Ferreyra, Martino, Chaves, & Zaritzky, 2007). Tzoumaki,

436 Biliaderis & Vasilakakis (2009) presented a beneficial impact of whey protein-stearic acid

437 coatings on the quality parameters of asparagus spears by retarding moisture loss, reducing

438 hardening in their basal part and slowing down the development of purple color. A composite

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439 coating of whey protein concentrate and rice bran oil with glycerol as a plasticizer effectively

440 preserved the color, firmness, taste, and the overall acceptability of kiwi fruits during storage

441 (Hassani, Garousi, & Javanmard, 2012). Avocados coated with a composite coating based on

442 pectin, beeswax and sorbitol sustained a significantly slower rate of disease severity of

443 Lasiodiplodia theobromae and respiration rate. The associated quality changes of texture and

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444 color were also much lower in coated fruits as compared with the control (Maftoonazad,

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445 Ramaswamy, Moalemiyan, & Kushalappa, 2007).

446

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447 Application to meat and meat products

448 Meat is characterized as a food with tissue structure and is often treated by different

449
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kinds of technological processes which favor the development of microorganisms. Bacteria of
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450 the species Listeria monocytogenes are especially inconvenient for the food industry. They
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451 have a the tendency to create biofilms and the ability to produce stress proteins at subtle dose

452 limit values and consequently immunize themselves against subthreshold doses. Hydrocolloid
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453 coatings based on cellulose derivatives, alginates and gums with addition of acids (acetic or
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454 lactic) or substances with antimicrobial activity can inhibit the development of such

455 microorganisms effectively (Debeaufort, Quezada-Gallo, & Voilley, 1998). Edible films and
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456 coatings may be applied to meat and meat products by foaming, dipping, spraying, casting,

457 brushing, individual wrapping or rolling. Foam application is used for emulsion coatings,
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458 where a foaming agent is added to the coating or foam is created by compressed air. Meat

459 may be coated with protective foam as it moves over rollers (Ustunol, 2009).

460 Frozen meats, poultry, and fish coated in oil-in-water emulsions prepared at 60 to 80 °C

461 by blending an animal fat or vegetable oil with water, emulsifiers and/or preservative agents

462 did not show substantial dehydration during storage. The control of moisture loss and freezer

463 burn in refrigerated or frozen meats during storage were reported by using before processing

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464 aqueous emulsion coatings with long chain saturated fatty acids or alcohols (Gennadios,

465 Hanna, & Kurth, 1997).

466 Vargas, Albors, & Chiralt (2011) applied chitosan-sunflower oil edible films with acetic

467 or lactic acid to cold-stored pork meat hamburgers to extend their shelf life. However, it was

468 noted that the addition of sunflower oil caused a reduction in the antibacterial effect of pure

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469 chitosan films against coliform microorganisms. The decrease in the antibacterial activity of

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470 edible films can be explained by the dilution effect of chitosan, thus being less available for

471 organisms.

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472 Meat texture is influenced not only by the presence of different kinds of proteins but

473 also by the water content. Food texture is one of the basic criteria used by consumers to assess

474
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the freshness and the quality of food products. Therefore, there is a need to limit water loss
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475 during the storage of meat. Stuchell & Krochta (1995) created coatings consisting of whey
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476 proteins and monoacylglycerols and proved their ability to limit water loss and the oxidation

477 changes of fat in salmon. Similar results were obtained by Vargas, Albors, Chiralt, &
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478 González-Martínez (2009) and Vargas, Albors, & Chiralt (2011), who proved that the
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479 incorporation of sunflower oil or unsaturated fatty acids into chitosan matrix leads to a

480 reduction in the water vapor permeability of edible films.

