Quantum Inspired Security on a Mobile Phone

Yu Qin1 and Wanjiaman Li2

1
Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing 400065, China
isdemiqin@outlook.com
2
University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TH, UK
liwanjiaman.1993.2012@my.bristol.ac.uk

Abstract. The widespread use of mobile electronic devices increases the com-
plexities of mobile security. This paper aims to provide a secure communication
environment for smartphone users. Some research proves that the one-time pad
is one of the securest encryption methods, and the key distribution problem can
be solved by using the QKD (quantum key distribution).
The objective of this project is to design an Android APP (application) to ex-
change several random keys between mobile phones. Inspired by QKD, the de-
veloped APP uses the quick response (QR) code as a carrier to dispatch large
amounts of one-time keys. After evaluating the performance of APP, it allows
the mobile phone to capture and decode 1800 bytes of random data in 600ms.
The continuous scanning mode of APP is designed to improve the overall
transmission performance and user experience, and the maximum transmission
rate of this mode is around 2200 bytes/s. The omni-directional readability and
error correction capability of QR code gives it better real-life application, and
the features of adequate storage capacity and quick response optimize overall
transmission efficiency. The security of this APP is guaranteed since QR code
is exchanged face-to-face, eliminating the risk of being eavesdropped. Also, the
id of QR code is the only message that would be transmitted through the whole
communication.
The experimental results show this project can achieve superior transmission
performance, and the correlation between the transmission rate of the system
and several parameters, such as the QR code size, has been analyzed. In addi-
tion, some existing technologies and the main findings in the context of the pro-
ject are summarized and critically compared in detail.

Keywords: One-time pad, QKD (quantum key distribution), QR Code.

1 Introduction

Over the last few decades, with the development of internet technologies, information
sharing has become more convenient for people. In 2014, Facebook users shared in-
formation was almost two million times every minute, and the number of emails sent
per minute over 200 million [1]. Today, mobile internet access is more convenient for
users, bringing a dramatic increase in the amount of shared information per minute.
However, such data explosion has posed a new level of complexity to information
2

security. The main aim of this project is to provide a secure way to protect the person-
al information of mobile phone users.
Current public-key cryptography relies on computational complexity. Since the
large numbers can be factorized in polynomial time by using the quantum computer,
this public key encryption method cannot provide a guaranteed security. Today, the
secret-key cryptography is the only provably secure way to achieve absolute security,
and the one-time pad key is used as a secret key between sender and receiver. Each
key of one-time pad can be used only once to encrypt text, and both key and message
should be equal in length, and thus it cause the key distribution problem. Recent re-
search studies indicate that this problem can be elegantly solved by using quantum
key distribution (QKD), which uses quantum mechanics to establish an absolute se-
cure channel, thus ensuring that the security cannot be violated by the quantum com-
puter.
However, the QKD is a new technology and the implementation of it is still com-
plicated. Inspired by QKD, the main purpose of this project is to develop an Android
application (APP) to exchange the one-time keys between two mobile phones using
Quick Response (QR) codes, with JAVA as the main programming language. The
camera and screen of the smartphone are used as part of the system’s hardware, and
the key is exchanged face-to-face between users to avoid access by a third party. The
QR code is a good choice for distributing the one-time pad keys between
smartphones, because it has omni-directional readability, error correction ability, and
large capacity to store keys. Also, it will simplify the process of promoting this APP
to real-life applications, for example, online payments or ATM transactions.
The paper can be approximately summarized as follows: Section 1 presents a brief
introduction to give readers a basic understanding of the project. After the main ob-
jective of the project has been explained, sections 2 summaries and critically compare
existing works and relevant methods. Section 3 explains the working principle of this
project and illustrates how to operate each function of the APP. In section 4, the
transmission performance of the system is evaluated based on different parameters,
such as the QR code size and the quantity of QR code, after which the best transmis-
sion result is obtained. The last section reviews and concludes all the useful aspects of
the project and proposes some feasible improvement for future works.

