foods

Review
Alginate-Based Edible Films and Coatings for Food
Packaging Applications
Tugce Senturk Parreidt 1,2, * , Kajetan Müller 2,3 and Markus Schmid 4
1 Chair of Food Packaging Technology, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University
of Munich, Weihenstephaner Steig 22, 85354 Freising, Germany
2 Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35,
85354 Freising, Germany; kajetan.mueller@hs-kempten.de
3 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Applied Science Kempten, Bahnhofstraße 61,
87435 Kempten, Germany
4 Faculty of Life Sciences, Albstadt-Sigmaringen University, Anton-Günther-Str. 51,
72488 Sigmaringen, Germany; schmid@hs-albsig.de
* Correspondence: tugce.sentuerk@ivv.fraunhofer.de; Tel.: +49-8161-491-472




Received: 14 August 2018; Accepted: 14 October 2018; Published: 17 October 2018


Abstract: Alginate is a naturally occurring polysaccharide used in the bio industry. It is mainly
derived from brown algae species. Alginate-based edible coatings and films attract interest for
improving/maintaining quality and extending the shelf-life of fruit, vegetable, meat, poultry,
seafood, and cheese by reducing dehydration (as sacrificial moisture agent), controlling respiration,
enhancing product appearance, improving mechanical properties, etc. This paper reviews the
most recent essential information about alginate-based edible coatings. The categorization of
alginate-based coatings/film in food packaging concept is formed gradually with the explanation
of the most important titles. Emphasis will be placed on active ingredients incorporated into
alginate-based formulations, edible coating/film application methods, research and development
studies of coated food products and mass transfer and barrier characteristics of the alginate-based
coatings/films. Future trends are also reviewed to identify research gaps and recommend new
research areas. The summarized information presented in this article will enable researchers to
thoroughly understand the fundamentals of the coating process and to develop alginate-based edible
films and coatings more readily.

Keywords: edible coating; edible film; food packaging; alginate; crosslinking; additives; application
method; food; transport mechanism

1. Introduction
The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from physical, chemical,
and biological influences by delaying food deterioration, retaining and prolonging the beneficial
effects of processing, and maintaining the quality and safety of the foods with extending shelf
life [1]. Broad external influences such as the development of international food markets, legal and
technological requirements, raw material availability, consumer demands, etc. caused the food
packaging area to change perpetually [2]. A total of 1.3 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste per
year was generated in 2012, but it is expected to increase to 2.2 billion tonnes per year by 2025 [3].
Non-renewable, non-biodegradable packaging materials have serious environmental drawbacks.
They have been considered a major source to the solid waste and environmental pollution by consumers
and environment activists [4,5]. In order to solve this problem, companies and researchers have been
working on ways to develop new packaging strategies with environmentally friendly, abundant

Foods 2018, 7, 170; doi:10.3390/foods7100170 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2018, 7, 170 2 of 38

biodegradable packaging materials made from renewable natural polymers [4,6]. Furthermore,
the rapidly growing interest in the use of edible packaging can also be associated with a growing
interest from consumers for minimally processed fresh-like foods with an extended shelf life and trend
in improving the quality of food with edible barriers [7].
Edible films and coatings are thin layers of material (their thickness is generally less than 0.3 mm)
used for enrobing the food product to replace or fortify the natural layers and can be consumed as
a part of the product or with further removal [8,9]. Therefore, the materials used in the formulation
should conform to the general food laws and regulations [10]. Additionally, the coatings and films
should not affect the organoleptic properties of the food product negatively [6].
Edible packaging can be a superficial coating on the food or continuous layers between
compartments/ingredients of the heterogeneous products (e.g., pizza, bakery fillings, and toppings) [8].
The coating can also be applied on individual pieces of the whole product, which have not been
individually packaged due to practical arguments, such as fresh-cut melons, kiwis, strawberries, nuts,
beans, pears [11].
Edible films and coatings can be used to overcome many obstacles involved in the marketing
of foods [12]. These functions can be specified as retarding moisture, gas, solute and oil migration,
improving structural integrity, retaining volatile flavor compounds, conveying food additives [12].
In addition, they improved the aesthetic appearance by minimizing the development of physical
damage, hiding scars, and improving surface shine [13,14]. For instance, hot-melt paraffin waxes have
been used to coat citrus fruits to retard moisture, edible collagen casings have been used for sausages
to provide structural integrity and apples have been coated with wax to improve surface shine and
prevent physical damage.
The required features expected from edible films and coatings can be assigned by the specific
characteristics of the product and changes during production, transportation, and storage periods.
Despite providing a barrier, the non-edible packaging is still essential for edible coated food products
due to hygienic reasons [8]. Nevertheless, combining edible films and coatings with traditional
packaging would likely reduce the non-biodegradable packaging waste of processed foods and
environmental effluence [12,15,16].
Although edible coating and edible film terms have been used interchangeably or as synonyms in
some sources; their application on the food products constitutes their main difference [9]. Edible films
are stand-alone wrapping materials which can be cut and placed on the food product separately due
to having enough integrity; on the other hand, edible coatings form a thin layer on the product directly
subsequent to the application [8,9,17,18]. Therefore, although produced from the same gelling agent,
the characteristics of edible films and coatings can be very different [9].
Alginate-based food coatings and films attracted widespread interest. A wide range of scientific
research has been published in the literature. This overview summarizes the literature information
with dividing into categories in a layout:

1. General information about alginate and gel formation

2. Lists of additives incorporated into the alginate-based edible films and coatings in the literature
3. Types of film production and coating application
4. Sums up the research findings on alginate coated fruits-vegetables, meats, poultry, seafood, cheese
5. Transport of the products’ molecular components
6. Future trends

Our present study can be used as a guide for researchers both in the academy and industry who
plan to work on alginate-based coatings, will select the components of their formulations, and plan
their future studies and experiments.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 3 of 38

2. Film-Forming Materials
Film-forming biopolymers are generally classified according to the type of film-forming material,
which form cohesive and continuous matrices [8]. These are hydrocolloids (polysaccharides and
proteins), lipids and composites (Figure 1) [12,19]. Hydrocolloids are composed of hydrophilic
polymers of microbial, vegetable, animal, or synthetic origin [15]. Mostly, they are large molecules
with many hydroxyl groups [15,20]. Hydrocolloid film applications do not target to control water
vapor migration due to their hydrophilic nature [12]. However, the continuous polysaccharide film
can be referred to as a sacrificial moisture agent. That is, moisture evaporates from the film instead of
the food surface [21–24]. Subsequent to the desiccation of the coating film, the food product would
lose its moisture [24].

Figure 1. The film-forming biomaterials that have been studied extensively for the formation of edible
coatings and films (Donhowe and Fennema [12], Embuscado and Huber [25]).

In general, polysaccharides are used as gas barriers; lipids reduce water transmission, while
proteins provide mechanical stability [9]. The main disadvantages of lipid-based films and coatings
are their opaqueness, fragility, and instability (rancidity), on the other hand, hydrocolloid films and
coatings have a more neutral taste [6]. Composites are formulated using both lipid and hydrocolloid
components, which are incorporated into the formulation in order to benefit from their advantages
together [12]. Composites can be formed as a bilayer or as a conglomerate [12].

3. Alginate
Alginates are naturally occurring, indigestible polysaccharides commonly produced by
and refined from various genera of brown algae (mainly Laminaria hyperborean, Macrocystis
pyrifera, Ascophyllum nodosum; lesser extent Laminaria digitate, Laminaria japonica, Eclonia maxima,
Lesonia negrescens, Sargassum sp.) [26–30]. Some bacteria such as Azotobacter vinelandii or mucoid strains
of Pseudomonas aeruginosa also synthesize alginate like polymers as exopolysaccharide (i.e., extracellular
polymeric substances, EPSs) [29,31]. Alginate production from Marine algae [32] and A. vinelandii [33]
are explained elsewhere.
The molecular structure of alginates is composed of unbranched, linear binary copolymers
of β-D-mannuronic acid (M) and α-L-guluronic acid (G) residues linked by 1–4 glycosidic bonds
(Figure 2a) [27,28,34,35]. An algal alginate structure could be separated into three fractions (three uronic
Foods 2018, 7, 170 4 of 38

acid blocks): These are homopolymeric regions of M and G blocks, and alternating MG blocks
containing both polyuronic acids [27,35,36]. Bacterial alginates have O-acetyl groups, while they
are not present in the structure of algal alginates [37]. Additionally, bacterial alginates have higher
molecular weights compared to the algal polymers [33].

Figure 2. The structural formulae of monomeric units in alginate and the schematic representation of
the egg-box model (a) Left hand side: Haworth conformation; right hand side: Chair conformation
(b) Gelation of poly L-guluronate blocks (G Blocks, ) with Ca2+ ( ) (Peteiro [32],
Lee and Rogers [38]).

The source of the alginate affects the ratio of M and G residues, which have an impact on the
physical and chemical properties of the alginate, as well as the viscosity of the coating solution and
thickness on the product [28,36,39]. Martinsen, et al. [40] characterized the relationship of physical
properties of alginate gel beads with a polymer composition, sequential structure, and molecular size
of the several different alginate sources.
Alginic acid was first discovered and isolated by Dr. E.C.C. Stanford in 1881 [35]. Alginates
(i.e., sodium alginate (E401), potassium alginate (E402), ammonium alginate (E403), and calcium
alginate (E404)) are monovalent salts of alginic acid (E400) [27,41,42]. Alginic acid and calcium
alginate are insoluble in water while sodium alginate, potassium alginate, and ammonium alginate are
water-soluble polymers [42,43]. They have a limited solubility at low pH values [44]. The solubility of
different types of alginates in numerous solvents and solutions were listed by Kimica Corporation [45].
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies food grade sodium alginate as GRAS
(generally regarded as safe) substance in Title 21 of the Code for Federal Regulations (CFR) and lists its
usage as an emulsifier, stabilizer, thickener, and gelling agent [46]. The European Commission (EC)
listed alginic acid and its salts (E400–E404) as an authorized food additive [41].
Alginate is widely used in various industries such as food, beverage, textile, printing,
and pharmaceutical as a thickening agent, stabilizer, emulsifier, chelating agent, encapsulation,
swelling, a suspending agent, or used to form gels, films, and membrane [28,47]. Sodium alginate is
the most common salt of alginate [48].