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481 Göğüş, Bozoglu, & Yurdugül (2004) used that emulsion aqueous coating based on

482 vegetable oil and beeswax for refrigerated chicken meat with a yogurt dip and observed a
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483 delay of the growth of both Gram positive and Gram negative (S. typhimurium and

484 Pseudomonas spp.) spoilage flora on coated meat.

485 Coating the sausage surface allows to control product weight loss to a certain degree,

486 which can be an alternative to vacuum packaging of dry sausages. Liu, Kerry, & Kerry (2006)

487 produced films/casings using pectin and gelatin/sodium alginate blends containing vegetable

488 oils (corn oil and olive oil) using extrusion technology. The research showed that quality and

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489 stability of films/casings were greatly enhanced by addition of oils. These casings were used

490 for breakfast pork sausage (Liu, Kerry, & Kerry, 2007). Tyburcy, Jankiewicz, Kozakowska,

491 & Cegiełka (2006) observed that efficiency of carrageenan-gelatin protective coatings against

492 weight loss on dry hot-smoked sausage when the solution was hot-emulsified with lard. The

493 efficiency was increased with an increasing amount of lard up to 40%, which was the

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494 maximal addition due to the limitation of emulsion stability. The replacement of half of the

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495 lard content with beeswax reduced adhesion and additionally improved barrier properties. In

496 the next study, the addition of lard, as an ingredient prone to oxidation changes, was

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497 decreased by addition of sorbitol or beeswax. However, the obtained casings were

498 characterized by cracking (Tyburcy, Trzepanowski, & Cegiełka, 2007). Due to these results,

499
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emulsion formulations with varied content of glycerol and carrageenan with pre-drying of the
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500 coating on the kabanosy sausage surface were used. Carrageenan concentration had a
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501 significant effect on the amount of emulsion adsorbed on the sausage surface but little

502 influence on the barrier capacity. Casings with glycerol addition at both 5 and 10% levels had
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503 no visible cracks and were easily removed from the sausage surface during 15 days of storage
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504 Pre-drying of coated sausages reduced peeled product weight loss after storage (Tyburcy &

505 Kozyra, 2010).

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506 Appearance is the most important aspect for consumers to buy meat and meat products.

507 The incorporation of sunflower oil into chitosan-based films led to an increase in the gloss of
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508 pork meat hamburgers, especially when acetic acid was used as a solvent. The phenomena of

509 creaming and coalescence of the oil droplets during film drying explain the increase in gloss

510 related to the addition of sunflower oil. This consequently led to reduction of the increase in

511 specular reflectance in the air-film interface and surface roughness, which was possible thanks

512 to the ability of oil to fill the small surface voids generated during the film formation.

513 Generally, the smoother the surface, the higher the gloss. On the other hand, the use of edible

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514 coatings can also have a negative impact on the appearance of coated products. Pork meat

515 hamburgers coated with chitosan films were characterized by a higher metmyoglobin content

516 after 4 days of storage compared to uncoated samples. It is commonly known that

517 metmyoglobin is formed in a low oxygen atmosphere. This means that the chitosan film is a

518 good barrier to oxygen. It was reported that the incorporation of sunflower oil caused a

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519 reduction in metmyoglobin content of hamburgers compared to those coated with pure

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520 chitosan films. Addition of a lipid component led to an increase in oxygen permeability

521 (Vargas, Albors, & Chiralt (2011).

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522

523 Application to cheeses

524
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Cheese is the most diverse group of dairy products, characterized by different formats,
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525 textures, aromas and flavors, with complex composition. The shelf life of cheeses is limited
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526 due to the uncontrolled and extensive fungal and bacterial development on its surface, which

527 may reduce the quality. Antimicrobial coatings applied to the cheese surface is one way to
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528 limit negative changes which can be promoted during handling and storage. These edible
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529 hydrocolloid coatings can also replace nonedible commercial layers such as paraffin or

530 polyvinyl acetate. Ramos, Pereira, Silva, Fernandes, Franco, Lopes-da-Silva, Pintado, &
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531 Matcata (2010) applied antimicrobial emulsified coatings to full-fat cheese using whey

532 protein isolate, glycerol, guar gum, sunflower oil and Tween20 together with several
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533 combinations of antimicrobial compounds as natamycin, lactic acid or chitooligosaccharides.