2 Preliminaries and Problem Statement

2.1 Quantum Key Distribution

Quantum key distribution (QKD) is based on the quantum mechanics to provide a

guaranteed security, and it is suggested to be used to solve the one-time pad key dis-
tribution problem. QKD can be implemented by applying prepare and measure proto-
cols and entanglement based protocols, such as the BB84 protocol, the six-state pro-
tocol and the EPR protocol. The BB84 is a common protocol proposed by Bennett
and Bassard in 1984, and the six-state protocol is a derivative version of BB84 proto-
col. The ERP protocol is proposed by Einstein, Podosky, and Rosen. Despite the
quantum key distribution can achieve an absolutely security and detect the presence
 3

of eavesdropper, the complicated implementation of QKD is still a challenge in phys-

ics.
2.2 Quick Response (QR) Code

QR codes can be divided into several different areas, each with their own specific
purpose. The detailed structure is illustrated as explained below 10:
Finder Pattern: As illustrated in the figure 1, there are three identical structures
shown in all the corners except the bottom right one. Each pattern consists of a 3*3
matrix of black modules surrounded by white modules that are again surrounded by
black modules [9]. The finder pattern is used to enable the scanner can recognise the
QR-code and promotes the decoder to locate the correct orientation.
Separators: The white separators are used to separate the finder patterns from the
useful data, and makes the QR code can be recognised by decoder easily and quickly.
Timing Pattern: The alternating black and green modules belongs to the timing pat-
tern. The decoder can determine the width of each module.
Alignment Patterns: The alignment patterns is used to compensate the image dis-
tortion, and this feature can help scanner to decode the data easier. For large QR code
size, more alignment patterns would be required.
Format Information: Format information contains 15 bit data, and it is close to the
separator. This part is used to store the error correction level of the QR code and the
chosen masking pattern [9].
Data: This part is used to convert the data into a bit stream and stored in eight-bit
long code-words.
Error Correction: The Error correction part works similar to part 6, and eight bit
long code-words are utilised to store error correction codes.
Remainder Bits: If the data and error correction bits are not the integer multiple of
8 bits, this part is used to contain the empty bit.
QR-codes contain 40 different versions, and each version contains various size of
modules. The smallest QR code has a size of 21*21 modules while the largest version
consists of 177*177 modules.

Fig. 1. The Structure of QR-Code.

4

The QR code is used in this project. In theory, it has adequate capacity to store
one-time keys, error correction ability, and can only be recognised by machine; thus,
it has better extensibility in real-life applications. In addition, considering the wide-
spread use of mobile phones and the fact that users can use their smart phone cameras
to capture QR codes instead of having to buy new devices, the practical aspect of
using the QR code in authentication schemes becomes more evident. Currently, QR
codes are used mainly in authentication mechanisms; however, not many useful mo-
bile applications exist that use QR codes as a tool to distribute one-time pad key. This
project aims to design an APP that utilises QR-codes to solve the key distribution
problems and enhance mobile phone security.
2.3 Problem Statement

The classical cryptographies include public key cryptography and secret key cryptog-
raphy. While public-key cryptography is popular in the past, it is not recommended
due to potential social and economic risks. Secret-key cryptography is proved to be
absolutely secure in the sense of information theory; the security of this mechanism is
enhanced by using the one-time pad as a secret key. The main problem of one-time
pad is the key distribution, and the quantum key distribution method could hold prom-
ise for solving this issue.

3 The Developing Procedure of the APP

The APP is developed in the Android Studio software environment, and JAVA is
used as the main programming language. To achieve the project’s objective, the struc-
ture of the source code has been divided into different parts; each part has its own
contribution and collaborates with the other parts as well. The property of this APP is
presented in figure 8; the target SDK version is API 23, while the minimum one is 16.
The ‘applciationId’ is a unique identifier for the APP; if this ID is modified, the
Google application store will treat this APP as a completely different one, even if the
content is unchanged. Dependency plays an important role since it is the link amongst
different terminal elements (activity) of the whole project.
As shown above, the project is comprised of different folders (modules). In the
project, the ‘QR_Code_demo’ works as a core module that controls all the user inter-
faces (UI). Section 4 will explain in detail the designing and working procedures of
the APP, and the entire source code can be accessed from the CD attached at the back
of the thesis.
3.1 Working principles

