PRINCIPLES OF

COMMUNICATIONS
• Modulation
➢the process of having a baseband signal modify
another high frequency signal called the carrier.
➢is a process of transforming information from its
original form to a form that is more suitable for
transmission
• Types of Analog Modulation
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Angle Modulation
a. Frequency Modulation
b. Phase Modulation
 Itis a type of analog modulation in which
the angle of a sinusoidal reference
function is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal.
 Expressed mathematically as:

𝒎 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄cos(𝝎𝒄𝒕 + 𝜽(𝒕))
where:

𝜃 𝑡 =denotes the time-varying phase

 Frequency Modulation
➢is a form of angle modulation where the
frequency of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of
the intelligence signal.

 Phase Modulation
➢is the process of varying the phase of a
constant-amplitude carrier directly
proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 In FM it is the frequency that varies.
 In PM the phase of the modulated signal
varies with the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

IMPORTANT!
in all types of modulation it is the
amplitude, not the frequency nor the
phase of the baseband signal that does
the modulating….
In FM, the carrier amplitude remains
constant and the carrier frequency is
changed by the modulating signal.
As the modulating signal amplitude
increases, the carrier frequency
increases.
With no modulation, the carrier is at
its normal center frequency.
 Mathematically, FM signal is expressed as:
𝒗𝑭𝑴 = Vc sin 𝜽
where:
𝒗𝑭𝑴 =instantaneous value of the FM signal
Vc = peak amplitude of the carrier
𝜃= angle of the FM signal
𝜽= 𝝎𝒄 𝒕+𝒎𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒎 𝒕

which gives an FM equation of:

𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
 Frequency deviation (𝜹)
➢is the amount of change in the carrier
frequency produced by the modulating signal.
𝜹 = ∆𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑽𝒎
where:
𝑘𝑓 =modulator sensitivity in Hz/V
𝑉𝑚 =peak value of the modulating signal in Volts

 Carrier swing
➢is the peak-to-peak frequency deviation
𝑪𝑺 = 𝟐𝜹
 Frequency deviation
Deviation ratio
➢Is the ratio of the maximum deviation
over the maximum modulating
frequency

𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑫=
𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
 Modulation Index
➢is the ratio of frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency
𝜹
𝒎=
𝒇𝒎

 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum

permitted frequency deviation is 75kHz and the
maximum permitted modulating frequency is
15kHz.
 The modulation index for standard FM
broadcasting is therefore 5.
 Percentage Modulation:
𝜹𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
%M= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙

where:
𝜹𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 =actual frequency deviation
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =maximum allowable deviation
Example:

Determine the peak frequency

deviation and modulation index for a
frequency modulator with a deviation
sensitivity of 10kHz/V and a
modulating signal of 5 cos 2𝜋 2500 𝑡 .
Example:

An FM signal is defined by the equation

𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 𝟓𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑽.

a. Find the carrier frequency

b. Find the modulating frequency
c. Find the modulation index
d. Calculate the frequency deviation
Example:

What is the deviation ratio of an FM signal

if the maximum allowable deviation is
12kHz and the maximum intelligence
frequency is 4kHz?
Example:

An FM broadcast station operates with a

peak-to-peak deviation of 120kHz.
Calculate the percentage modulation.
 Any modulation process produces
sidebands.
 When a constant-frequency sine wave
modulates a carrier, two side frequencies
are produced.
 Side frequencies are the sum and difference
of the carrier and the modulating frequency.
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually
much wider than that of an AM signal with
the same modulating signal.
 Frequency modulation produces an infinite
number of sidebands, even for single-tone
modulation
 These sidebands are separated from the
carrier by multiples of ƒm, but their
amplitude tends to decrease as their distance
from the carrier frequency increases.
 Sidebands with amplitude less than about
1% of the total signal voltage can usually be
ignored;
Bessel Functions
➢The equation that expresses the phase
angle in terms of the sine wave
modulating signal is solved.
➢Are widely available and is not
necessary to memorize or calculate
them.
 The table and graph of Bessel functions
represent normalized voltages for the
various frequency components of an FM
signal.
 The numbers in the tables will represent
actual voltages if the unmodulated carrier
has an amplitude of one volt
 J0 represents the component at the carrier
frequency
 J1 represents each of the first pair of
sidebands, at frequencies of ƒc + ƒm and
ƒc − ƒm
 J2 represents the amplitude of each of the
second pair of sidebands, which are
separated from the carrier frequency by
twice the modulating frequency
 All of the Bessel terms should be multiplied
by the voltage of the unmodulated carrier
to find the actual sideband amplitudes
 Bessel Functions: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different
modulation indexes of FM signal based on the Bessel Functions
NOTE:
• It is seen that the FM signal consists of a
carrier and theoretically an infinite
number of pairs of sidebands, each
preceded by j coefficients, but only
those sidebands with significant
amplitudes are transmitted.
 Plot of the Bessel Function Data
 instantaneous voltage equation for FM:

 With angle modulation, the total signal

voltage and power do not change with
modulation
 Using Bessel table: Actual BW

B = 2(n x fm )Hz
Where:
n = number of significant sidebands
fm = modulating-signal frequency (hertz)

 Using Carson’ s Rule: Approximate BW

BW = 2(𝜹 + fm )Hz or BW= 2(m+1)fm

Where:
𝛿 = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
fm = modulating-signal frequency (hertz)
Example:

Determine the practical bandwidth of an

FM signal modulated by a 15kHz tone
whose frequency deviation is 45kHz. What
is the approximate bandwidth for the
system using Carson’s formula?
 Narrowband FM (NBFM)
➢is an FM system in which the modulation index is
less than 𝜋/2 = 1.57, or
𝑚𝑓 < 𝜋/2
➢Is widely used in communication.
➢It conserves spectrum space at the expense of
the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Wideband FM
➢is an FM system in which the modulation index is
more than 𝜋/2 , or
𝑚𝑓 > 𝜋/2
Phase Modulation
➢is the process of varying the phase
of a constant-amplitude carrier
directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating
signal.
 Mathematically, PM signal is expressed as:

𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕

where:
𝒗𝑷𝑴 =instantaneous value of the PM signal
Vc = peak amplitude of the carrier
𝝎𝒄 =carrier angular velocity
𝒎𝒑 = modulation index for PM
= the maximum phase shift caused by the
intelligence signal
 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-
frequency carrier is varied in accordance with
a modulating signal, the resulting output is a
phase-modulation (PM) signal.
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating
signal, the greater the phase shift.
 The maximum frequency deviation produced
by a phase modulator occurs during the time
that the modulating signal is changing at its
most rapid rate.
 Phase deviation (∆𝜽)
➢ is the amount of change in the carrier phase
produced by the modulating signal.
∆𝜽 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 = 𝒎𝒑
where:
𝜽= peak phase deviation , also the modulation index
for PM (radians)
𝑘𝑝 = deviation sensitivity in rad/V
𝑉𝑚 =peak value of the modulating signal in Volts

 Modulation index (𝒎𝒑 )

𝒎𝒑 = ∆𝜽 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎
Example:

Determine the peak phase deviation for a

phase modulator with deviation sensitivity
k = 2rad/V and a modulating signal of 10V.
How much phase deviation is produced for
a modulating signal with twice the
amplitude?
Example:

A 100-MHz carrier is modulated by a 250-

Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier voltage is
6V and the maximum deviation is 25kHz,
write the equation of this modulated wave
for (a)FM and (b)PM. If the intelligence
frequency is now changed to 1500-Hz, and
all else remaining constant, write a new
equation for (c) FM and (d)PM.
 Noise
➢Is the interference generated by lightning,
motors, automotive ignition systems, and
power line switching that produces transient
signal.
➢Is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies.
➢Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
➢Some noise completely obliterates signal
information.
 FM signals have a constant modulated
carrier
 FM receivers contain limiter circuits that
deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
 Any amplitude variations occurring on the
FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter
circuits.
 This amplitude clipping does not affect the
information content of the FM signal, since it
is contained solely within the frequency
variations of the carrier.
 Pre-emphasis
➢ Is the circuit that boosts the high audio frequencies in
modulation at the transmitter, used to improve the
signal-to noise ratio.
➢ A simple high-pass filter can serve a transmitter’s pre-
emphasis circuit.
➢ Specifications dictate a time constant t of 75 μs, where t
= RC. Any combination of resistor and capacitor (or
resistor and inductor) giving this time constant will
work.
➢ Such circuit has a cut-off frequency of 2122 Hz.
➢ It has an upper frequency where the signal
enhancement flattens out.
 Pre-emphasis circuit
 Pre-emphasis curve
De-emphasis
➢Is the circuit that attenuates the high
audio frequencies (at the receiver) by the
same amount that they were boosted to
compensate for the effect of the pre-
emphasis.
➢Is a low-pass filter can serve a
transmitter’s de-emphasis circuit.
➢returns the frequency response to normal
flat level.
De-emphasis circuit
 De-emphasis curve
The combined effect of pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis is to
increase the signal-to-noise ratio for
the high-frequency components
during transmission so that they will
be stronger and not masked by
noise.
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