534 Application of these coatings limits growth of pathogenic or contaminant microorganisms and

535 reduces water loss, hardness, and color change during 60 days of storage, whereas

536 commercial nonedible coatings inhibited only yeasts and molds. Further, emulsified coatings

537 also influence the cheese gas exchange. Galactomannan coatings plasticized with glycerol

538 containing corn oil significantly reduced the O2 consumption and CO2 production rates on

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539 semi-hard “Regional” cheese. Additionally, it was shown that application of this coating

540 reduces the water loss, hardness and the color change during storage (Cerqueira, Souza-

541 Gallagher, Macedo, Rodriguez-Aguilera, Souza, Teixeira, & Vincente, 2010)

542

543 Application to bakery products

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544 Bakery and extruded products such as biscuits, snacks, and breakfast cereals are

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545 characterized by crispy texture, due to the low moisture content. Loss of crispness and

546 softening during storage under higher relative humidity conditions are caused by increasing

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547 water content. Application of emulsified coatings from corn starch, methylcellulose and

548 soybean oil to crackers stored at 65, 75, and 85% relative humidity confirmed the potential of

549
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edible packaging to reduce the hydration kinetics in high relative humidity, and become an
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550 integral part of the food (Bravin, Pressini, & Sensidoni, 2006). Talens, Pérez-Masía, Fabra,
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551 Vargas, & Chiralt (2012) described the effectiveness of edible coatings based on caseinates or

552 chitosan in partially dehydrated pineapple for its use in dry fruit-cereal products. Emulsion
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553 coatings based on chitosan/oleic acid, sodium caseinate/beeswax/oleic acid, and sodium
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554 caseinate/calcium caseinate/beeswax/oleic acid were analyzed as a protective layers for

555 pineapples to avoid the cereals to reach the critical moisture content during storage time. The
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556 result showed that caseinate-based emulsion coatings extend the shelf life of the pineapple-

557 cereal multicomponent system.

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558

559 Application to nuts

560 Lipid oxidation on nuts may be prevented by using effective barrier such as edible

561 coatings which separate the nuts from atmospheric oxygen. Mehyar, Al-Ismail, Han & Chee

562 (2012) noted the effectiveness of emulsion coatings based on pea starch, whey protein isolate

563 and carnauba wax in preventing the oxidation and hydrolytic rancidity of walnuts and pine

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564 nuts. Additionally, all coated nuts provided positive sensory preference compared to the

565 control. Similar results were also presented by Javanmard (2008) when whey protein

566 concentrate–olive oil emulsion coatings were used on the pistachio kernels.

567

568 Active emulsified films and coatings

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569 Emulsified films and coatings including active ingredients, such as flavors,

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570 antimicrobials, antioxidants, bioactive compounds or nutraceuticals, can be used as an

571 alternative to preserve food products. Active compounds can be incorporated directly into the

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572 polymer matrix or can be encapsulated to better protect their activity and properties (Desorby

573 & Debeaufort, 2012). Among the substances with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties,

574
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benzoic acid, sorbic acid, lysozyme, potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, calcium lactate,
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575 calcium ascorbate, and plant-derived secondary metabolites, such as essential oils, are used to
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576 prevent deterioration of food products. Generally, active compounds are incorporated into

577 pure hydrocolloid matrix, but the formation of active layers as emulsified structures is also
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578 presented. Recent studies have shown that essential oils play an effective role as antimicrobial
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579 agents; therefore plant essential oils and their components have been widely reported.

580 Additionally, these substances are compatible with the sensory characteristics of many food
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581 products. The emulsified films based on pectin and cinnamon leaf oil at 36.1 g/l resulted in

582 the development of a film antioxidant and antibacterial properties. The results showed that
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583 application of these coatings to fresh-cut peaches had a beneficial effect, decreasing bacterial

584 growth against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria

585 monocytogenes, and increasing its antioxidant status and odour acceptability (Ayala-Zavala,

586 Silva-Espinoza, Cruz-Valenzuela, Leyva, Ortega-Ramírez, Carrazco-Lugo, Pérez-Carlón,

587 Melgarejo-Flores, González-Aguilar, & Miranda, 2012). In general, essential oils exhibit

588 antimicrobial activity against pathogenic microorganisms but their low water solubility limits

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589 their application in foods. To improve water dispersion and protect essential oils from

590 degradation, nano-sized emulsions emerge as a viable alternative. Nanoemulsions containing

