coatings

Review
Cactus Mucilage for Food Packaging Applications
Rim Gheribi 1,2 and Khaoula Khwaldia 1, *
1 Laboratoire des Substances Naturelles, Institut National de Recherche et d’Analyse
Physico-chimique (INRAP), Pôle Technologique de Sidi Thabet, Sidi Thabet 2020, Tunisia;
rim.gheribi@gmail.com
2 Université de Carthage, INSAT-BP 676, Centre urbain nord, Carthage Cedex 1080, Tunisia
* Correspondence: khaoula_khwaldia@yahoo.fr; Tel.: +216-71-537666




Received: 17 September 2019; Accepted: 8 October 2019; Published: 11 October 2019


Abstract: Natural polymers have been widely investigated for the development of eco-friendly materials.
Among these bio-polymers, cactus mucilage is attracting increasing interest regardless of the plant species
or the plant organ used for extraction. Mucilage, which is a highly branched heteropolysaccharide, has been
previously studied for its chemical composition, structural features, and biotechnological applications.
This review highlights the mucilage application in the food packaging industry, by developing films
and coatings. These cactus-based biomaterials will be discussed for their functional properties and their
potential in preserving food quality and extending shelf life.

Keywords: films; coatings; mucilage; polysaccharide; cactus; packaging

1. Introduction
Currently, demand for minimally processed and ready-to-use foodstuffs is continuously
increasing. However, these food products are subject to several physical deteriorations and microbial
contaminations. Browning is one of the major problems occurring after physical damage by cutting
or abrasion and is mostly attributed to the instability of phenolic compounds or to the activity of
some enzymes, such as oxidase and peroxidase [1]. Browning can also be induced by light reflection
on the food surface. Another serious problem is microbial contamination resulting from bacterial
or fungal growth. In fact, moisture, oxygen, carbon sources, and high-water activity promote the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Since food products are highly subjected to many
types of deteriorations, it is mandatory to search for sustainable, eco-friendly, and safe packaging
solutions able to reduce quality loss and extend shelf life of food products. In this context, edible films
and coatings have been proposed as an effective solution to prevent food deterioration. In fact, this
approach is far from a novel one since it was used in the mid-20th century to minimize weight loss
and enhance the shine and brilliance of fruit and vegetables. Cellulosic and waxy coatings are the
oldest ones used for fresh and perishable foodstuffs [2]. Films are thin polymeric layers formed by
a dry (e.g., extrusion) or a humid process (e.g., casting). They are stand-alone materials generally
used as pushes or wraps. Coatings consist of a polymeric matrix directly applied on the foodstuff
surface or between its constituents by dipping, spraying, or electro-spraying, which is followed
by drying. For both films and coatings, the used polymers should be non-toxic and intended for
human consumption. Hence, edible films and coatings are primary packaging materials generally
used as a selective barrier to gas, moisture, and/or solute migration without affecting color, taste,
or smell of the coated product [2,3]. Moreover, several edible films and coatings were developed
from biopolymers and enriched with some additives such as essential oils, plant extracts, enzymes,
and probiotics. These additives can provide biological and functional properties such as antioxidant
and antimicrobial activities for edible films and coatings. In this context, Özvural et al. [4] studied

Coatings 2019, 9, 655; doi:10.3390/coatings9100655 www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings

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the effect of chitosan and green tea essential oil applied on hamburger patties with three different
techniques (direct addition, encapsulation, and coating). The authors confirmed that the coated patties
were more resistant to lipid oxidation and had the lowest microbial load, during eight days of storage.
Aloui et al. [5] developed an edible coating for okra (Abelmoschusesculentus (L.)), based on sodium
alginate and essential oil of bergamot or bitter orange. This coating decreased weight and firmness
losses by 36% and 18%, respectively, during 12 days of cold storage, while, at the same time, preserving
the sensory attributes of okra pods. More recently, Feng et al. [6] dipped fresh cut apple pieces in
coating solutions based on whey protein isolate nanofibrils and confirmed the retarding effect of this
coating on browning and weight loss of apple pieces. The total phenolic content of coated apple pieces
was maintained during 10 days of storage at 4 ◦ C. In addition, the characterized whey protein isolate
nanofibrils-based films were quite transparent (transparency between 27% and 48%)and come with a
smooth, continuous, and hydrophilic surface (contact angle between 22◦ and 46◦ ). Likewise, standalone
films have received huge interest because of the new and promising trends revealed by the use of
highly available and low-cost biopolymers with interesting properties. Biopolymer-based materials
offer many advantages over conventional packaging materials due to their sustainability and safety for
human health. Yellow passion fruit co-products and pectin were used to develop a new biodegradable
composite material using a continuous casting method [7]. The developed films exhibited interesting
mechanical properties comparable to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cling film and were compostable and
easily degraded by bacteria. In another study, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was mixed with chitosan
nanoparticles and mulberry extracts for the development of visually responsive intelligent films [8].
Film with a 20% mulberry extract showed good tensile strength (TS) and a color response to pH
variation from 1 to 13. This biomaterial was then tested to monitor fish spoilage by changing the color
from red to green when the product is spoiled. Ferreira et al. [9] developed films and coating materials
from fruit and vegetable residue as well as potato peels. The resulting films showed a solubility of 87%
and an elongation at break (EB) of 33%. Even if the films exhibited poor mechanical properties, their
application as a coating material on acerola fruit extended its shelf life by 50%. Hence, edible films and
coatings from natural polymers are highly effective for food preservation during storage.
One of the trendy biopolymers used for this purpose is cactus mucilage. In literature, we found
only five studies on films and coatings from cactus mucilage, between 2005 and 2015 (Figure 1).
In the last four years (2016–2019), more than 15 papers dealing with the use of cactus mucilage
for food packaging were published, which proves growing interest in this eco-friendly, available,
and versatile biopolymer. The valorization of biomass extracted polymers, particularly polysaccharides,
constitutes an eco-friendly and economically profitable alternative to petroleum-based materials.
With more than 170 billion tons of biomass annual production, this low cost and widely available
raw material constitutes an inexhaustible resource of functional biopolymers that could find effective
and profit-making applications. Carbohydrates, which constitute 75% of the produced biomass, are a
promising candidate for industrial and biotechnological applications [10]. Cactus mucilage, which
is one of the most abundant carbohydrates in a cactus plant, could be of particular interest thanks
to its low cost and wide availability. In fact, the cactus plant covers large areas over the world.
The cactus-cultivated areas in Mexico, Tunisia, Brazil, and Ethiopia are estimated at 3,000,000, 600,000,
500,000, and 360,000 ha, respectively. All these plants are mainly cultivated for fruit consumption,
forage, and dye production [11]. Today, cactus biomass is considered a valuable raw material for
added-value biomolecules with various industrial applications.
Therefore, the present review deals with cactus mucilage as a functional and film-forming
polysaccharide and discusses the efficiency of mucilage biomaterials in food packaging applications.
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Figure 1.
Figure Publicationson
1. Publications on cactus
cactus mucilage
mucilage for
for edible
edible films
films and
and coatings.
coatings.