4. Crosslinking
It is widely well-known that alginate is polyuronide, a natural ion exchanger [49]. The charged
state of alginate is beneficial for film formation. In the absence of bivalent ions, alginate can be only
used to increase viscosity [38]. However, the addition of certain bivalent cation into the alginate
Foods 2018, 7, 170 5 of 38

solution leads to a gel formation through ion exchange [42,47]. The affinity of alginate for the alkaline
earth metals increases in the order Ca2+ < Sr2+ < Ba2+ [38,49]. Monovalent cations and Mg2+ ions do
not form a gel [50]. Even though divalent cations such as Pb2+, Cu2+ , Cd2+ , Co2+ , Ni2+ , Zn2+ , and Mn2+
can also induce gelation, their toxicity limits their utilization [51].
Alginate gel formation is rather a complex process. The proportion and length of the guluronic
acid block (G-blocks) in the polymeric chain, the capacity to bind the number of divalent ions, the type
of gelling ions and gelling conditions affect strongly the hydrogel properties of alginate [39,52–54].
The introduction of divalent cations (usually Ca2+ ions) to the system induces conformational changes
in alginate such as alignment of the G-blocks and the formation of the egg-box model [54] due to
bounding of calcium ions between two chains and forming divalent salt bridges (Figure 2b) [39,40].
A higher amount of G-Blocks will create rigid and dense gels, while a higher amount of M-Blocks
will build flexible, porous gels [54–57]. Therefore, the diffusional resistance of gels containing
predominantly high polyguluronic alginate content against high-molecular-weight-compounds
is high [56,57]. Besides, the study by Olivas and Barbosa-Cánovas [58] revealed that films
containing higher proportions of G-Block (in other words, lower M/G ratio) showed better moisture
barrier characteristics.
There are two types of procedures for the incorporation of gelling ions into the alginate solution to
form hydrogel (i.e., external and internal gelling modes) [59,60]. (1) For external gelation (the traditional
method), alginate solution is directly exposed to the solution of gelling ions, Ca2+ instantaneously
reacts with carboxylic groups of guluronic acid residues and hydrogel is formed irreversibly due to the
diffusion of ions [52,59,61]. (2) On the other hand, the internal gelling method consists in incorporating
an insoluble source of gelling ions with alginate solutions and afterward, the gelling ions are released
by processes that lower the pH: the addition of organic acids or slowly hydrolyzing lactones [52,59].
When these two methods are compared, internal gelation forms more homogeneous but less dense gel
matrices with larger pore sizes compared to the external gelation due to the displacement of Ca2+ by
H+ with the acid addition [60,61].
According to Mancini and McHugh [53], gel formation by cooling of the hot solution,
which contains all the components, can be evaluated as the third method to initiate the controlled
alginate gelation. Due to the thermal energy that the alginate solution possesses, a calcium-induced
hydrogel formation can only take place after cooling [53].
The source of calcium ions (i.e., calcium chloride, calcium lactate, calcium gluconate, calcium nitrate,
and calcium propionate) has an influence on gel formation. Allen et al. (as cited in Reference [62,63])
reported that crosslinking with calcium chloride generated stronger alginate gels compared to calcium
gluconate, calcium nitrate, and calcium propionate. The calcium source also affects the kinetics of
gelation; in other words, the rate of gelation and Ca2+ concentration is positively correlated [38]. Calcium
chloride has the highest solubility (75 g/100 mL) followed by calcium lactate (8 g/100 mL) and calcium
gluconate (3 g/100 mL) at 20 ◦ C [38]. The steady-state gel strength was reached fastest by calcium
chloride followed by calcium lactate and calcium gluconate [52]. On the contrary, according to the
study by Chrastil [64], the gelation kinetic constants did not depend on the calcium source. However,
the strength of the formed gel and the resistance against calcium diffusion are not dependent on the
calcium source type [38,52].
Despite its high solubility, calcium chloride is not an attractive calcium source due to imparting a
bitter taste on the food [38]. On the other hand, calcium gluconate and calcium lactate can be used in
coating applications where the taste attributes are important [38].
In situ gelation of alginate, and strongly homogeneous structure forming are also an interest
of biotechnology (e.g., tissue engineering, immobilization of cell and enzyme systems, carriers for
drug delivery system). A technique to prepare homogeneous alginate gels with a slow release of
calcium ions has been reported [65,66]. In a similar approach, Kuo and Ma [67] used calcium carbonate
D-glucono-δ-lactone (CaCO3 -GDL) or calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4 .2H2 O -CaCO3 -GDL) as a
gelation agent due to their very low solubilities, which allows for a uniform distribution of the CaCO3
Foods 2018, 7, 170 6 of 38

in the alginate solution and, therefore, a more controlled and more uniform gel formation. In their
subsequent research, the dimensional stability (swelling tendency of the gel due to an increased
tendency of the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups to interact with water molecules and osmotic pressure)
was controlled by controlling the calcium ion concentration of the external aqueous environment,
crosslinking density, and polymer concentration of the gel and chemical composition of alginate [68].
It was pointed out by Pavlath, et al. [69] that two type of reactions take place when an alginate
film/coating is immersed in crosslinking calcium solution: diffusion of the multivalent ion which
induces formation of calcium linkage with the carboxyl groups for the insolubilization of the alginate
film, and the dissolution of alginate by the solution [58]. The increased concentration of the multivalent
ion diminishes the dominance of the dissolution process [69]. Rhim [70] also noticed the same
phenomena and added that the method of CaCl2 treatment affected the thickness of the film, i.e., direct
addition of the crosslinking agent lead to thicker films compared to immersing the alginate films into a
crosslinking solution.
The properties of the formed film are also dependent on the mixing temperatures; although
mixing at ~20 ◦ C caused an immediate gel formation that could not be cast, mixing at ~50 ◦ C formed a
viscous solution which could be poured into the frames [69].
The degree of crosslinking affects the swelling ability of the 3D structure of the alginate in the
solvent, and we end up with a decrease in the permeability to various solutes and being used in drug
controlled release systems [71]. In the study by Zactiti and Kieckbusch [71], the degree of swelling
decreased (in other words, the crosslinking was increased) with the increasing concentration of Ca+2
ions in the crosslinking solution and, therefore, the solubility and elongation of the alginate films
decreased, while the tensile strength increased. Similarly, Rhim [70] observed that an increase in
the CaCl2 concentration caused an increase in the tensile strength and a decrease in the percentage
elongation at break.
The literature on the effects of calcium chloride dipping alone (without coating) has shown that
CaCl2 can be used as an effective firming agent due to the ability of calcium to bind cell wall polymers,
maintain its structure, and diminish the water solubility of pectic substances with forming calcium
pectate [72–74]. Improvement in firmness increases with increasing concentration of CaCl2 , however,
this is independent from the dipping time [75].

5. Additives
The mechanical, functional, organoleptic, and nutritional characteristics of edible films and
coatings can be modified with the incorporation of various natural or chemical additives [12].

5.1. Plasticizers
The mechanical properties of biodegradable packages can be improved by the plasticization of the
polymer-network with plasticizers, which are generally non-volatile and miscible with the polymer.
The primary objectives of the plasticizers are increasing the free volume or molecular mobility of
polymers, decreasing the intermolecular forces, bestowing flexibility, reducing brittleness, improving
tear impact resistance, and regulating the flow of the coating material [26,76–79]. Furthermore,
the plasticizers should have the same solubility properties with the polymer in the solvent system
(to prevent plasticizer or polymer separation during film/coating application), possess a high boiling
point, and should be able to change the physical and mechanical properties of the substance when
incorporated into the formulation [6,76].
Water is the most common and most effective plasticizer; still, the plasticizing effect of water
in hydrophilic biopolymers is difficult due to the dependency of the environmental conditions
such as relative humidity and temperature [6,8]. Apart from water, glycerol, sorbitol, acetylated
monoglyceride, polyethylene glycol, sucrose, etc. have been used as plasticizers in food coating
studies [12]. The addition of hydrophilic plasticizers to the formulation generally promotes water
vapor permeability (WVP) and influences the mechanical properties of the coating material [12,80].
Foods 2018, 7, 170 7 of 38

Therefore, the type and the quantity of the plasticizer are very important in the designing of the
edible coating formulation. Parris, et al. [81] stated that based on the total solid content of the film,
the plasticizer amount should be determined between 10% and 25% as lower concentrations cause
brittleness whereas higher concentrations lead to stickiness.
Glycerine and sodium lactate lead to stronger and more elastic alginate-based films compared to
sorbitol, which was stiffer [81]. However, sorbitol added films exhibited better water vapor barrier
properties at the same concentration due to being less effective in reducing intermolecular hydrogen
bonding between polymer molecules [81]. Jost, Kobsik, Schmid, and Noller [80] compared the effects of
glycerol and sorbitol addition to alginate films in terms of their mechanical properties and determined
that both plasticizers decreased equilibrium moisture content and porosity. On the other hand,
the incorporation of glycerol caused higher WVP and oxygen permeability, while sorbitol did not alter
barrier properties [80]. Similarly, Olivas and Barbosa-Cánovas [58] analyzed the effects of different
plasticizers (glycerol, sorbitol, polyethylene glycol (PEG), and fructose) on WVP and the mechanical
properties of calcium alginate films in two different RH values. WVP increased in the order of fructose,
sorbitol, glycerol, and PEG incorporated films. Plasticizers induced a sharp increase in moisture
content in the moisture sorption isotherm graphs and modified the mechanical properties with an
increasing tensile strength.
In several studies, glycerol has been used as a plasticizer, particularly for alginate films and
coatings. However, the amount used is variable. Rojas-Graü, et al. [82] reported that the water vapor
resistance (WVR) of alginate coatings increases with an increasing glycerol concentration up to 1.75%
(v/v) in the formulation; however, WVR decreases at higher concentrations of glycerol. Likewise,
Azarakhsh, et al. [83] observed the same type of effect during the optimization of the alginate coating
formulation and determined the amount as 1.16% (w/v). On the other hand, Tapia, Rojas-Graü,
Carmona, Rodríguez, Soliva-Fortuny, and Martin-Belloso [39] determined that glycerol concentrations
above 1.5% (w/v) decreased the WVR.
High wettability and uniform spreading ability of the edible coating on the targeted food product
are desired characteristics of edible coatings while designing the formulations [84–86]. Therefore,
the effects of the components on the surface tension of the coating solutions are an important factor.
Yet, glycerol and sorbitol do not have a significant effect on the surface tension of the solutions due to
not being tensio-active substances [87,88].
High amounts of plasticizer (>10%) have also been incorporated in alginate-based edible coating
formulations in the literature [89–93].
Some studies combined more than one plasticizer in order to overcome the brittleness of the
alginate films and coatings. Fan, et al. [94] chose glycerol, palmitic acid, β-cyclodextrin, and glycerol
monostearate in film formulation. Su Cha, et al. [95] used a 1:1 concentration of polyethylene glycol
and glycerol combination.