591 essential oils and polysaccharides could be used to form edible films with functional

592 properties (Acevedo-Fani, Salvia-Trujillo, Rojas-Graü, & Martín-Belloso, 2015). Salvia-

593 Trujillo, Rojas-Graü, Soliva-Fortuny & Martín-Belloso (2015) showed that edible coating

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594 with lemongrass essential oil droplets in the nano range exhibited faster and greater

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595 inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 during storage compared with conventional

596 emulsions. Additionally, nanoemulsion-based coatings with lemongrass essential oil at 0.5

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597 and 1.0 % completely inhibited the natural microflora of fresh-cut Fuji apples within 2 weeks.

598 Antioxidants are added to emulsified coatings to protect against oxidative rancidity,

599
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degradation, and discoloration of certain foods. Ascorbic acid is extensively used to avoid
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600 enzymatic browning of fruits or vegetables. Olivas, Rodrigues, & Barbosa-Cánovas (2003)
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601 observed the retardation of browning of pear wedges when emulsified coatings based on

602 methylcellulose and stearic acid incorporated with ascorbic acid and potassium sorbate were
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603 applied. A similar formulation based on methylcellulose, stearic acid, polyethylene glycol and
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604 ascorbic acid applied to apricots and green peppers delayed weight loss and lowered vitamin

605 C loss (Ayranci & Tunc, 2004). The results showed that emulsified films and coatings have
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606 been recognized for more innovative uses beyond their current uses. Those materials may not

607 only improve moisture barrier efficacy or other functional properties but also have a high
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608 potential to carry active ingredients that can extend product shelf life and reduce the risk of

609 pathogenic growth on food surfaces. Research on active hydrocolloid films is increasingly

610 reported, but specific studies on active emulsified films and coatings and application on food

611 products are rather limited, and consequently their industrial implementation is still incipient.

612

613 Future trends

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614 Nowadays, a great discussion exists about the potential applications of edible materials

615 on food products. Generally, the main efforts are focused on finding the correct combination

616 between the food product and coating formulation. Emulsified layers provide a lot of

617 advantage, especially by limiting moisture loss of coated fruits and vegetables. New

618 formulations should be analyzed concerning the incorporation of functional compounds to

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619 create multicomponent layers with combined properties. Nevertheless, more research is

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620 needed to develop stable products during longer time of storage. Some research showed the

621 limit of negative changes of coated products during short time (a few days), however this time

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622 can be effectively prolonged by using also appropriate packaging technology.

623 There is a lack of information regarding stability of emulsion and lipid oxidation, and its

624
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possible effect on sensory attributes of coated products. New lipids, with high stability, as
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625 well as new hydrocolloids based on non-conventional sources should be analyzed as potential
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626 ingredients of emulsified coatings. Additionally, the adaptation of coating technology to

627 industrial equipment and possibilities is the important aspect. An film-forming emulsion with
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628 lipids of high melting temperature need to be prepared at specific conditions which can
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629 generate new costs for producers and have to be taken into account.

630 Further, to assess the final quality of the coated products and evaluate the real
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631 effectiveness of emulsified films and coatings, a sensory analysis should be investigated

632 during time storage in order to evaluate if the coating does not change taste and flavor in the
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633 final coated product. Nevertheless, recent studies showed that the small lipid particle size in

634 nanoemulsions enhance physicochemical film properties and may improve biological activity

635 of lipophilic compounds by increasing the surface area per unit of mass, which consequently

636 leads to lower doses of active compounds. In this sense, nanoemulsions may be used for

637 edible film and coating preparations as a new generation of active packaging.

638

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639 Conclusions

640 Because of numerous potential applications and properties, emulsion-based films and

641 coatings have gained lot of attention. These layers are obtained during only one film-forming

642 casting and one drying process; therefore this systems shows potential for use. Emulsion-

643 based films and coatings have proved to be effective to increase stability of a variety of fresh

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644 or processed fruits, vegetables, meat and other food products. Selection of the appropriate

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645 emulsified layers for a specific product depends on its nature, characteristics, costs, specific

646 needs, and benefits that this technology can offer to the consumers and the manufacturers.