2. Cactus Mucilage: Composition, Structure, Properties, and Applications

2. Cactus Mucilage: Composition, Structure, Properties, and Applications
Biomass-derived polysaccharides such as mucilage (from different plants), cellulose, and pectin
Biomass-derived polysaccharides such as mucilage (from different plants), cellulose, and pectin
offer several advantages over synthetic polymers since they are renewable, biocompatible, completely
offer several advantages over synthetic polymers since they are renewable, biocompatible,
biodegradable, and naturally available. In addition, polysaccharides display a wide range of
completely biodegradable, and naturally available. In addition, polysaccharides display a wide
physicochemical properties depending on their structural features and monosaccharides composition.
range of physicochemical properties depending on their structural features and monosaccharides
Polysaccharides also have the ability to interact easily with other polymers under soft and
composition. Polysaccharides also have the ability to interact easily with other polymers under soft
environmentally-friendly conditions [10]. Consequently, polysaccharides can find effective and
and environmentally-friendly conditions [10]. Consequently, polysaccharides can find effective and
innovative applications in various industrial fields. In fact, they have been widely used as thickeners,
innovative applications in various industrial fields. In fact, they have been widely used as
gelling agents, stabilizers, and emulsifiers in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries [12].
thickeners, gelling agents, stabilizers, and emulsifiers in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food
More recently, current and trendy applications were investigated, such as tissue engineering, 3D
industries [12]. More recently, current and trendy applications were investigated, such as tissue
printing, and the development of composite scaffolds [12–14]. Moreover, polysaccharides are very
engineering, 3D printing, and the development of composite scaffolds [12–14]. Moreover,
effective at developing green materials and can be used as promising alternatives to petroleum-based
polysaccharides are very effective at developing green materials and can be used as promising
materials [12]. Polysaccharides have been used as polymeric matrices and reinforcing or blending
alternatives to petroleum-based materials [12]. Polysaccharides have been used as polymeric
agents for the development of bio-composite materials. The obtained green materials could be applied
matrices and reinforcing or blending agents for the development of bio-composite materials. The
in biomedical, construction, furniture, and packaging industries [12,15].
obtained green materials could be applied in biomedical, construction, furniture, and packaging
Cactus, which is a natural source of polysaccharides, is a widespread plant growing under a
industries [12,15].
wide range of climatic conditions, particularly in arid and semi-arid countries in Africa (Tunisia,
Cactus, which is a natural source of polysaccharides, is a widespread plant growing under a
Morocco, South Africa), America (Mexico, Chile, Brazil, United States), Europe (Italy, Spain), and Asia
wide range of climatic conditions, particularly in arid and semi-arid countries in Africa (Tunisia,
(Iran, India, and Israel). The decline in water resources and global desertification may increase the
Morocco, South Africa), America (Mexico, Chile, Brazil, United States), Europe (Italy, Spain), and
importance of a cactus as an effective system for fruit and vegetable production as well as biomass
Asia (Iran, India, and Israel). The decline in water resources and global desertification may increase
valorization [16]. The cactus belongs to the kingdom of Plantae, order of Caryophyllales and family of
the importance of a cactus as an effective system for fruit and vegetable production as well as
Cactaceae [17]. Thanks to its genetic variability, there are more than 300 species in the Opuntia genus
biomass valorization [16]. The cactus belongs to the kingdom of Plantae, order of Caryophyllales
and the most abundant one is Opuntia ficus indica. This species is known for its modified stems, called
and family of Cactaceae [17]. Thanks to its genetic variability, there are more than 300 species in the
cladodes, and its fleshy sweet fruit sheltered in a thick colored peel. Cactus biomass is an inexhaustible
Opuntia genus and the most abundant one is Opuntia ficus indica. This species is known for its
source of active and functional molecules such as carbohydrates, fibers, polyphenols, dyes, and oils.
modified stems, called cladodes, and its fleshy sweet fruit sheltered in a thick colored peel. Cactus
Carbohydrates are likely the most abundant organic molecules on Earth, since they are present
biomass is an inexhaustible source of active and functional molecules such as carbohydrates, fibers,
in the cells of all living organisms and represent the major form of photosynthetically-assimilated
polyphenols, dyes, and oils. Carbohydrates are likely the most abundant organic molecules on
carbon in the biosphere. Among carbohydrates, which represent the main constituent of Opuntia
Earth, since they are present in the cells of all living organisms and represent the major form of
ficus cladodes [18], mucilage is an heteropolysaccharide known particularly for its high molecular
photosynthetically-assimilated carbon in the biosphere. Among carbohydrates, which represent the
weight and branched structure. Mucilage has the ability to swell when dissolved in water and to
main constituent of Opuntia ficus cladodes [18], mucilage is an heteropolysaccharide known
form colloidal and viscous suspensions [19]. Mucilage is stored in mucilaginous cells present within
particularly for its high molecular weight and branched structure. Mucilage has the ability to swell
the chlorenchyma (external green cells) and parenchyma (internal cylinder of white cells) but are
when dissolved in water and to form colloidal and viscous suspensions [19]. Mucilage is stored in
more abundant in the parenchyma [19]. The hydrocolloid has great water-holding capacity, which
mucilaginous cells present within the chlorenchyma (external green cells) and parenchyma (internal
plays a very important role in the physiology of the plant commonly growing under water-stress
cylinder of white cells) but are more abundant in the parenchyma [19]. The hydrocolloid has great
water-holding capacity, which plays a very important role in the physiology of the plant commonly
growing under water-stress conditions [20]. Cactus mucilage can be extracted by different methods
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 4 of 19