5.2. Surfactants
Adhesion on hydrophobic, rough surfaces and obtaining a uniform edible coating can be very
difficult due to the low surface free energy of the surface [9]. Addition of surface active agents
(surfactants) are the key ingredients to increase the wettability of the product and improve the
adhesion of the coating material [88]. Moreover, with a reducing superficial water activity, surfactants
and emulsifiers had a decreased rate of moisture loss when they were incorporated into the coating
formulation [96].
The major characteristics of the surfactants are being present at the surface of the interfaces
(liquid-air, liquid-liquid, liquid-solid) at higher concentrations compared to the bulk of the liquid [97].
Surfactants can be classified based on two characteristics: charge type of the surface active part
and the chemical structure of the hydrophilic groups [97]. Accordingly, these groups are; anionic
(negatively charged), non-ionic (no charged group), cationic (positively charged), and amphoteric
(can be positively or negatively charged, or both, depending on the circumstances) surfactants [97].
Foods 2018, 7, 170 8 of 38

The uniform spreading ability of the coating on the targeted product is a very important
effectiveness indicator of an edible coating. Therefore, researchers checked the surface free energy of the
food products, the surface tension of the edible coatings, and spreading coefficient (Ws ) while designing
their coating formulations. Senturk Parreidt, Schott, Schmid, and Müller [88] characterized the
alginate-based coating formulations with various concentrations and types of surfactants (0–5% tween
40, tween 80, span 80, span 60, and soy lecithin).

5.3. Antimicrobials
The addition of antimicrobial and antioxidant agents to the edible coatings and films is beneficial
compared to their direct application to food products due to providing the opportunity of gradually
releasing the agents and maintaining a critical concentration for a prolonged period [26,71,98,99].
In contrast with the migration of antimicrobials from the coating, the direct addition of antimicrobials
to food will cause immediate microbial inhibition while the recovery of the injured cells and the later
growth of the undestroyed cells may cause quality losses and/or foodborne diseases [100].
A great variety of antimicrobial agents have been incorporated into alginate-based edible films and
coatings (Table 1). The summarized results show that alginate forms an effective base for antimicrobials
to decrease the microbial load of coated food products.
Antimicrobial properties, mode of action, and the potential uses of essential oils (EOs) have been
revealed in various studies in the literature [101–104]. These natural preservatives have also been
added into edible films and coatings to introduce antimicrobial properties [105]. The limiting factor
of their usage is their strong flavor, which originates from the phenolic compounds (i.e., abietane
diterpenes, carnosol, ursolic acid) they contain [105].
Foods 2018, 7, 170 9 of 38

Table 1. The incorporation of antimicrobials in alginate-based edible films and coatings.

Food Coating/Crosslinking Antimicrobial Result Source

alginate-apple puree/CaCl2 1
high concentrations of Eos inhibited the growth of Listeria innocua,
fresh-cut apple oregano, lemongrass, vanillin Rojas-Graü, et al. [106]
(EC 1 ) psychrophilic aerobic bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
15 EOs were evaluated. EC-thyme oil significantly inhibited the TPC 1,
fresh-cut apple alginate/CaCl2 (EC) thyme oil Sarengaowa, et al. [107]
total coliform, LAB 1 , yeast and mold growth.
malic acid, cinnamon, palmarosa,
fresh-cut melon [108], malic acid went through antimicrobial action alone. However, when EOs or their Raybaudi-Massilia et al.
alginate/calcium lactate (EC) lemongrass, clove EOs, and their
apple [109] active compounds were incorporated, the effect was increased even further. [108,109]
active compounds
EC-antimicrobial agent was significantly effective against psychrotrophs,
fresh-cut watermelon alginate/calcium lactate (EC) trans-cinnamaldehyde Sipahi, et al. [110]
coliforms, yeasts, and molds.
alginate, sunflower oil/CaCl2 yeast, mold, and the total plate count were significantly reduced, and the
fresh-cut pineapple lemongrass EO Azarakhsh, et al. [111]
(EC) shelf-life was prolonged.
carvacrol was effective against both E. coli and B. cinereal, on the other hand,
strawberry alginate (EC) carvacrol, methyl cinnamate Peretto, et al. [112]
methyl cinnamate inhibited only B. cinerea.
microbial decay due to psychrotrophs, yeasts, and molds was Fan, Xu, Wang, Zhang, Sun,
strawberry alginate/CaCl2 (EF 1 ) Cryptococcus laurentii
significantly reduced. Sun, and Zhang [94]
capsicum alginate/CaCl2 (EC) pomegranate peel extract EC-pomegranate peel extract possessed antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Nair, et al. [113]
alginate-maltodextrin/CaCl2 -CMC EC-HOCl had no inhibitory effect, although HOCl inhibited the bacterial growth
beef pieces and steak hypochlorous acid (HOCl) Williams, et al. [114]
(EC) when treated alone.
nisin, acetic acid, lactic acid,
only acetic and lactic acid inhibited E. coli. Immobilization in EC enhanced the
ground beef alginate/CaCl2 (EC) potassium sorbate Fang and Tsai [115]
activity of only some of the antimicrobial agent/combination.
chelating agents: EDTA 1 , HMP 1
ground beef alginate/CaCl2 (EF) nisin load of Brohothrix thermosphacta significantly decreased until day 7. Cutter and Siragusa [116]
EC-immobilized acids were more effective in reducing L. monocytogenes
Siragusa and Dickson
beef tissue alginate/CaCl2 (EC) acetic acid, lactic acid compared to their direct application. Lactic acid had a higher inhibitory effect
[117,118]
against Gram (−) at the same pH.
alginate alone or
alginate coating alone had no microbial inhibition effect. Composite coating and
chicken fillet alginate-galbanum gum/CaCl2 EO of Ziziphora persica Hamedi, et al. [119]
addition of EO to formulation had a significant microbial reduction.
(EC)
alginate-maltodextrin/CaCl2 -CMC 1 EC-lactoperoxidase decreased the microbial load of Enterobacteriaceae,
chicken breast fillet lactoperoxidase enzyme Yousefi, et al. [120]
(EC) P. aeruginosa and aerobic mesophilic bacteria but had no effect on the LAB.
alginate-whey protein/CaCl2 Antimicrobial effect increased with increasing concentration of the
chicken thigh meat lactoperoxidase enzyme Molayi, et al. [121]
(EC) lactoperoxidase.
northern snakehead fish alginate/CaCl2 (EC) nisin, EDTA EC did not increase the effectiveness of antimicrobials against TVC 1 and TPC. Lu, et al. [122]
starch-alginate/calcium
smoked salmon two strains of LAB, nisin EF with LAB strains and nisin inhibited L. monocytogenes growth. Concha-Meyer, et al. [123]
gluconate (EF)
sodium lactate, sodium diacetate, Neetoo, Ye, and Chen [124]
EC-antimicrobials delayed the growth of L. monocytogenes during cold storage
smoked salmon alginate (EF) commercial formulation consists and Ye, Neetoo,
[124] and greatly prolonged the microbial shelf life during frozen storage [125].
of both (Opti.Form) and Chen [125]
Foods 2018, 7, 170 10 of 38

Table 1. Cont.

Food Coating/Crosslinking Antimicrobial Result Source

oyster lysozyme, hen egg white both EC-oyster and EC-hen egg white lysozyme inhibited L. monocytogenes and
smoked salmon alginate/CaCO3 (EC) Datta, et al. [126]
lysozyme, nisin S. anatum. Addition of nisin enhanced the antimicrobial activity.
bamboo leaf extract, 1
EC-rosemary extract enhanced bacterial inhibition. PCA was used to correlate Hao, Liu, Sun, Xia, Jia, Li,
abalone alginate/CaCl2 (EC)
rosemary extract between the microbial count and biogenic amines. and Pan [93]
rainbow trout fillet alginate/CaCl2 (EC) resveratrol coating with antimicrobial agent decreased bacterial, yeast, and mold growth. Bazargani-Gilani [127]
EC-clove EO has antimicrobial activity against L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and
silver carp fillet alginate-CMC/CaCl2 (EC) clove EO E. coli, in a decreasing order. Gram (+) bacteria were more sensitive then Gram Jalali, et al. [128]
(−). Concentration increase had a significant effect.
combined effect of EC-horsemint EO significantly decreased the growth rate of
bighead carp fillet alginate/CaCl2 (EC) horsemint EO Heydari, et al. [129]
TVC and TPC.
winter flounder (fish) alginate/CaCl2 (EC) glucose oxidase (GOx) enzyme-alginate blankets exhibited very low surface pH values. Field, et al. [130]
EC decreased TVC, the reduction was even higher with the incorporation of tea
sea bass alginate (EC) tea polyphenols Nie, et al. [131]
polyphenols into the coating.
sea bass [132], -polylysine [132], EC--polylysine and EC-6-gingerol reduced microbial counts, even more
alginate/CaCl2 (EC) Cai et al. [132,133]
red sea bream [133] 6-gingerol [133] effectively than antimicrobial agent or coating, alone.
EC system containing biopreservative L. reuterin was designed [135].
sea bass [134], Fior di Latte reuterin produced by
alginate/CaCl2 (EC) EC-reuterin was effective in the improvement of microbiological quality Angiolillo et al. [134,135]
cheese [135] Lactobacillus reuteri
[134,135].
alginate-whey EC-ginger EO had a bacteriostatic and bactericidal effect on E. coli
kashar cheese ginger EO Kavas, et al. [136]
protein isolate (EC) and S. aureus, respectively.
potassium sorbate, sodium active compounds showed a similar effect in terms of the growth of
mozzarella alginate/CaCl2 (EC) benzoate, calcium lactate, calcium Pseudomonas spp. and Enterobacteriaceae. EC–3% potassium sorbate decreased Lucera, et al. [137]
ascorbate the growth rate.
An oregano EO concentration ≥ 2% was effective against S. aureus,
low-fat cut cheese alginate-mandarin fiber (EC) oregano EO Artiga-Artigas, et al. [138]
psychrophilic bacteria, molds, and yeasts.
release kinetics were studied. L. monocytogenes and E. coli were
-2 alginate/CaCO3 (EF) microencapsulated lemongrass oil Bustos, et al. [139]
successfully inhibited.
Zactiti and Kieckbusch
-2 alginate/CaCl2 (EF) potassium sorbate the permeability and release of potassium sorbate were modeled.
[71,140]
alginate clay marjoram, clove, cinnamon nanocomposite EF-Marjoram was the most effective in controlling foodborne
-2 Alboofetileh, et al. [141]
bionanocomposite (EF) essential oils pathogens due to possessing a high content of phenolic compounds.
the inhibitory effect was dependent on the Gram character and increased in the
-2 alginate/CaCl2 (EF) garlic oil Pranoto, et al. [142]
following order: S. typhimurium < E. coli < S. aureus < B. cereus.
lysozyme, nisin, grapefruit seed EF with grapefruit seed extract alone or in combination with EDTA showed Su Cha, Choi, Chinnan,
-2 alginate (EF)
extract, EDTA good antimicrobial protection. and Park [95]
-2 alginate-CMC/CaCl2 (EF) pyrogallic acid EF-pyrogallic acid had significant inhibitory effect against E. coli and S. aureus. Han and Wang [143]
1 EC: edible coating; EF: edible film; EO: essential oil, EDTA: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; HMP: sodium hexametaphosphate; LAB: lactic acid bacteria; TVC: total viable count; TPC:
total psychrophilic count; PCA: principal component analysis; CMC: carboxyl methylcellulose. 2 No food product was covered.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 11 of 38