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647 Composite emulsion-based edible materials produced from hydrocolloids and lipids result in

648 better functionality than films produced with one component, especially with respect to their

649
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water barrier properties. Generally, more research is needed to improve application processes
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650 of emulsion-based edible materials, especially sensory aspects, to be appropriate for each
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651 product. New advancement have to be welcomed for improving functionality and

652 performance of emulsion-based films and coatings to develop new genre of edible materials
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653 that can better maintain the shelf life and naturalness of the food products.
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654

655 Acknowledgments
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656 The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Ministry of Science and Higher

657 Education through Project IP2011 013371.

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658

659 References

660 Acevedo-Fani, A., Salvia-Trujillo, L., Rojas-Graü, M. A., & Martín-Belloso, O. (2015).

661 Edible films from essential-oil-loaded nanoemulsions: physicochemical characterization

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663 Allen, L., Nelson, A. I., Steinberg, M. P., & McGill, J. N. (1963). Edible corn-carbohydrate

664 food coatings. II. Evaluation of fresh meat products. Food Technology, 17 (11), 104-

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666 Anker, M., Berntsen, J., Hermansson, A. M., & Stading, M. (2002). Improved water vapor

667 barrier of whey protein films by addition of an acetylated monoglyceride. Innovative

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668 Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 3, 81–92.

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669 Avena-Bustillos, R. J., Cisneros-Zevallos, L. A., Krochta, J. M., & Saltveit, Jr M. E. (1994).

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671 carrots. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 4, 319-329.

672 Avena-Bustillos, R. J., Krochta, J. M., & Saltveit, M. E. (1997). Water vapour resistance of

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674 monogliceride films. Journal of Food Science, 62 (2), 351-354.
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675 Avena-Bustillos, R. J., Krochta, J. M., Saltveit, M.E., Rojas-Villegas, R. J., & Sauceda-Perez,

676 J. A. (1994). Optimization of edible coating formulations on zucchini to reduce water

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677 loss. Journal of Food Engineering, 21 (2), 197-214.

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678 Ayala-Zavala, J. F., Silva-Espinoza, B. A., Cruz-Valenzuela, M. R., Leyva, J. M., Ortega-

679 Ramírez, L. A., Carrazco-Lugo, D. K., Pérez-Carlón, J. J., Melgarejo-Flores, B. G.,

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680 González-Aguilar, G. A., & Miranda, M. R. A. (2012). Pectin-cinnamon leaf oil

681 coatings add antioxidant and antibacterial properties to fresh-cut peach. Flavour and
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682 Fragrance Journal, 28, 39-45.

683 Ayranci, E., & Tunc, S. (2001). The effect of fatty acid content on water vapour and carbon

684 dioxide transmissions of cellulose-based edible films. Food Chemistry, 72 (2), 231–236.

685 Ayranci, E., & Tunc, S. (2003). A method for the measurement of the oxygen permeability

686 and the development of edible films to reduce the rate of oxidative reactions in fresh

687 foods. Food Chemistry, 80, 423-431.

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688 Ayranci, E., & Tunc, S. (2004). The effect of edible coatings on water and vitamin C loss of

689 apricots (Armeniaca vulgaris Lam.) and green peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Food

690 Chemistry, 87, 339-342.

691 Bai, J., Hagenmaier, R. D., & Baldwin, E. A. (2003). Coating selection for ‘Delicious’ and

692 other apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 28 (3), 381–390.

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693 Bakkali, F., Averbeck, S., Averbeck, D., & Idaomar, I. (2008). Biological effects of essential

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694 oils e a review. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46, 446-475.

695 Baldwin, E. A. (1994). Edible coatings for fresh fruits and vegetables: past, present and

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696 future. In J. M., Krochta, E. A., Baldwin, & M., Nisperos-Carriedo (Eds.) Edible

697 coatings and films to improve food quality (pp. 25-64). Lancaster: Technomic.

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710 Journal of Food Protection, 67 (4), 833-848.

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712 quality of pomegranate arils as affected by storage conditions. CYTA - Journal of Food ,

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719 application and storage temperature for prolonging shelf-life of “Regional” cheese.