conditions [20]. Cactus mucilage can be extracted by different methods and the most common one uses
water as a solvent for maceration, which is followed by the filtration process and precipitation. Table 1
summarizes some methods used for mucilage recovery. Sepulveda et al. [19] confirmed that extraction
parameters deeply influenced the yield of extraction. In fact, mucilage extraction yields depend on
the plant organ, the cactus species, and the extraction method. The mucilage is more abundant in
cactus cladodes (24% of cladodes’ dry weight for Cereus Triangularis variety [21] and 19.4% of cladodes’
dry weight for the Opuntia Ficus Indica variety [19]) than the other parts of the plant, such as fruit
peels (4.1%), fruit pulp (3.8%), and flowers (18.3%) [22–24]. In fact, the mucilage content in cladodes
increases as a response to drought in order to preserve the plant. Mucilage content is also higher in the
older cladodes than in the younger ones [20].
Mucilage from cladodes of Opuntia ficus indica is the most studied one and is well defined in
literature as a complex polysaccharide of about 33 to 55 sugar residues [24,25]. Different studies agreed
that arabinose, galactose, xylose, and rhamnose are the major neutral constituents of the mucilage
with slight variation in the content (Table 1) while the presence of galacturonic acid was contested.
However, Mc Garvie and Parolis [26] assumed that the presence or absence of galacturonic acid is
possibly due to seasonal variation in sugar composition. Furthermore, Trachtenberg and Mayer [27]
attributed these contradictions to the possible contamination of mucilage with other compounds
from the cell wall or to purification methods that are not completely effective. Saenz et al. [20]
compared mucilage composition of different cactus varieties. Mucilage of Opuntia Fulgidas, known as
Cholla gum, has a complex structure with the main chain of galactose units having ramifications of
D-galacturonic acid, D-galactose, D-xylose, and L-rhamnose. Opuntia Dilleniis’ mucilage consists of a
main chain of galactose with branched chains of arabinose units. Lastly, the mucilage of O. ficus indica
(Opuntia ficus indica) is composed of acidic fractions containing arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, xylose,
and galacturonic acid with neutral fractions of glucans and glycoproteins.
Cactus mucilage, which is a renewable and eco-friendly raw material, can be successfully used
in biotechnological and industrial applications. In addition to its current use as gelling, stabilizing,
or encapsulating agents, cactus mucilage has been employed as a flocculating agent for heavy metals
in water [28], a coagulant-flocculant agent for the treatment of textile effluents [29], a wound-healing
and skin-repairing agent [30], and a drug delivery system [31]. The development of eco-friendly
materials is among the most unique applications of cactus mucilage. The latter was successfully used
to develop edible films and coatings as well as form bio-composites when it is blended with other
polymers [32–34]. Cactus mucilage has also been employed as a reinforcement agent in polymeric
matrices [35,36].
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 5 of 19

Table 1. Method and properties of mucilage from different cactus species and plant organs.

Yield of Extraction Composition and

Raw Material Extraction Properties and Applications Reference
(% Dry Weight) Structure
Homogenization in water
with blender
Filtration
Centrifugation Arabinose 67%
Cladodes Lyophilization Galactose 6% MW 4.3 × 106 g/mol
1.124 mg/mL of tissue [27]
Opuntiaficusindica Resuspension in TCA solution Xylose 20% Water holding capacity
Dialyze against water Rhamnose 5%
Addition of ethanol
Centrifugation
lyophilization
Two polysaccharidic
entities: Linear Moisturize and heal cutis favoring cutaneous
Cladodes
Mechanical press - β-(1-4)-galactose polymer reparative processes [30]
Opuntia ficus indica
and highly branched Wound healing properties
xyloarabinan
Galactose 40%
Arabinose 30%
Mechanical press of cladodes Xylose, rhamnose,
Cladodes
inner part 14% glucose: Minor sugars Film-forming properties [33]
Opuntia ficus indica
Precipitation with ethanol NMR specific signals of
arabinogalactan
polysaccharide
Arabinose
Maceration in water, assisted Galactose
Cladodes Viscoelastic behavior
with a microwave 8% Rhamnose [37]
Opuntia ficus indica MW 16.7–17.5 × 106 g/mol.
Precipitation with ethanol Xylose
Acide galacturonique
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 6 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Yield of Extraction Composition and