5.4. Antioxidants
Antioxidants have been defined by FDA as “substances used to preserve food by retarding
deterioration, rancidity, or discoloration due to oxidation” [144]. Autoxidation comprises of a free
radical chain mechanism in which unsaturated fatty acids react with free radicals [145]. Apart from
autoxidation, lipid quality deterioration can arise from photooxidative conditions, oxidation via
lipoxygenase-assisted process or oxidation under high temperatures [145].
Coatings can also serve as carriers of antioxidative substances to protect against discoloration,
degradation and oxidative rancidity [96]. Table 2 lists antioxidant agents used in alginate-based edible
films and coatings. The application of an edible coating with incorporated antioxidants decreases the
oxidation successfully due to the gas barrier properties of alginate coating and the synergistic effect
between two factors.
Phenolic antioxidants, which have often been incorporated into alginate-based coatings and films,
do not work as oxygen absorbers but prevent the formation of fatty acid-free radicals and, therefore,
their absorbance of oxygen in autooxidation [128].
Foods 2018, 7, 170 12 of 38

Table 2. The incorporation of antioxidant agents in alginate-based edible films and coatings.

Food Coating/Crosslinking Antioxidant Result Source

Tapia, Rojas-Graü, Carmona,
alginate, sunflower total ascorbic acid content was almost doubled throughout the
fresh-cut papaya ascorbic acid Rodríguez, Soliva-Fortuny,
oil/CaCl2 (EC 1 ) storage due to oxygen barrier properties.
and Martin-Belloso [39]
EC increased the antioxidant activity; the effect was even promoted
guava alginate/CaCl2 (EC) pomegranate peel extract Nair, et al. [146]
with the addition of pomegranate peel extract.
alginate, sunflower EC-antioxidant agents had significant antioxidant activities, although
fresh-cut pears N-acetylcysteine, glutathione Oms-Oliu, et al. [147]
oil/CaCl2 (EC) EC alone did not.
coating process, when applied together with a modified atmosphere,
sliced carrots alginate/CaCl2 (EC) citric acid Amanatidou, et al. [148]
enhanced the shelf life extension effect.
alginate, starch, regardless of their incorporation method, tocopherols were effective.
ground beef patties tocopherols Wu, et al. [149]
stearic acid (EF 1 ) Additionally, tocopherols improved the moisture barrier properties.
buffalo meat patties alginate/CaCl2 (EC) sodium ascorbate, citric acid EC with antioxidants retarded lipid oxidation. Chidanandaiah, et al. [150]
alginate-galbanum 1
both galbaum gum and Ziziphora EO have high antioxidant Hamedi, Kargozari, Shotorbani,
chicken fillet EO of Ziziphora persica
gum/CaCl2 (EC) activities due to the high phenolic and flavonoid content. Mogadam, and Fahimdanesh [119]
alginate, modified
pork chops rosemary oleoresin lipid oxidation was inhibited. Handley, et al. [151]
starch/CaCl2 (EC)
EC decreased TBA 1 significantly due to being resistant to oxygen
bream alginate/CaCl2 (EC) vitamin C, tea polyphenols Song, et al. [152]
diffusion. Vitamin C was more effective in decreasing lipid oxidation.
EC and antioxidant alone led to an equal inhibition effect; on the
red sea bream alginate (EC) 6-gingerol other hand, their combination had minimum lipid oxidation values Cai, Wang, Cao, Lv, and Li [133]
in terms of TBA.
EC caused lower oxidation values after the 8th day of storage; the Heydari, Bavandi, and Javadian
bighead carp fillet alginate/CaCl2 (EC) horsemint EO
addition of horsemint EO increased this effect even further. [129]
EC-clove EO significantly decreased the lipid oxidation probably due
silver carp fillet alginate/CaCl2 (EC) clove EO to the combined effect of EO and oxygen barrier properties of the Jalali, Ariiai, and Fattahi [128]
alginate coating.
rainbow trout fillet alginate/CaCl2 (EC) resveratrol EC-resveratrol coating reduced lipid oxidation significantly. Bazargani-Gilani [127]
although the EC-lycopene combination helped decrease the FFA 1,
alginate-clay nanoparticles/
rainbow trout fillet lycopene other fat oxidation parameters such as peroxide and TBA values Ehsani, et al. [153]
CaCl2 (EC)
could not be significantly decreased.
EC, tea polyphenols inhibited lipid oxidation when they were
Nie, Wang, Wang, Lei, Hong,
sea bass alginate (EC) tea polyphenols applied alone, however, the inhibition was higher in their
Huang, and Zhang [131]
combination due to the synergistic effect.
white, red, and extruded EC-ginseng extract showed good antioxidant activity, which can be
-2 alginate/CaCl2 (EF) Norajit, et al. [154]
white ginseng extracts even increased with controlling the extrusion process.
1 EC: edible coating; EF: edible film; EO: essential oil; TBA: thiobarbituric acid; FFA: free fatty acid. 2 No food product was covered.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 13 of 38

5.5. Antibrowning Agents

Color is a critical quality parameter. Browning reactions during the shelf life of fresh-cut fruits and
vegetables result from both enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidation of phenolic compounds [155–157].
Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables undergo minimal processing operations such as cutting, peeling,
trimming, coring etc., that disrupt cellular compartmentalization, thus, browning proceeds much
rapidly [156]. It is well known that browning in fruits and some vegetables mainly originate by the
enzymatic oxidation (polyphenol oxidases) of phenolic compounds [156,157]. Polyphenol oxidase
requires oxygen to start browning reactions; therefore, implementing an oxygen barrier can be
beneficial in preventing browning [156,157]. Additionally, antibrowning agents are utilized against
oxidative rancidity, degradation, and enzymatic browning in fruits and vegetables [82].
Edible coatings can be effective carriers for antibrowning agents withholding the agents on
the surface of the cut tissues [79]. Antibrowning agents are commonly incorporated in crosslinking
solutions and applied after the adhesion of the edible coating solution on the surface of the fresh
produce [79]. Rojas-Graü et al. and Raybaudi-Massilia et al. incorporated N-acetylcysteine [79,82,109]
and glutathione [82,109] into a calcium chloride bath to control the browning of fresh-cut apples
and accomplished to keep apple wedges free from browning during storage. Likewise, Oms-Oliu,
Soliva-Fortuny, and Martín-Belloso [147] used the same agents to avoid the browning of fresh-cut
pears. Azarakhsh, Osman, Ghazali, Tan, and Mohd Adzahan [111], Montero-Calderón, et al. [158]
and Sarengaowa, Hu, Jiang, Xiu, and Feng [107] added ascorbic and citric acid into a calcium chloride
solution for coating fresh-cut pineapples and apples.

5.6. Flavors, Pigments, Nutritional Improvements

The organoleptic properties of the coated products can be improved with the addition of
some ingredients such as flavorings, coloring agents, sweeteners, spices, and seasonings to the
coating matrix [6,11,26]. Hambleton et al. encapsulated n-hexanal [159,160] and D-limonene [160]
in alginate-based emulsified films with the help of lipid addition. Several nutritional additives
such as vitamins, minerals, and probiotics have been incorporated in the edible films and coatings
without damaging the integrity of the product [26]. Lipids (especially sunflower oil) have been
extensively incorporated into alginate-based coating formulas and have increased their water
resistance characteristics [82,83,147,158,161]. However, in addition to water resistance improvement,
consumption of vegetable oils has also some health benefits. For instance, the European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA) and EU Vegetable Oil & Protein Meal Industry (FEDIOL) declare that sunflower oil is
rich in unsaturated, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and vitamin E content [162–164]. Although sunflower
oil has been generally preferred as a lipid source in the literature, other vegetable oils have also been
incorporated into the formulations. Ramana Rao, et al. [165] prepared a composite coating consisted of
alginate and olive oil enriched with ascorbic and citric acid. Bazargani-Gilani [127] added resveratrol
as a dietary supplement into a calcium-alginate gel. Tapia, Rojas-Graü, Rodríguez, Ramírez, Carmona,
and Martin-Belloso [161] incorporated viable Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 for a probiotic coating of
apple and papaya cylinders, while Rößle, et al. [166] added prebiotics, oligofructose, and inulin to the
coating of fresh-cut apples. Nair, Saxena, and Kaur [146] enriched the alginate-based coating with a
pomegranate peel extract to enhance the phytochemical level of quava. Artiga-Artigas, Acevedo-Fani,
and Martín-Belloso [138] added a mandarin fiber with prebiotic properties to the alginate coating and
increased the nutritional value of the low-fat cut cheese.