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758 homogenization conditions and lipid self-association on properties of sodium caseinate

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760 Fabra, M. J., Talens, P., & Chiralt, A. (2008). Tensile properties and water vapor permeability

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804 Han, J. H., & Gennadios A. (2005). Edible films and coatings: a review. In J. H. Han (Ed.)

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807 concentrate – rice bran oil to maintain the physical and chemical properties of the

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810 Hopkins, E. J., Chang, Ch., Lam, R. S. H., & Nickerson, M. T. (2015). Effects of flaxseed oil

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833 Karbowiak T., Debeaufort F., & Voilley A. (2007). Les emballages comestibles: nature,

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841 Kowalczyk, D., & Pikula, E. (2010). Effect of edible protein-wax coating on storage quality

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853 Liu, L., Kerry, J. F. & Kerry, J. P. (2006). Effect of food ingredients and selected lipids on the

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856 Liu, L., Kerry, J. F., & Kerry, J. P. (2007). Application and assessment of extruded edible

857 casings manufactured from pectin and gelatin/sodium alginate blends for use with

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869 coatings consisting of pea starch, whey protein isolate, and carnauba wax and their
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878 the moisture permeability of lipid-based edible films: a review. Critical Reviews in

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880 Navarro-Tarazaga, M. L., del Río, M. A., Krochta, J. M., Pérez-Gago, M. B. (2008). Fatty

881 acid effect on hydroxpropyl methycellulose-beeswax edible film properties and

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888 type and amount on hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-beeswax edible film properties and

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907 Pérez-Gago, M. B., & Krochta, J. M. (2001). Lipid particle size effect on water vapor

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924 Carbohydrate Polymers, 81, 1243-1247.

925 Rhim, J. W. & Shellhammer, T. H. (2005). Lipid-based edible films and coatings. In J. H.

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1001 Yang L., & Paulson A. T., (2000). Mechanical and vapor barrier properties of edible gellan

1002 films. Food Research International, 33, 571-578.

1003 Zahedi, Y., Ghanbarzadeh, B., & Sedaghat, N. (2010). Physical properties of edible

1004 emulsified films based on pistachio globulin protein and fatty acids. Journal of Food

1005 Engineering, 100, 102–108.

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Table 1. Summary of different components used as emulsified edible coatings and its applications.

Lipid
Hydrocolloid compounds Applications Main benefits References
compounds

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whey protein isolate apple antibrowning effect Pérez-Gago et al. 2003
whey protein concentrate apple antibrowning effect Pérez-Gago et al. 2006

RI
slower rate of disease spread and respiration rate,
pectin avocado reduction in fruit softening and color changes, Maftoonazad et al. 2007

SC
beneficial effect on firmness retention
reduction in weight and firmness loss Navarro-Tarazaga, del Río et al.
mandarin
hydroxypropyl 2008

U
methylcelullose reduction in weight loss, fruit softening and Navarro-Tarazaga, Sothornvit &
plums

AN
Beeswax bleeding, no negative impact on taste Pérez-Gago 2008
decrease in the senescence and weight loss,
retention of the color and the texture, the

M
titratable acidity, pH, soluble solids and sugars,
chitosan strawberries Velickova et al. 2013
good visual appearance and taste, enhancement

D
in the antimicrobial properties of chitosan,
reduction in the respiration rate

TE
extension of the postharvest life by the reduction
methylcelullose cherry tomato fruit Fagundes et al. 2014
of gray mold development
EP
reduction in weight loss Tyburcy et al. 2006, Tyburcy &
Beeswax, lard gelatin, carrageenan dry sausage
Kozyra 2010
reduction in weight loss, retention of the vitamin
C

C and polyphenols, limited softening during

Brussels sprouts Kowalczyk, 2011
AC

storage, improved overall appearance, firmness

and gloss
Candelilla wax pea protein
retention of the ascorbic acid and reducing
grapes sugars, reduction in weight loss, extension of the Kowalczyk & Pikula, 2010
postharvest life, attractive gloss
broccoli retention of the vitamin C and the color, slower Kowalczyk et al. 2010
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increase in acidity, limited firmness loss

extension of the shelf life, reduction in weight
loss and ethylene emission, attractive gloss,
guava fruit Tomás et al. 2010
Candelilla wax, retention of the color, limited softening and