Raw Material Extraction Properties and Applications Reference
(% Dry Weight) Structure
MW 2.3 × 104 g/mol
Maceration
Arabinose 44% Non-Newtonian shear-thinning behavior
Centrifugation
Galactose 20% High elastic properties similar to synthetic
Cladodes Decantation
- Xylose 22% polymers like polyisobutylene [38]
Opuntia ficus indica Precipitation with acetone
Rhamnose 7% At low concentrations (<3%): Typical behavior
Washing with isopropyl
Galacturonic acid 6% of dilute solution
alcohol
At high concentrations: Weak gel behavior
Arabinose 39%
Pseudo plastic behavior
Galactose 33%
Cladodes Maceration in water, Good swelling index
6% Rhamnose 16% [39]
Opuntia dillenii haw Precipitation with ethanol High water-holding capacity
Xylose 5%
Anti-obesity property through lipase inhibition
Glucose 5%
Galactan backbone
composed of (1→4) linked
Cladodes Maceration in water β-D-Galp residues MW 8.4 × 106 g/mol
24% [21]
Cereus triangularis Precipitation with ethanol substituted by Antioxidant activity
L-arabinofuranosyl
residues
The plant was manually
pealed, and the pulp was
recovered Partially crystalline structure
Pulp Characteristic FTIR pics of
Solvent extraction in saline - Treatment of textile effluents by [29]
Cereus peruvianus complex polysaccharides
solution composed of NaCl, coagulation/flocculation
KCl, and NaNO3
Filtration
Uronic acid 23%
Blending with screw press Arabinose, rhamnose,
Fruit pulp Filtration, centrifugation xylose, galactose:
3.8% - [23]
Opuntiaficusindica Dialysis against water 1.0:1.7:2.5:4.1 (ratio)
Precipitation with ethanol complex mixture of
polysaccharides
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 7 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Yield of Extraction Composition and

Raw Material Extraction Properties and Applications Reference
(% Dry Weight) Structure
MW
Glucose 78%
Mixing in water 3.67 × 106 g/mol
Arabinose 13%
Microwave-assisted Shear-thinning behavior
Fruit pulp Xylose 5%
extraction - Thickening, stabilizing, and antioxidant [40]
Opuntiaficusindica Galactose 2%
Filtration properties
Mannose 2%
Freeze drying Anti-DPPH radical scavenging activity
Arabinoglucan structure
comparable to that of BHT
Arabinose 33%
Fruit peels Maceration in water Galactose 23%
4% - [22]
Opuntiaficusindica Precipitation with ethanol Galacturonic acid 14%
Arabinogalactan structure
Galactose 54%
Arabinose 34%
Xylose 10% Film-forming properties
Fruit peels Mechanical press
3% Galacturonic acid 9% Emulsifying and foaming properties [41]
Opuntia ficus indica Precipitation with ethanol
Backbone chain made of Good water-holding capacity
(1→4) linked β-D-Galp
residues
Fruit peels Microwave assisted extraction Gelling properties
16% - [42]
Opuntiadillenii haw Precipitation with ethanol Good thermal stability
-Not specified, MW: Molecular weight. DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. BHT: Butylated hydroxytoluene. TCA: Trichloroacetic acid. NaCl: Sodium Chloride. KCl: Potassium
Chloride. NaNO3: Sodium nitrate. NMR: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. FTIR: Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy.
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 8 of 19