6. Application Methods
Film formation methods and conditions of coating processes have important impacts on the
physical properties of the formed film [26]. Uniform and defect-free (i.e., no air bubble and mechanical
damage) film forming is very crucial to optimize its functionalities [26].
Foods 2018, 7, 170 14 of 38

6.1. Film Formation

The mechanisms of edible film formation are listed below [10]:

1. Simple coacervation: The precipitation or phase change of the hydrocolloid, which is dispersed in
water, is achieved following to (i) the solvent evaporation process (i.e., drying); (ii) incorporation
of hydrosoluble non-electrolyte (in which the hydrocolloid is not soluble, e.g., ethanol); (iii) the
pH adjustment with the addition of electrolyte, which impel salting out or cross-linking.
2. Complex coacervation: The precipitation of the polymer complex is achieved by mixing two
hydrocolloid solutions, which have opposite electron charges.
3. Gelation or thermal coagulation: Precipitation or gelation is accomplished by heating of the
macromolecule which causes its degradation (e.g., proteins such as ovalbumin) or the cooling of
hydrocolloid dispersion (e.g., agar, gelatin).

The production principles of shelf-standing film techniques are similar to those for thermoplastic
films: solvent casting and extrusion, although the conditions are different [26].

6.1.1. Solvent Casting

It is the most frequently used film-forming technique, which consists of spreading of water or
water-ethanol solutions/dispersions on a suitable surface and later air drying during several hours in
a ventilated oven such as infrared drying chambers [26,167]. Following the evaporation of the solvent,
the film is peeled from the surface without any damage. The structure of the film is depended on
the composition of the casting solution, wet casting thickness, temperature and relative humidity of
the drying conditions [26]. Rapid drying of the casting solution should be avoided due to reducing
the solvent concentration very fast, and therefore limiting the mobility of the polymer chain and
development of intermolecular interactions in the film [26].

6.1.2. Extrusion
The extrusion technique is based on the thermoplastic properties of the polymers [167].
Subsequent to the plasticizer addition, the solution is heated above its glass transition temperature
under low water content conditions [26,167]. The extrusion method is preferred in commercial
applications due to the lack of solvent addition and evaporation steps [167].
The co-extrusion technique can be utilized to form multilayer films. However, due to the
differences in the chemical-physical characteristics of each film-forming material, mechanical, optical,
and barrier defects can come into existence [26].

6.2. Coating Application

Application method and the ability of the coatings to adhere to the food surface are the two
important characteristics regarding edible coatings [167].

6.2.1. Dipping
Food products are usually coated by a dipping or spraying technique, in which a thin film
was formed on the surface that acts as a semipermeable membrane to control moisture loss and gas
transfer [168,169].
This method consists of four steps: sample immersion into the alginate dispersions followed
by withdrawing the sample and draining the excessive film-forming solution covering the product.
Then, a second immersion of the alginate coated sample into the crosslinking bath to achieve the gel
formation and draining of the excessive solution [170]. The dipping process is generally very short,
therefore the evaporation from solvents in the coating and crosslinking solutions are neglected [171].
The duration of the dipping and draining times differ from each study, but it is generally between 30
Foods 2018, 7, 170 15 of 38

s to 5 min. The main advantage of the method is its total coating even around complex and rough
surfaces [172].
Due to the hydrophilic surface of the cut surfaces of the food products, a good adhesion cannot
be easily accomplished by the simple dipping of the food product into the coating material. Multilayer
coating or the layer-by-layer (LbL) technique has been used to minimize the sticking difficulty of
the coating on the hydrophilic surface of the cut surfaces [26,110,173,174]. The process is based
on the dipping of food product into different coating solutions that contain oppositely charged
polyelectrolytes to achieve physical and chemical bonding to each other [110,174]. Currently, the LbL
technique is applied mainly on fruits and vegetables [175].
The dipping method forms thick coatings. Additionally, Duan, Wu, Strik, and Zhao [92] pointed
out that dipping might have diminished the efficacy of the coating application due to the dilution and
dissolving effect.

6.2.2. Spraying
The spraying method is another conventional technique used to form a semi-permeable membrane
on the surface of food products [89]. The spraying system distributes the coating solution through the
formation of droplets over the targeted food surface area with the help of nozzles [172]. The spraying
technique needs less amount of coating material to achieve good coverage due to high spraying
pressure (approx. 60–80 psi) [176]. The other advantages of this method are the uniform coating,
control of thickness, possibility of multilayer applications, avoidance of coating solution contamination,
temperature control of the solution and enabling of working with large surface areas [172].
The spraying solution should not have a high viscosity. Spray-flow characteristics are dependent
on (i) liquid properties (i.e., density, viscosity, surface tension), (ii) operating conditions (flow rate, air
pressure, etc.), and (iii) system conditions (nozzle design, spray angle, etc.) [172,177].
Earle and McKee [22] sprayed the dispersion containing water-soluble algin and, later, a gelling
agent on the freshly slaughtered hanging animal carcasses. Researchers determined the viscosity of
the solution as the critical point of the vertical spraying application to have a uniform adherence to the
alginate film. Papajová, Bujdoš, Chorvát, Stach, and Lacík [59] designed a setup to prepare externally
gelled planar alginate hydrogels with the airbrushing aerosols of a gelling solution. Amanatidou,
Slump, Gorris, and Smid [148] applied a different spraying procedure. Carrot slices were initially
dipped in CaCl2 solutions and, following the drying, an alginate-based solution was sprayed on the
surface of the slices.

6.2.3. Vacuum Impregnation

The Vacuum Impregnation (VI) method has been used for the enrichment of the product with
vitamins and minerals in food research. Recently, studies showed that VI coating can form a thicker
and more effective film with the incorporation of solutes into the air containing porous food matrices
such as fruits and vegetables [178,179].
The VI method consists of the same dipping-draining steps, which were explained in the dipping
subsection. However, instead of dipping tanks, the samples are submerged into two airtight vacuum
chambers connected to vacuum pumps. Subsequent to the vacuum application, products are subjected
to atmospheric restoration while they remain immersed in the coating solution under atmospheric
pressure. Vacuum period, vacuum pressure and atmospheric restoration time are important parameters
in the VI process [180].

7. Alginate-Based Coatings and Film Applications

There are many potential uses of sodium alginate-based edible films and coatings.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 16 of 38

7.1. Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables

Natural barriers (i.e., cuticle, skin, rind, etc.) that surround the whole and intact fruits and
vegetables, protect the products against microbial contaminations and quality losses [181,182]. Lately,
fresh-cut fruits and vegetables attract consumers’ attention due to increased awareness of healthy
eating habits and having less time for food preparation [96,183]. The preferences of the consumers
change in the direction of convenient consumption without any loss of quality characteristics [184].
Minimally processed fresh cut fruits and vegetables are subjected to preparation steps such as washing,
peeling, cutting, slicing, coring, which remove these barriers, induce lesions of tissues, damage the
integrity of the fruit, and cause wounding stress [79,106,185]. Thus, the product becomes vulnerable to
contamination, enzymatic browning, undesirable volatile formation, and alterations in texture [183].
Deteriorative effects, as well as the growth of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria, can be prevented by
enhancing the natural barriers or replacing it with artificial barriers surrounding the product such as
an edible film and coating applications [182,186,187].
The delay of respiration and physiological processes are requisites for the shelf life extension
of fruits and vegetables [10]. In this manner, coatings and films with the ability to modify the
gas transport have the potential for applications in fresh produce coating [10,13,188]. In particular,
polysaccharide-based coatings have been used to reduce the respiration of fruits and vegetables due
to their selective permeabilities to the O2 and CO2 gases [27]. The swelling ratio and water solubility
of alginate films are very important properties in case of fresh-cut fruits with high moisture surfaces.
Tapia, Rojas-Graü, Rodríguez, Ramírez, Carmona, and Martin-Belloso [161] stated that alginate films
have a resistance to being dissolved in water and, therefore, have the potential for coating high
moisture fresh-cut fruits.
The studies conducted with alginate coated fresh/fresh-cut produce are shown in Table 3.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 17 of 38

Table 3. The application of alginate coatings on fresh-cut fruits and vegetables.

Food Effects Source

fresh-cut apples 1
Optimum composition of alginate-based EC was determined for achieving high water and firmness retention during storage. Ghavidel, et al. [189]
Shelf life of coated apples were prolonged three times compared to uncoated samples. EC maintained firmness, although it
fresh-cut apples Rojas-Graü, Tapia, and Martín-Belloso [79]
increased fermentative metabolites’ (i.e., acetaldehyde and ethanol) production due to MA 1 .
Rojas-Graü, Raybaudi-Massilia,
Base solution was developed with alginate and 26% apple puree. Ethylene, CO2 production, and O2 consumption were reduced.
fresh-cut apples Soliva-Fortuny, Avena-Bustillos, McHugh,
However, solely vanillin incorporated formulations could achieve acceptable test scores in contrast with other EOs 1 .
and Martín-Belloso [106]
The soluble solid content was increased; stable browning index, acidity, and firmness levels were achieved due to coating with Rößle, Brunton, Gormley, Wouters,
fresh-cut apples
prebiotics incorporated EC. and Butler [166]
Alginate and gelatin-based coatings not only preserved the freshness of the fruit, but also improved the appearance and
apples Moldão-Martins, et al. [190]
attractiveness of the fruit.
Apple pieces were coated with double layers of polysaccharide/lipid (alginate/acetylated monoglyceride) EC to decrease
apple pieces Wong, Tillin, Hudson, and Pavlath [184]
respiratory activity.
Thyme oil had the highest antimicrobial activity among the tested 15 EOs. Physical, chemical and microbial qualities of coated
fresh-cut apples Sarengaowa, Hu, Jiang, Xiu, and Feng [107]
(thyme incorporated) samples were assessed.
The effect of malic acid, EOs and their active compounds on quality characteristics were assessed. Due to the inhibition of
fresh-cut apples [109],
microflora, respiration and anaerobic fermentation were decreased. However, physicochemical characteristics of the products Raybaudi-Massilia et al. [108,109]
fresh-cut melon [108]
were affected differently with respect to the type of EOs and concentrations.
Sodium alginate-sunflower oil maintained the firmness, however, the coating could not present good barrier properties against O2 ,
fresh-cut melon Oms-Oliu, et al. [191]
CO2 , ethylene, and could not reduce the loss of vitamin C and microbial load.
LbL technique with oppositely charged alginate-chitosan presented a superior performance on firmness, gas exchange, Poverenov, Danino, Horev, Granit, Vinokur,
fresh-cut melon
and microbial growth. and Rodov [174]
Sipahi, Castell-Perez, Moreira, Gomes,
fresh-cut watermelon LbL coating did not affect the pH and ◦ Brix but preserved the textural firmness and decreased weight loss.
and Castillo [110]
The quality was retained with the application of the composite edible coating, consisting of sodium alginate and olive oil,
ber fruit Ramana Rao, Baraiya, Vyas, and Patel [165]
enriched with ascorbic and citric acids.
Fan, Xu, Wang, Zhang, Sun, Sun,
strawberry The quality of the products was enhanced by implementing a yeast antagonist to the formulation.
and Zhang [94]
Effects of alginate, chitosan, pullulan-based EC on antioxidant enzyme system and quality characteristics were compared. All the
strawberry Li, et al. [192]
polysaccharide-based coatings decreased quality losses and extended shelf life.
Incorporation of carvacrol and methyl cinnamate changed the physical properties of the alginate coatings such as turbidity, Peretto, Du, Avena-Bustillos, Berrios, Sambo,
strawberry
transparency, and viscosity, depending on their concentration. and McHugh [112]
strawberry The effectiveness of alginate and soy-based coatings on the pH and vitamin C content of the samples were compared. Ahmed, et al. [193]
blueberry Numerous ECs (including alginate) were compared in terms of their ability to control quality losses. Duan, Wu, Strik, and Zhao [92]
Performances of chitosan and alginate coatings were compared. Although alginate coatings promoted firmness, lightness and
blueberry Chiabrando and Giacalone [194]
total phenolic content; yeast and mold growth in the samples were induced.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 18 of 38