PT
mesquite gum firmness loss
mineral oil
reduction in weight loss, retention of the color,
Persian limes Bósquez-Molina et al. 2003

RI
attractive gloss
increase in the water vapor resistance and
cassava starch apple Chiumarelli & Hubinger, 2012

SC
reduction in weight loss
Carnauba wax effectiveness in preventing oxidative and
pea starch, whey protein walnuts and pine
hydrolytic rancidity, improvement in smoothness, Mehyar et al. 2012

U
isolate nuts
taste, and overall appearance

AN
Shellac, attractive gloss
whey protein isolate apple Bai et al. 2003
oleic acid
Acetylated increase in the water vapor resistance, reduction

M
monoglicerydes, calcium or sodium in white blush and respiration rate Avena-Bustillos, Cisneros-
carrot
beeswax, caseinate Zevallos et al. 1994

D
stearic acid
reduction in water loss Avena-Bustillos, Krochta et al.

TE
calcium caseinate zucchini
1994
increase in the
EP
Acetylated calcium or sodium caseinate apple, celery sticks water vapor resistance, reduction in the Avena-Bustillos et al. 1997
monoglicerydes respiration rate
reduction in the rate of moisture loss,
C

whey protein isolate frozen king salmon effectiveness in delaying reducing oxidative Stuchell & Krochta, 1995
AC

rancidity
reduction of the O2 consumption and the CO2
Corn oil galactomannan cheese production, decrease in weight loss and microbial Cerqueira et al. 2010
counts, retention of the color
Corn oil, pectin, gelatin, sodium breakfast pork reduction in water loss Liu et al. 2007
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olive oil alginate sausage

reduction in the rate of oxidative rancidity,
Olive oil whey protein concentrate pistachio nuts extension of the shelf life, glossy appearance, Javanmard, 2008
delay in the formation of peroxide

PT
pork meat reduction in the metmyoglobin content, smooth
chitosan Vargas et al. 2011
hamburgers surface, attractive gloss

RI
reduction in the water loss, hardness, and color
whey protein isolate cheese Ramos et al. 2012
change

SC
reduction in the ethylene production,
Sunflower oil microbiological deterioration, extension of the
gellan gum, sodium alginate apple Rojas-Graü et al. 2008
shelf life, antibrowning effect, maintenance of

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the initial firmness, retention of the color

AN
reduction in weight and firmness loss,
maintenance of the ascorbic acid and total
corn starch Brussels sprouts Viña et al. 2007
flavonoids, increase in the radical-scavenging

M
activity
Soybean oil corn starch, methylcelullose crackers extension of the shelf life Bravin et al. 2006

D
reduction in the weight and texture loss, retention

TE
Rice bran oil whey protein concentrate kiwifruit of the color, maintenance of the overall sensory Hassani et al. 2012
attributes
sodium- retention of the color
EP
carboxymethylcelulose, whey asparagus Tzoumaki et al. 2009
protein isolate, pullulan
Stearic acid
C

apricot, green reduction in the water loss

methylcellulose Ayranci & Tunc, 2004
pepper
AC

soy protein isolate, pullulan kiwifruit decrease in the senescence and water loss Xu et al. 2001
enhancement in the antimicrobial properties of
Oleic acid chitosan strawberries chitosan, reduction of the respiration rate, Vargas et al. 2006
extension of the shelf life
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Figure caption

Fig. 1. Emulsion layers formation

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Emulsion layer Nanoemulsion layer

Water transfer:

PT
Technique: Rotor-stator homogenization Ultrahigh pressure homogenization

RI
Fig. 1.

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Highlights

• The food application of emulsion-based edible films and coatings was reviewed.

• The emulsified films and coatings are obtained during only one casting and drying

process.

PT
Animal and plant waxes are the most popular lipids applied to food as emulsified films

and coatings.

RI
• The emulsion-based films and coatings improve food quality by prolonging their shelf

SC
life.

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