3. Cactus Mucilage for Developing Standalone Films

Edible films made up from natural polysaccharides are facing huge interest due to their potential
industrial applications. In the last few years, mucilage from quince, flax, chia, Balangu, Dracocephalum
moldavica seeds, okra fruits (Abelmoschus esculentus), and cactus (Cactaceae) have been used to develop
edible films with unique properties [33,43–48]. Likewise, cactus mucilage from different varieties
and different plant organs was employed to develop bio-based materials. Espino Diaz et al. [49]
developed films from mucilage of O. ficus indica cladodes in the presence of glycerol with or without
calcium (Table 2). This study showed that, at pH 3, films were very elastic and difficult to handle.
However, between pH 4 and pH 8, films were strong enough to easily handle and characterize. In the
latter case, the color of the obtained films varied from light yellow at a low pH to yellow-green at a high
pH. Color saturation was affected by pH and calcium content. Chroma values were higher in mucilage
films prepared at a high pH without calcium. In a previous study, Gheribi et al. [33] developed edible
films using mucilage from a cactus and investigated the effect of various plasticizers. The obtained
glycerol plasticized films had higher TS (>1MPa) and EB (>60%) than those developed by Espino
Diaz et al. [49] (0.95 MPa and 24%, respectively). Moreover, water vapor permeability (WVP) values
of the former films were lower than the latter ones (63.8 and 98–147 gmm/m2 d KPa, respectively).
This seems to be related to differences in mucilage chemical composition, which is deeply affected by
the origin of cladodes and the extraction method [33]. Cactus mucilage films can also be successfully
developed with plasticizers other than glycerol, which is proven by Gheribi et al. [33] who found that
sorbitol-plasticized films showed the best TS and water vapor barrier properties, while polyethylene
glycol (PEG) 400 plasticized films showed the highest glass transition temperature (49 ◦ C) and thermal
stability (up to 171 ◦ C).
Although cactus mucilage films exhibited some unique properties, their mechanical and
barrier properties are inferior when compared to conventional plastic materials, which limit their
industrial applications. For these reasons, some studies focused on the development of composite
materials using cactus mucilage and other biodegradable polymers (Table 2). In this context,
Lira Vargas et al. [50] developed glycerol-plasticized films based on cactus mucilage/gelatin and
cactus mucilage/gelatin/beeswax. The concentration of cactus mucilage was fixed at 0.5% while the
concentrations of the other components were incorporated at a concentration range of 0.25–0.5%.
The obtained composites had medium-to-high roughness resulting from the lumpiness of cactus
mucilage and the smoothness of gelatin. The addition of beeswax increased the lumpiness and
decreased the transparency of composite films. The ternary blend significantly increased TS and
decreased water vapor, O2 , and CO2 permeabilities (Table 2). The authors mentioned that, despite
the reinforcement of the mechanical and barrier properties after blending the mucilage with gelatin
and beeswax, the characteristics of the resulting biomaterials are still poor, which limit their practical
application. Recently, the use of PVA, which is a synthetic and biodegradable polymer with excellent
mechanical and barrier properties, has been proposed as an alternative to surmount these limitations.
For this purpose, Gheribi et al. [34] blended Cactus (O. ficus indica) mucilage with PVA at four different
ratios. The results of this study showed that PVA addition improved physical, mechanical, thermal,
and barrier properties of mucilage films. The composite at 80:20 (mucilage/PVA) was selected as the
optimal blend, which leads to an increase in TS, EB, and the water contact angle by 165%, 14%, and 24%,
respectively. Dominguez et al. [51] 45 studied the properties of ternary composites made of chitosan,
PVA, and cactus (O. tomentosa) mucilage. In this study, PVA and chitosan concentrations were varied,
while mucilage concentration was set at 10%. The obtained composites were stable and homogeneous.
However, the addition of mucilage led to more hydrophilic films with higher water vapor permeability
(WVP) and water uptake than neat PVA and chitosan films. Furthermore, Guadarrama-Lezama et al. [36]
investigated the effect of blending citric pectin with cactus mucilage at different concentrations and
concluded that the films’ microstructure was compact, smooth, and homogeneous below 12% of
mucilage. The addition of cactus mucilage, even at high concentrations, increased thermal stability
and decreased water vapor permeability (WVP) and solubility of the developed bio-composites.
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 9 of 19

Previous studies generally correlated the reinforced thermal and physical properties to intermolecular
interactions occurring within the film network between the functional groups of cactus mucilage and
those of the incorporated polymers. The obtained results proved that cactus mucilage is compatible
with many biodegradable polymers such as PVA, chitosan, starch, and citric pectin, which may lead to
countless industrial applications.
In another study, Lopez Garcia et al. [35] compared the direct incorporation of mucilage withthe
addition of water-ethanol extracted mucilage and studied the effect of both methods on chemical,
thermal, and mechanical properties of a starch/chitosan/PVA/mucilage Opuntia joconsotle composite.
The direct addition of mucilage caused microphase separation in the film network while films from
extracted mucilage had no clear aggregation or microphase separations, which means that the films’
components were homogeneously dispersed in extracted mucilage and indirectly-added mucilage.
For mechanical properties, films from directly added mucilage showed slightly lower values than films
with extracted mucilage.
In addition to cladodes, mucilage from other organs of the cactus can be used to develop edible
films. Damas et al. [52] exploited Cereus hildmannianus fruits, which is a widespread cactus species in
Brazil, for the extraction of mucilage. This was further used to develop glycerol-plasticized edible films.
This study confirmed the previous findings showing that the addition of plasticizers is mandatory for
cactus mucilage films development, regardless of the organ or the species of the plant. The authors
suggested that mucilage from Cereus Hildmannianus fruits can be successfully used as a film-forming
and coating material thanks to its high nutritional value and the interesting functional properties
of the resulting films. Moreover, Gheribi et al. [41] used a prickly pear peel for the extraction and
characterization of its mucilage. The extracted mucilage showed interesting film-forming properties and
had an economic value as the raw material, which is considered a by-product. Lastly, Oliveira et al. [53]
evaluated the ability of mucilage from Pereskia Aculeata leaves to develop edible films plasticized with
glycerol. The obtained films were flexible and cohesive, with a smooth surface and good thermal
stability. The authors concluded that the non-toxic and non-transparent films could find interesting
applications for the coating of light sensitive food products.
The different studies mentioned above demonstrated that cactus mucilage films are particularly
interesting for their flexibility, gas, and grease barrier properties as well as their thermal stability.
However, their drawbacks include poor mechanical resistance and high affinity to water. The properties
of cactus mucilage films are intimately related to polysaccharide composition and structure, which is
highly branched and particularly rich in hydrophilic groups [33,36,52].
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 10 of 19

Table 2. Based on cactus mucilage.