Table 3. Cont.

Food Effects Source

The storability period of the coated products increased from 8 to 16 days with a delay in the post-harvest ripening and
cherry Díaz-Mula, Serrano, and Valero [90]
maintaining higher amounts of total phenolics and antioxidant activity.
EC with antibrowning agents (N-acetylcysteine and glutathione) reduced microbial growth, increased vitamin C, and the total Oms-Oliu, Soliva-Fortuny,
fresh-cut pear
phenolic content without affecting the firmness of product. and Martín-Belloso [147]
Alginate coated samples had a higher tensile strength, elongation, and elasticity; on the other hand, they had a lower water loss,
pear Moraes, et al. [195]
pH increase, metabolic activities with maintained firmness and green color.
Particularly 3% alginate coating significantly inhibited ethylene production, softening, acidity and water losses, and slowed down Valero, Díaz-Mula, Zapata, Guillén,
plums
carotenoid and anthocyanin increase (and therefore delayed color change) throughout the storage period of plums. Martínez-Romero, Castillo, and Serrano [91]
The study consisted of two steps: RSM 1 was used to determine the number of ingredients in the formulation in terms of WVR 1 ;
Tapia, Rojas-Graü, Carmona, Rodríguez,
fresh-cut papaya the chosen formulations helped to achieve increased firmness. On the contrary of several previous studies, the alginate coating
Soliva-Fortuny, and Martin-Belloso [39]
did not affect the respiratory rate and ethylene production.
Guava EC-pomegranate peel extract improved the visual and nutritional parameters with delaying senescence. Nair, Saxena, and Kaur [146]
EC-ascorbic acid retarded firmness loss improved the phenolics and carotenoids content and sensory scores; however,
mango Salinas-Roca, et al. [196]
the antimicrobial efficiency was not significant.
The concentration of ingredients in EC was formulated with the help of RSM [83]. Incorporation of lemongrass EO and
fresh-cut pineapples Azarakhsh et al. [83], [111]
ascorbic-citric acid into EC prolonged the shelf life whilst maintaining quality attributes.
Montero-Calderón, Rojas-Graü,
fresh-cut pineapples Shelf life of the product was significantly improved.
and Martín-Belloso [158]
Peach Shelf life was increased with maintaining quality. Maftoonazad, et al. [197]
Reduced ethylene production, respiration rate, weight loss, a diminution rate of hue angle values (indicated that ripening was
Zapata, Guillén, Martínez-Romero, Castillo,
tomato delayed) as well as a higher fruit firmness, TSS (total soluble solids concentration), titratable acidity (TA), organic acids (citric,
Valero, and Serrano [89]
malic and, ascorbic acids), sugars (glucose and fructose), and sensory scores of coated products were achieved.
Possibility of using the alginate coating and ultrasound process as an alternative to blanching of potato strips were investigated.
potato strips Amaral, et al. [198]
EC was not effective for diminishing the color changes and microbial load.
Natural compound isolated from the garlic skin was added into EC. The effects of coating on the mechanical and barrier
garlic bulbs Nussinovitch and Hershko [199]
properties were demonstrated.
carrot A 5- to 7-day shelf-life extension of the coated samples was achieved. Amanatidou, Slump, Gorris, and Smid [148]
1-Methylcyclopropene incorporated EC reduced the discoloration, respiration rate, ethylene synthesis (therefore senescence) of
lettuce Tay and Perera [200]
samples.
1 EC: edible coating; MA: modified atmosphere; EO: essential oil; WVR: water vapor resistance; RSM; Response surface methodology.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 19 of 38

7.2. Meats, Poultry, and Seafood

There are various challenges associated with meats, poultry, and seafood products throughout
their shelf life. They can be defined as moisture loss and its effects on texture, color, and flavor;
unappealing dripping of the product juice (purge losses); lipid oxidation and brown discoloration;
microbial spoilage; volatile flavor loss and/or gathering foreign odor [62,201,202].
In the patents, Earle et al. designed an alginate-based coating formulation commercially known as
Flavor-Tex® [203,204]. Meat, seafood, and poultry products were immersed into an aqueous dispersion
of water-soluble algin and carbohydrate comprising mono and/or disaccharide sugar and gelatinized
with a CaCl2 -CMC solution (the addition of CMC to the calcium crosslinking bath reduced the gelling
time and required concentration of the CaCl2 ) [203,204]. Lazarus, West, Oblinger, and Palmer [23];
West, Lazarus, Oblinger, and Palmer [24]; and Williams, Oblinger, and West [114] evaluated the effects
of Flavor-Tex® on lamb carcasses and beef pieces/steaks. Although calcium alginate coating acted
as a sacrificing agent rather than a moisture barrier, maintaining a lower water activity (aw ) on the
surface together with the toxic effect of CaCl2 lead to lower microbial counts [23,114]. Nevertheless,
the coating helped to stabilize the meat color, reduced shrinkage and obtained the same sensory scores
compared to the uncoated meat samples [23,114]. Flavor-Text was also used to coat pork patties for
solving the flavor and texture problems of precooked meat products [205]. Coating decreased the
oxidative rancidity, cooking losses, and increased meat tenderness. To the contrary of the findings
presented previously [23], calcium alginate coated row and precooked products received the highest
sensory scores, which indicated that the higher structural integrity given by the coating was favored
by consumers [205].
The usage of gelatinized alginate in the block freezing process of fishery products was patented
in Norway, 1956 [206]. By this means, the detrimental effects of direct water contact on the products
were eliminated [206].
Studies on alginate coated meat, poultry, and seafood products are presented in Table 4.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 20 of 38

Table 4. The application of alginate coating on meat, poultry, and seafood products.

Food Effects Source

Incorporation of stearic acid into the modified starch-alginate formulation improved the barrier properties against moisture loss Wu, Weller, Hamouz, Cuppett,
ground beef patties
and decreased lipid oxidation. Addition of tocopherols increased these effects. and Schnepf [149]
buffalo meat patties EC 1 significantly improved quality attributes such as overall shear force, TBA 1 , tyrosine value, and microbial counts, etc. Chidanandaiah, Keshri, and Sanyal [150]
Alginate-maltodextrin coating crosslinked with CaCl2 -CMC 1 led to a decrease in the total volatile nitrogen for refrigerated
lamb meat meat, there was no statistical difference for frozen meat. Although a decrease in the total count of refrigerated meat was only Koushki et al. [207,208]
due to calcium ions in the crosslinking solution, EC achieved psychrophilic bacterial inhibition during the frozen storage.
Composite coating with modified starch-alginate with rosemary oleoresin inhibited lipid oxidation and formation of hexanal, Handley, Ma-Edmonds, Hamouz,
pork chops
pentane, and total volatiles. Cuppett, Mandigo, and Schnepf [151]
Alginate (>1%), helped to decrease the thawing loss; concentration of Ca2+ influenced the tenderness of the meat. Optimum
pork cuts coating conditions were defined as 3% alginate, 7% CaCl2 with 5–7 min crosslinking time to diminish thawing loss, TBARS 1 , Yu, et al. [209]
and an increase in the total protein solubility.
Water evaporated from coating instead of meat. One thick coating application was more convenient than repeating number of
cut-up poultry parts coats due to preventing residual calcium salts from being transferred into the alginate dipping solution and the Mountney and Winter [21]
easiness of pealing.
chicken breast and chicken Lactoperoxidase addition into the alginate-based coating system led to higher bacterial and sensorial quality values of chicken Yousefi, Farshidi and Ehsani [120],
thigh meat meat. The effect was even increased with the increasing concentration of lactoperoxidase. Molayi, Ehsani, and Yousefi [121]
Study assessed the ability of food polymers including gelatin-sodium alginate blends for the formation of stable packaging film.
films/casing for breakfast
The optimum processing conditions were presented during the extrusion process [210]. The effects of different oil additions on Liu et al. [210–212]
pork sausages
quality parameters of the films/casings [211] and their usage in the manufacturing of sausages were determined [212].
EC reduced the rate of quality losses of bream in terms of water loss, pH, TVB-N 1 , and K-value. A 5% vitamin C content
bream Song, Liu, Shen, You, and Luo [152]
incorporated coating maintained the best quality and sensory results.
red sea bream EC-6-gingerol coated products obtained a 20-day shelf life extension. Cai, Wang, Cao, Lv, and Li [133]
The synergistic effect of EC and -polylysine helped products to maintain a fresh color and tissue hardness, reduce lipid
japanese sea bass Cai, Cao, Bai and Li [132]
oxidation, protein degradation, and nucleotide breakdown.
EC-tea polyphenols provided the greatest effect on quality (TVB-N, lipid oxidation, protein decomposition) and sensory results Nie, Wang, Wang, Lei, Hong, Huang,
japanese sea bass
compared to their effects alone. and Zhang [131]
New biopreservation coating with the addition of food supplement Lactobacillus reuteri and its substrate glycerol to EC was
sea bass Angiolillo, Conte, and Del Nobile [134]
developed. The production and antimicrobial effects of reuterin material were evaluated after 2 different fermentation periods.
Two protective processes: salting application of liquid smoke suspension containing resveratrol and alginate coating were used
sea bass to enhance the quality. Although the treatment combination was effective in reducing oxidation, it could not Martínez, et al. [213]
inhibit bacterial growth.
rainbow trout 0.2% resveratrol improved the effect of EC with the highest inhibition of chemical changes and microbial growth. Bazargani-Gilani [127]
rainbow trout Effects of EC with or without lycopene were investigated in terms of various quality parameters. Ehsani, Paktarmani, and Yousefi [153]
Foods 2018, 7, 170 21 of 38

Table 4. Cont.