Composition Mucilage Extraction Film-Forming Conditions Main Properties References

Thickness 0.16–0.19 mm
Mucilage/PVA (90:10, 80:20, 70:30 and 60:40) WVP 35–474 g mm/m2 d kPa
Pressing of cladodes inner part, PEG 200 30% TS 2–6 MPa
Mucilage (cladodes of
filtration, precipitation with Casting onto plastic petri dishes EB50–60% [34]
Opuntia ficus indica + PVA
ethanol, drying (50 ◦ C, 24 h) Drying at 50 ◦ C for 24 h WCA90◦ –115◦
Storage at 53% RH and 25 ◦ C Tg 39–60 ◦ C
Tm 198–213 ◦ C
Thickness 0.17 mm
Mucilage 4% wt/wt
WVP 53 g mm/m2 d kPa
Pressing of cladodes inner part, Glycerol 40%
Mucilage (Opuntia ficus indica TS ~1 MPa
filtration, precipitation with Casting onto plastic petri dishes [41]
fruit peels) EB ~66%
ethanol, drying (50 ◦ C, 24 h) Drying at 40 ◦ C for 48 h
WCA ~91◦
Storage at 53% RH and 25 ◦ C
Tg 41 ◦ C
Homogenization with water in
TS 1.2–5.2 MPa
Mucilage (Pereskia aculeata a blender, filtration, Mucilage 1.5–2%
EB 22%–46% [53]
Miller leaves) centrifugation, precipitation, Glycerol 20–25%
YB 5.4–69 MPa
freeze drying
Citric pectin 2 g/100 mL water
Cactus mucilage 5, 10, 12, 14 16, 18, and WVP 1.5–1.7 × 10−9 g/m d Pa
20 g/100 g water TS 0.5–0.8 MPa
Citric pectin + Mucilage Immersion in CaCl2 solution for
Glycerol 5 mL YM 0.9–1.7 MPa [36]
(Opuntia ficus indica cladodes) 24 h, filtration, storage at 4 ◦ C
Casting onto acrylic plates EB 25%–41%
Drying at 50 ◦ C, overnight Tm 209–310 ◦ C
Storage 52% RH at 25 ◦ C
Thickness ~0.2 mm
Mucilage (cladodes of Mucilage 4%, plasticizer 40% WVP 22–64 g mm/m2 d kPa
Pressing of cladodes inner part,
Opuntia ficus indica) + Casting onto plastic petri dishes TS 1–2.5 MPa
filtration, precipitation with [33]
plasticizers (glycerol, sorbitol, Drying 40 ◦ C, 48 h EB 50%–65%
ethanol, drying (50 ◦ C, 24 h)
PEG 200 and PEG 400) Storage 53% RH, 25 ◦ C, 48 h WCA 85◦
Tg 30–50 ◦ C
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 11 of 19

Table 2. Cont.

Composition Mucilage Extraction Film-Forming Conditions Main Properties References

Mucilage 2.5–27%
PVA 11–14%
Direct mucilage: Grinding,
Chitosan 11–16%
Starch + PVA + mucilage filtration, centrifugation
Starch 27–36% YM ~0.2 GPa
(Opuntia joconsotle) + Extracted mucilage: [35]
Glycerol 22–30% H 19–22 MPa
chitosan+ glycerol Precipitation with ethanol, pH
Casting onto glass petri dishes
adjusted to 3.5 with HCl
Drying in 35 ◦ C for 48 h
Storage in polyethylene bags in a desiccator at 22 ◦ C
Mucilage 10%
PVA 8%, 23%, 38%, 53%, and 68% Thickness 0.05–0.07 mm
Mixing in blender,
PVA + chitosan + mucilage Chitosan 8%, 23%, 38%, 53%, and 68% WVP 3066–852 mL/mm2 d Pa
centrifugation, precipitation [51]
(Opuntia tomentosa) Glycerol 14% TS 30–50 MPa
with ethanol
Casting onto glass plates EB 10–70%
Drying with a convective dehydrator at 40 ◦ C for 4 h
Thickness 0.1–0.17 mm
Water extraction at 60 ◦ C, Mucilage 1%
WVP 0.32–1.1 g mm/m2 h kPa
Filtration, centrifugation, Glycerol 1%–4%
Mucilage (Cereus TS 3–28 MPa
Precipitation with ethanol, Casting onto Teflon plates [52]
hildmannianus fruits) EB 0.4–19%
washing with acetone, drying Drying at 23 ◦ C for 48 h
YM40-2359 MPa
(40 ◦ C, 24 h) Storage at 55% RH and 23 ◦ C
WCA 75◦ –108◦
Mucilage 0.5% (30 ◦ C) Thickness 0.02–0.04 mm
Mixing with water at 90 ◦ C,
Gelatin 0.25–0.5% (60 ◦ C) WVP 13–116 × 10–12 mol m/s m2 Pa
Mucilage (Opuntia ficus indica decantation, centrifugation,
Beeswax 0.25–0.5% (60 ◦ C) O2 P 3–14 × 10−12 mol m/s m2 Pa [50]
cladodes) + gelatin + beeswax precipitation with ethanol,
Glycerol 0.6%, Tween 80 0.4% CO2 P 3–9 × 10−12 mol m/s m2 Pa
dialyze, freeze drying
Casting and drying at 24 ◦ C, 50% RH for 1–3 days TS 0.5–2.7 MPa
Mucilage 4%, glycerol 50%, CaCl2 30%
Crushing, homogenization in
pH (3, 4, 5.6, 7, 8) Thickness 0.109–0.131 mm
water at 85◦ , filtration,
Mucilage (Opuntia ficus indica RH 30%, 25 ◦ C. WVP 98–147 g mm/m2 d KPa
centrifugation, precipitation [49]
cladodes) + glycerol + CaCl2 Casting onto glass petri dishes coated with Teflon TS 0.3–0.95 MPa
with ethanol, washing with
Drying at room temperature for 24h EB 15–24%
ethanol, freeze drying
Storage at 50% RH and 25 ◦ C
WVP: Water vapor permeability.O2 P: Oxygen permeability.CO2 P: Carbon dioxide permeability. TS: Tensile strength. EB: Elongation at break. YM: Young modulus. H: Hardness. WCA:
Water contact angle. Tg: Glass transition temperature. Tm: Melting temperature. PVA: Polyvinyl alcohol. RH: Relative humidity. PEG: Polyethylene glycol.
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 12 of 19