Food Effects Source

Fillets were coated with alginate-CMC. With the help of the controlled release of clove oil, the coating lead to an 8-day shelf life
silver carp fillet Jalali, Ariiai, and Fattahi [128]
extension without affecting the sensorial properties.
bighead carp fillet Lower microbial deterioration and auto-oxidation of fish fillets throughout storage were achieved. Heydari, Bavandi, and Javadian [129]
kilka fish Shelf life extension was achieved with an alginate-whey protein coating. Seyfzadeh, et al. [214]
Contrary to the previous findings of EC-nisin [115,116], researchers did not find any significant evidence that calcium alginate
northern snakehead fillets containing nisin increased the effectiveness of the antimicrobial agent. Nevertheless, inhibition of lipid oxidation, TMA-N 1 , Lu, Liu, Ye, Wei, and Liu [122]
TVB-N, promoting water barrier properties and sensory scores were achieved.
EC was applied in a different manner: All the ingredients such as minced fish patties, soy protein concentrate, onions, celery, as
minced fish patties well as sodium alginate, were blended. The patties were pre-coated initially with soybean oil and afterward dipped in the CaCl2 Rockower, et al. [215]
solution for film formation, which prevented the patties from sticking to surfaces during processing.
An EC-3.5% rosemary extract was successful for the preservation of the product due to reducing TVB-N, controlling biogenic
abalone Hao, Liu, Sun, Xia, Jia, Li, and Pan [93]
amines, and maintaining better sensory scores.
1 EC: edible coating; CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose; TBA: thiobarbituric acid; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TVB-N: total volatile basic nitrogen; TMA-N:
trimethylamine nitrogen.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 22 of 38

7.3. Cheese
The main quality losses of cheese products take place in a storage period and can be summarized
as microbial contamination, moisture loss, and the development of off-flavor and other undesirable
organoleptic properties [216]. It is very important to underline that the addition of an extra calcium
with the aim of crosslinking is not an essential step in cheese coating due to possessing calcium
itself [138].
Edible coatings and films have been applied and studied in several types of cheese as packaging
system to prevent the quality losses. Zhong, et al. [217] investigated the performance of three different
coating materials (i.e., sodium alginate, chitosan, soy protein isolate) with four various application
methods on mozzarella cheese. The results showed that alginate-coated samples possessed better
overall qualities due to its better wettability on the product surface [217]. Lucera, Mastromatteo, Conte,
Zambrini, Faccia, and Del Nobile [137] demonstrated that the antimicrobial activity of potassium
sorbate, sodium benzoate, calcium lactate, and calcium ascorbate, which were incorporated into an
alginate coating and used to coat mozzarella cheese, were similar. The main difference arose from the
sensory point of view. Kavas, Kavas, and Saygili [136] fortified the composite coating of alginate-whey
protein isolate coatings with ginger EO and obtained kashar cheese with a lower acidity and higher
fat level.

7.4. Only Coating/Film, Without Food Application

Alginate is an acidic anionic polysaccharide and able to form covalent bonds and charge-charge
electrostatic complexes with protein [218,219]. Especially following heat denaturation of the protein,
stronger interactions are formed [218,219]. Studies on alginate-protein interactions and other
investigations on alginate-based edible coatings and films (without their application on food products)
are presented in Table 5.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 23 of 38

Table 5. The studies on alginate-based coatings/films without food application.

Study Source
The effects of soy isolate-sodium alginate and soy isolate-PGA 1 interactions on the functional properties of the film formation were investigated and it
Shih [219]
was found that protein-polysaccharide interactions enhanced the film-forming properties.
≈10% PGA addition to the soy protein increased the whiteness and tensile strength and decreased the yellowness, percentage elongation at break,
Rhim, et al. [220]
WVP 1 , and water solubility of the multicomponent EF 1 .
Films formed from alginate-whey protein complexes had higher tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation than whey protein alone. Coughlan, et al. [221]
Different protein-polysaccharide films were compared in terms of oxygen and WVP, tensile strength, transparency, etc. Yoo and Krochta [48]
1
By using a Box-Behnken experimental design and RSM (for 3 factors; sodium alginate, low acyl gellan, glycerol concentration), a biofilm formulation
González-Cuello, et al. [222]
was designed in terms of mechanical properties.
EF formulation was prepared by mixing sodium alginate with a variable quantity of cashew tree gum. However, tensile strength and water barrier
Azeredo, et al. [223]
properties were weakened due to the competition between two gel-forming polysaccharides for the interaction with calcium ions in the crosslinking step.
Gelation of calcium alginate with rice starch and/or rice flour was examined. Coarser and more rigid gel structures with an increased diffusion
Chrastil [64]
coefficient, a heterogeneous structural resistance constant, and a decreased gelation rate constant were obtained.
Incorporation of garlic oil as a natural antibacterial agent caused darker, yellowish color formation, reduced tensile strength and elongation at break Pranoto, Salokhe,
while garlic oil interfered with the calcium ion interactions due to being incorporated before crosslinking. and Rakshit [142]
Ginseng extract (white, red and extruded white extract) was inserted into the film formulation and a slight decrease in moisture content, and increase
Norajit, Kim and Ryu [154]
in water solubility, transparency, and alteration in the mechanical properties of EF was observed.
A new multilayer film, which contained chitosan in the top layer, ornidazole-incorporated polyvinyl alcohol middle and sodium alginate sublayer,
Pei, et al. [224]
with an enhanced swelling rate, water absorption capacity, control of water vapor transmission, and light transmittance, was developed.
Incorporation of pyrogallic acid into the sodium alginate-CMC 1 matrix increased the gas, vapor, and UV barrier properties of EF. Han and Wang [143]
Interactions between encapsulated n-hexanal (aroma compound) and alginate matrix affected the barrier, permeability, and surface properties of Hambleton, Debeaufort,
emulsified alginate EF. Bonnotte, and Voilley [159]
Enzyme activity of pig liver esterase with enhanced encapsulation efficiency (i.e., chitosan coating of alginate beads) was studied. Pauly, et al. [225]
With a novel approach, the alginate film was designed based on the RGB image analysis and color changes. Alginate surface concentration and surface
Acevedo, et al. [226]
color were modeled to predict the physical properties of the film with a non-destructive method.
1EF: edible film; PGA: propyleneglycol alginate, produced with the reaction of alginic acid and propylene oxide; WVP: water vapor permeability; CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose;
RSM: response surface methodology.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 24 of 38

8. Transport Mechanisms
Ideal edible coatings and films should create a barrier to impede the loss of water vapor, flavor
volatiles, and the exchange of CO2 and O2 , in other words, to control the rate of transport of the
food products’ molecular components [96]. In this way, the adverse reactions with deteriorative
effects (such as respiration and ethylene production) can be diminished or slowed down [96,227,228].
Mass transfer and barrier characteristics are one of the most important properties of edible films
and coatings due to their enormous impact on product quality [229]. Mass transport properties of
polymer films can be represented by three coefficients: the diffusion coefficient, solubility coefficient,
and permeability coefficient, which have been described in detail by Miller and Krochta [230], Donhowe
and Fennema [12], McHugh and Krochta [231].

8.1. Moisture Barrier Applications

Moisture barrier characteristics (i.e., moisture content, water vapor permeability (WVP), water
vapor resistance (WVR), and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR)) have been commonly studied in
the literature of alginate-based edible films and coatings since moisture barrier properties are very
critical in designing the coating process. In raw, untreated fruits and vegetables, epidermal cell layer
and cuticles reduce weight loss and edible coatings and films created an additional extra barrier layer
on the stomata and decrease transpiration (and, therefore, weight loss) [90].
The primary mechanism of moisture loss from food product is the vapor-phase diffusion,
which was impelled by the water vapor pressure difference between the product and the surrounding
air [90,197]. The thickness of the formed film, moisture permeability, temperature, and relative
humidity of the surrounding medium are important factors in defining the mass transfer rate [232].
As a simple method, juice leakages from fresh-cut pineapples [158], garlic bulbs [199],
ber fruits [165], blueberries [194], fresh-cut watermelon [110], apples [107], plums [91], kilka fish [214],
kashar cheese [136], low-fat cut cheese [138], ground beef patties [149] were significantly reduced with
the alginate coating application in moisture loss (or weight loss) experiments conducted very often in
studies of alginate coated food products.
WVP is another topic that has been widely studied. For the edible films and coatings formed from
hydrophilic components, increasing the water activity (aw ) causes an increase in film moisture content
and WVP, due to the swelling of the network with water [8].
Incorporation of additives can alter the moisture transfer properties of the formed film. Various
studies showed that lipid addition into the coating formulation helped to decrease the moisture
transport [8,39,147,159,191]. The amount of decrease depends on the type, amount, and chain size of
the lipid added in the formulation [183]. Pranoto, Salokhe, and Rakshit [142] observed that the addition
of 0.4% garlic oil into alginate film formulation decreased WVP significantly. WVR of sunflower oil
incorporated alginate coating on fresh-cut apples [82] fresh-cut melon [191], fresh cut pears [147] were
determined. Tapia, Rojas-Graü, Rodríguez, Ramírez, Carmona, and Martin-Belloso [161] compared
the WVP of both alginate films and coatings on fresh-cut apples and papayas and presented the effect
of the sunflower oil addition to the formulations. On the other hand, the addition of plasticizer to
the formulation may increase the WVP values of the film due to reducing the intermolecular bonds
between polymer chains [39,80,159]. {Olivas, 2008 #108} and Jost, Kobsik, Schmid, and Noller [80]
determined the effect of different plasticizers (glycerol, sorbitol [58,80], PEG-8000 (polyethylene glycol),
fructose [58]) on WVP.
There has been an increasing interest in using EOs as antimicrobial agents in alginate coating/film
formulations. Rojas-Graü, et al. [233] reported that the addition of plant essential oils did not modify
the WVP of alginate-apple puree film. Similar results were presented by Norajit, Kim, and Ryu [154]
for ginseng extract incorporated alginate films that no significant effect on WVP was observed.
On the contrary, Artiga-Artigas, Acevedo-Fani and Martín-Belloso [138] determined that oregano EO
incorporated alginate-mandarin fiber coated low-fat cut cheese exhibited higher WVR values than
the uncoated samples and the effect increased with increasing concentrations of EO. Kavas, Kavas,
Foods 2018, 7, 170 25 of 38