4. Cactus Mucilage as a Coating Material

Currently, coatings constitute an innovative primary packaging material able to preserve foodstuffs
and extend their shelf life. Coating materials should prevent deterioration of physical and nutritional
quality of the coated product. In addition, they should preserve the sensorial and organoleptic
properties, which determine the consumer appreciation of the final product. Cactus mucilage has been
effectively used as a coating material, particularly for highly perishable fruits, minimally processed
products, and fresh cut or sliced ones (Table 3).
The use of cactus mucilage as a coating material has been studied for the first time by
Del Valle et al. [32] who applied cactus mucilage on strawberries to extend their shelf life.
Coated strawberries showed better firmness than uncoated ones, which may enhance their resistance to
mechanical damage during storage and, thereby, reduce economic losses. Polysaccharidic coatings act
as a barrier to water transfer by slowing foodstuff dehydration and maintaining its firmness [1,32,54].
Moreover, the red color of strawberries was maintained for 5 days but was then reduced for both
coated and uncoated fruits because of fruit browning. For sensorial properties, coated strawberries
were preferred over uncoated ones during the storage period. Likewise, Oluwaseun et al. [55] used
cactus mucilage to coat papaya fruits and confirmed that coating treatment, applied on the fruit surface,
affected its internal atmosphere and, thus, delayed its ripeness during storage at room temperature.
Cactus mucilage-based coating effectively reduced yeast and mold counts in coated papaya fruits
to one-half. Moreover, aerobic psychrotrophic and mesophilic bacteria counts decreased from 11 to
4–6 CFU/g and from 9 to 4–6 CFU/g, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, no research has
established the antimicrobial activity of the cactus mucilage. However, Oluwaseun et al. [55] attributed
the reduction in microbial counts observed in coated papaya fruits to the modified atmosphere
generated by the cactus mucilage-based coatings. The cactus mucilage has the potential to act as an
effective barrier against gaseous exchange between the environment and coated fruit by reducing
O2 permeability and promoting CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere around the fruit. In this sense,
many studies reported the efficacy of cactus mucilage coatings, with or without glycerol, for reducing
microbial growth [54,56].In another study, Trevino-Garza et al. [54] demonstrated that mucilage/chitosan
coatings on fresh-cut pineapples significantly reduced yeast and mold (from 6.6 CFU/g for uncoated
fruits to 3–5 CFU/g for coated ones), total aerobic (from 4.7 CFU/g for uncoated fruits to 3.6–4 CFU/g
for coated ones), and psychrotrophic (from 4.1 CFU/g for uncoated fruits to 2.4–3.8 CFU/g for coated
ones) counts at the end of storage at 4 ◦ C. Moreover, the applied coating significantly reduced Listeria
monocytogenes and Salmonella typhi counts. The authors attributed the reduction in microbial growth to
the antimicrobial effect of chitosan and a low storage temperature (4 ◦ C). Allegra et al. [56] reported
that, during the entire storage period at 4 ◦ C, O. ficus-indica mucilage-based coatings did not induce any
microbial growth inhibition in breba figs. However, coated figs showed a significantly lower growth of
Enterobacteriaceae compared with uncoated ones.
The dipping method is the most widely used one for the coating application.
However, Zegbe et al. [57] developed and characterized films from cactus mucilage and then used
them to coat guava fruits. The method used in this study was effective in maintaining guava fruit
color, firmness, and soluble solids and dry matter concentrations during the storage carried out at
room temperature. However, the incorporation of a mixture of glycerol and polyethylene glycol (PEG)
as a plasticizer in film formulation increased fruit weight loss.
Since 2017, the number of published studies on the use of cactus mucilage as a coating material
has increased and all of them reported reinforcement in firmness, better appearance, and extended
shelf life for cactus mucilage-coated products. Dipping, which consists of immersing the food product
in film-forming solution that is basically composed of a polymeric matrix and additives, is the most
extensively used process for cactus mucilage-based coatings. Nevertheless, Garza et al. 49 used
layer-by-layer dipping, which consists in immersing pineapple cubes alternately into mucilage and
chitosan solutions. This coating process seemed to be effective in protecting fresh cut pineapple and
extending its shelf life by six days, in comparison with the uncoated fruits. In fact, mucilage/chitosan
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 13 of 19

coating may act as a polymeric barrier on the fruit surface by decreasing water vapor transmission
and weight loss by almost 10%. Such a barrier effect may be particularly ensured by the great water
binding capacity of mucilage, as explained by the authors. Moreover, coated fruits exhibited higher
firmness than uncoated ones on the 18th day of storage at 4 ◦ C. In fact, cactus mucilage crosslinked
with chitosan act as an effective physical and mechanical barrier reducing juice leakage and delaying
respiratory metabolism reactions [54] In another study, Bernardino-Nicanor et al. [58] used brushing as
a coating application method of mucilage (Opuntia Robusta) on tomatoes. The coating method and
the cactus species used in this study were shown effective in maintaining firmness and reducing the
weight loss of tomatoes. However, lycopene content remained higher in uncoated tomatoes on the 21st
day of storage. In this study, mucilage was extracted from parenchymatous and chlorenchymatous
tissues and the authors confirmed that parenchymatous tissue mucilage was more effective as edible
coating for tomatoes. Apart from Opuntia ficus indica and Opuntia Robusta, mucilage from Opuntia
elatior Mill species was used for coating guava fruits and this treatment significantly affected firmness,
pH, titratable total acidity, total soluble acids, and sensory attributes [59] More recently, Morais et al. [1]
blended the cactus mucilage with cassava starch in order to coat minimally-processed yam. Yam coated
with neat mucilage showed lower weight loss than roots coated with a mixture of starch and mucilage
because of the hygroscopic aspect of starch. This study particularly highlighted the effect of mucilage
coating in increasing polyphenol content, which was synthesized as a defense mechanism against
browning reactions occurring in minimally processed yam.
Regardless of its species or extraction and application methods, cactus mucilage can be considered
an effective material in extending shelf life of food products and preserving their qualitative attributes
(Table 3). Further research is needed to investigate the effect of the incorporation of antimicrobial
agents on the antimicrobial properties of cactus mucilage-based coatings for food product applications.
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 14 of 19

Table 3. Coatings based on cactus mucilage.

Coating Method and

Composition Mucilage Extraction Coated Product Main Effects References
Conditions
Mucilage (spineless Immersion
Immersion in a Fresh mass loss was reduced
cactus cladodes) + Minimally processed yam Storage in Nylon
solution containing 5 mg/L Visual and sensory quality were maintained [1]
cassava starch + (Dioscorea spp.) packages for 10 days at
citric acid Increase in phenolic compounds
glycerol 5 ◦ C.
Quality deterioration was slowed
Good appearance was maintained
Mucilage (cladodes Total soluble solids content was maintained after
Cladodes were pressed and Mango (Mangiferaindica
of O. ficusindica Dipping 16 days of storage [60]
sieved L.)
+Aloe debrana) Organoleptic properties of mucilage-coated
fruits were better than control and aloe
gel-coated fruits
Immersion
Mucilage (cladodes
- Guava (Psidiumguajava L.) Storage at 10 ◦ C for Reduction of weight and firmness loss [59]
of O. elatior Mill.)
4–16 days
Mucilage (from
Extraction with water or
parenchymatous and Enhanced firmness
ethanol from parenchyma or Tomatoes Brushing (3 times)
chlorenchymatous Reduced weight loss [58]
chlorenchyma (high speed (Lycopersicumsculentum) Storage at 20 ◦ C
tissues of O. Fruit ripening during storage was delayed
blending), filtration, drying.
Robusta)
Weight loss was decreased
Fig shelf life was extended
Brightness, visual appearance, and firmness
Crushing of cladodes, Dipping
Mucilage (cladodes were maintained
homogenization in water, ‘Dottato’ fig (Ficuscarica L.) Storage in refrigerator at
of O. ficusindica) + Lower microbial cell densities [57,61]
filtration, precipitation with fruit 4 ◦ C and 85% RH for
glycerol Reduced Enterobacteriaceae counts
ethanol, drying 14 days
Coating attenuated the decrease in amino acids’
content and increased the amount of
carbohydrates and other key metabolites
Dipping using
Blending of cladodes, Weight loss and softening of fruits were reduced
Mucilage (cladodes layer-by-layer process
homogenization in water, Fresh-cut pineapple Color, odor, flavor, and texture were preserved
of O. ficusindica) + Storage in plastic [54]
centrifugation, precipitation (Ananascomosus) Sensory acceptance was extended by 6 days in
glycerol +chitosan containers at 4 ◦ C for
with ethanol, drying comparison with the control
18 days.
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 15 of 19

Table 3. Cont.

Coating Method and

Composition Mucilage Extraction Coated Product Main Effects References
Conditions
Dipping
Crushing of cladodes, Storage in sealed
Mucilage (cladodes Firmness as well as ascorbic acid and pectin
homogenization in water, Fresh kiwifruit polyethylene
of O. ficusindica) + contents were maintained [62]
filtration, precipitation with (Actinidiadeliciosa) slices terephthalate packages at
glycerol/tween 20 Visual quality and flavor were preserved
ethanol, drying 5 ◦ C and 90% RH for
12 days
Extended shelf life
Fruits were coated with
Mucilage (cladodes Homogenization in water, Quality attributes were maintained
Unprocessed Guavas processed films
of O. ficusindica) + filtration, precipitation with High firmness [57]
(PsidiumGuajava L.) Storage for 6–8 days at
glycerol/PEG ethanol, drying Total soluble solids and dry matter
27 ◦ C and 20% RH
concentrations were maintained
Higher firmness
Dipping, drying
Mucilage (cladodes Homogenization in water, Extended shelf life
Carica papaya Fruit Storage for 6 weeks at [37]
of O. ficusindica) centrifugation Lower microbial load (total aerobic
27 ◦ C and 55%–60% RH
psychrotrophic)
Extended shelf life
Mucilage (cladodes Dipping, drying Greater firmness
Homogenization in water, Strawberry
of O. ficusindica) + Storage for 10 days at 5 ◦ C Color was not affected by coating [32]
centrifugation (Fragariaananassa)
glycerol and 75% RH Sensorial analysis revealed consumer’s
preference for coated fruits over uncoated ones
Coatings 2019, 9, 655 16 of 19

5. Conclusions
Cactus mucilage has been widely used for several industrial applications. The use of this
bio-polymer as a packaging material to ensure food safety and quality will open new opportunities and
trends in food packaging. Whether used as edible film or coating, cactus mucilage showed promising
properties for the future improvement of packaging systems. The use of cactus mucilage could also
be economically profitable due to its low cost, availability, and effectiveness when used as primary
packaging for food products. Future studies are needed to reinforce mechanical and barrier properties
of cactus films and to grant better antimicrobial activity formucilage coatings.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, R.G. Review and supervision, K.K.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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