and Saygili [136] fortified alginate-whey protein isolate coating with a 1.5% ginger EO and coated
kashar cheese.
The water vapor barrier properties of alginate films were intended to be improved with the
addition of other gel-forming biopolymers. Parris, Coffin, Joubran, and Pessen [81] developed
alginate-milk based materials (i.e., whole or non-fat milk, whey, sodium caseinate). Films containing
whole milk had decreased WVP up to 35% [81]. Likewise, Coughlan, Shaw, Kerry, and Kerry [221]
have demonstrated that films formed from alginate-whey protein complexes had lower WVP. Rhim,
Wu, Weller, and Schnepf [220] found that up to 10% PGA addition decreased the WVP of soy protein
isolate films. Han and Wang [143] evaluated the WVP of sodium alginate-CMC films containing
pyrogallic acid.
The type of film formation method also affects water barrier properties. Poverenov, Danino, Horev,
Granit, Vinokur, and Rodov [174] demonstrated that LbL-coated melons (with the alginate-chitosan
combination) had superior water vapor barrier properties compared to uncoated, only-alginate or
only-chitosan coated samples.
Mathematical models were also created to predict the water transport properties of alginate-based
edible coatings and films [234].

8.2. Gaseous Barrier Applications

Coatings act as barriers to gas exchange, reduce O2 uptake and CO2 production (in other words,
respiration) by the fruit and create a modified atmosphere [90,197]. Still, the coating designer should
keep in mind that the modified atmosphere should not create anaerobic conditions to induce the
anaerobic growth in the product [96].
Gas barrier properties (especially O2 ) are the second frequently studied transport mechanism.
Capillary diffusion (predominant in porous, imperfect materials) and activated diffusion
(includes solubilization of the gas in the film, diffusion through the film and release at the other
side of the film) are the two mechanisms that occur in gas transport [12]. Transport rates of O2 and
CO2 are strongly influenced by RH at which product is stored [10,96,235]. An increase in RH causes
more interaction between water and film/coating molecules, which leads to a plasticized structure
that favored mass transfer [235]. Therefore, the permeability characteristics of a coating on a fresh-cut
surface are very difficult to predict due to the high RH of the surface [96]. For edible films made from
hydrophilic gelling matrices, a higher aw promotes both gas diffusivity and gas solubility due to the
water solubility of these gases and, therefore, the gas permeability properties increase [8].
The other influential factor is temperature; high storage temperatures cause the respiration rate
increase [96]. For instance, in case the storage temperature increases during the later stages of the
product storage, the created MA by the coating/packaging can cause anaerobic respiration [96].
Polarity and the structure of the film also affect the gas transfer properties. More polar films have
a more ordered (less porous) structure, therefore, the film becomes less permeable to oxygen, with a
high affinity to moisture [76].
The affinity of the fat compounds for oxygen leads to an increase in permeability [159].
Nevertheless, Azarakhsh et al. determined that alginate-sunflower oil coated fresh-cut pineapple pieces
had a lower respiration rate due to an increasing internal CO2 and decreasing O2 concentration [83]
and incorporation of lemongrass to the formulation, increased this effect even more [111]. Rojas-Graü,
Avena-Bustillos, Olsen, Friedman, Henika, Martín-Belloso, Pan and McHugh [233] noted that the
oxygen barrier properties of alginate-apple puree films were not affected by the addition of plant
essential oils.
Jost, Kobsik, Schmid, and Noller [80] found that the oxygen permeability of alginate films
increased with increasing concentration of glycerol, while the incorporation of sorbitol did not
significantly change the gas barrier properties.
Earle and McKee [236] patented an alginate-based coating with O2 barrier properties, particularly
for dough products with fillings.
Foods 2018, 7, 170 26 of 38

Han and Wang [143] analyzed the O2 permeability of a sodium alginate-CMC film containing
pyrogallic acid.
Buonocore, Conte, and Del Nobile [234] presented a mathematical model, which was fitted to the
experimental data of oxygen barrier properties of the alginate-based film.
The respiration rate of alginate coated sweet cherry fruit [90], strawberry [192], peach [197],
apples [107,166], pineapples [83], guava [146], and lettuce [200] were evaluated in the literature. Due to
being a hydrocolloid, the alginate-based films and coatings generally decreased the respiration rate
during storage and, in this way, achieve retention of the quality attributes of the food products. Sipahi,
Castell-Perez, Moreira, Gomes, and Castillo [110] stated that the LbL coating application method
inhibited the respiration process of fresh-cut watermelon.
Another important change is the amount and/or presence of some internal volatiles of anaerobic
conditions, which is created by the high gas barrier properties of the edible coating or film [188].
For instance, higher acetaldehyde and ethanol production compared to the uncoated samples indicate
the presence of a modified atmosphere in the alginate coated fruits [79].

8.3. Active Compound Release Applications

The edible coating containing active compounds could be very efficient by maintaining a higher
concentration of the target compound with a slow migration for an extended period of storage time.
Although diffusion of small molecules (such as ethanol and glycerol) is only influenced by the pore
size of the matrix, diffusion of larger molecules (such as proteins) from the gel matrix is influenced by
the molecular weight of the substance [40,237,238].
The control of the release process with well-determined release rates and migration amounts
are very crucial, especially in biotechnology. For this reason, various studies were conducted
in the literature. Diffusion of low molecular weight substances such as glucose, L-tryptophan,
and α-lactoalbumin and higher molecular weight substances such as albumin, γ-globulun,
and fibrinogen [237], and insulin [238] into and from the gel beads were characterized. The release rates
of hemoglobin [57,61] and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) [57], as well as the permeability
of immunoglobulin G [239] from various alginate films/gels/coatings, were examined. Alginate
concentration, α-L-guluronic acid content, the charge of the protein, and the isoelectric point of the
protein affected the diffusion rates [51].
Wang and Zhang Newby [240] showed that LbL polyelectrolyte alginate microgels significantly
retard the release of small hydrophilic molecules (MW < 250 g/mol).
Zactiti and Kieckbusch modeled permeability [140] and the release of potassium sorbate [71] from
alginate films and evaluated the effect of three levels of alginate crosslinking (with different calcium
chloride concentrations) on the permeability and release model. As the calcium ion concentration
increased, which increased the degree of crosslinking, the mobility of the active substance was
prevented and the permeability constant decreased. Moreover, an increase in the sorbate concentration
also caused an increase in the permeability values.
Wong, et al. [241] measured the permeability properties of calcium alginate films, which were
prepared with the in situ gelation method or the cooling of hot gels when small molecule preservatives
sorbate and ascorbate incorporated into the film formulation.
Bustos, Alberti, and Matiacevich [139] evaluated the release parameters of microencapsulated
lemongrass oil from the alginate matrix. For this purpose, researchers began with the
microencapsulation process, followed by the film preparation and analysis of the release kinetics
from the films with the help of assessing antimicrobial activity against E. coli.
Transport parameters of n-hexanal [159,160] and D-limonene [160] were determined. Aroma
compounds preferably interacted with fat compounds [159]. Therefore, the permeability of aroma
compounds is dependent on the interactions between the aroma compounds and film matrices [160].
Foods 2018, 7, 170 27 of 38

9. Future Trends
Studies about film forming and coating food products with edible biopolymers have been
expanded recently. Edible/biodegradable films and coatings can be used to maintain the quality
during the shelf life of the product. Promising results have been achieved on fresh cut fruits, vegetables,
and meat products coated with alginate solutions with incorporated additives. However, further
improvements could be obtained by incorporating new antimicrobial, antioxidative, antibrowning
agents to enhance food safety and food quality. A better understanding of any synergistic effect among
alginate coating and active agents can be developed.
Blending of film-forming biopolymers to improve the properties of the structure is also a
promising strategy. Developing new synergistic gelling systems can be identified as another
research gap.
Diffusion properties of active substances from the alginate gel matrix and its structure can
be studied in more detailed with varying the concentrations of alginate and cross-linking agents.
Comparative studies can be conducted.
The effects of different calcium salts (e.g., calcium chloride, calcium lactate, calcium gluconate)
on the quality parameters can be identified in detail with clarified mechanisms.
Most studies on alginate coating applications have been conducted at the laboratory scale and
commercial applications are still very limited. Further research with practical applications should focus
on the industrial implementation to commercialize the alginate coated food products with increased
shelf life. Coating application methods can be readjusted so as to implement a recycle process that
does not waste too much of coating solution, decrease microbial load of the solution during recycling,
design spraying method for irregular surfaces, design industrial size vacuum tanks, etc. to prevent the
disadvantages of the application methods. Therefore, sodium alginate-based edible films and coatings
could be used to an even greater extent than they are currently.

10. Conclusions
In an ideal case, an edible coating or film should decrease the evaporation of the water content,
loss of desirable odor and flavor volatiles, prevent microorganism growth, suppress respiration,
and gas exchange; while the modified atmosphere created by the barrier should not cause anaerobic
respiration (and, therefore, anaerobic growth) and undesirable volatiles. On the basis of the
evaluation of the previous literature on alginate-based edible films and coatings, it can be concluded
that the alginate-based edible films and coatings can be efficiently used to accomplish these aims
with an enhancing shelf life of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, meat, poultry, seafood, and cheese.
The information summarized here can lead researchers to design successful coating applications.

Author Contributions: T.S.P. conceived the focus of the review, conducted the literature search, and drafted the
manuscript. M.S. and K.M. formatted, reviewed, and edited the manuscript upon critical revision of the texts.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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