Figure 2 illustrates the working procedure of the APP. The client and server rely on
Wi-Fi Direct to discover peers and connect with each other. The client acts as a re-
ceiver and uses the smartphone’s embedded camera to capture the QR code which is
shown on the server screen. The server presents multiple QR codes per cycle, and the
client decodes all of them continuously until all one-time keys are exchanged. Since
the key can only be used once, the server deletes the corresponding QR code when the
client informs the id of scanned QR code.
 5

The structure of source code can be considered as a three-tier architecture which

contains different modules:
Tier 1: Devices discovery and connections
Module: ● Wi-Fi Direct connection and peer discovery
Tier 2: The exchange of one-time keys
Module: ● Encoding and decoding of QR-code
Tier 3: Communications
Module: ● Socket communications

Fig. 2. APP Working Procedure.

3.2 Devices discovery and Connections

In the first tier of the APP, the Wi-Fi Direct connection and peer discovery module
establishes the connection between mobile phones.
Wi-Fi is a wireless local area networking access technology with devices based on
IEEE 802.11 standards [13]. It becomes a method of wireless communications similar
to Bluetooth, and multiple connected devices can simultaneously transfer data at typi-
cal Wi-Fi speeds. Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the internet via a wireless
access point (AP). Unlike the traditional method, the Wi-Fi Direct or Wi-Fi P2P can
connect with other devices without using an access point [14]. The Wi-Fi Direct be-
longs to the Wi-Fi protocols standardised by the Wi-Fi Alliance, which supports Peer
to Peer (P2P) communications between devices [15], thus allowing mobile devices to
be connected even if they are from different manufacturers. The peer to peer connec-
tion can be established immediately when one of the Wi-Fi compatible devices meets
the Wi-Fi Direct requirement [16], greatly reducing the setup procedures and improv-
ing the compatibility of devices. In addition, the file is still transferred at standard Wi-
Fi speeds. Wi-Fi Direct also conserves the mobile devices’ power and enhances the
overall QoS, since it is based on the infrastructure mode of IEEE 802.11. Wi-Fi Direct
devices implement Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) to guarantee security with minimal
6

user intervention. This project utilises these characteristics of Wi-Fi Direct to realise
high speed and efficient communications between sender and receiver.
Devices in Wi-Fi Direct negotiate to establish one peer device to work as a tempo-
rary access point for all the other devices in the group, as shown in figure 3 below
[17].

Fig. 3. Peer Devices in Wi-Fi Direct.

Figure 4 illustrates that the device acts as a Wi-Fi AP, also called the group owner
(GO), and that other devices are clients of the group which are connected to the GO.
The group owner and the clients are elected once the session is established, and the
role of each device remains the same. If the GO decides to leave, the connection will
be unavailable until a new GO is elected for the new session. During the session, the
group owner advertises the P2P group periodically to help new devices to discover
and join the group.

Fig. 4. P2P Group.

 7

Wi-Fi Direct supports many topologies, as shown in the example in figure 5. The
laptop in the middle is a client of group1 and acts as a group owner of P2P group 2.
This feature of supporting multiple topologies extends the network and increases the
effectiveness of communication.

Fig. 5. Wi-Fi Direct Topology.

In this project, two android smartphones are used to comprise the P2P group. The
sender acts as a group owner while the receiver is the client. First, these two phones
are placed in a fixed position (cradle) to avoid errors in measurement, then the user
clicks the search button at the top of the APP menu to discover peers via Wi-Fi Di-
rect; the name of available peer phones will display on the screen as ‘Available De-
vices’. The status bar of the ‘Available Devices’ screen will show three types of situa-
tions: available, invited and connected. The ‘available’ status indicates that the peer
phone is available to be connected. When the user plans to connect this phone, and
invites it to the P2P group, the status will change to ‘invited’. Once the connection is
established, the ‘connected’ status displays on the screen, indicating that the Wi-Fi
Direct group is established. In addition, the APP will automatically switch from the
home page to the QR-code transmission page, where the role of each device (server
and client) is displayed on the screen.
3.3 The exchange of one-time keys

In the second tier, the client and server are both connected and in the P2P group. The
exchange of the one-time key can be realised with the QR-code encoding and decod-
ing module, and figure 17 shows the key files (JAVA class) of these two modules.
When the client sends a request for one-time keys, about 200 to 3000 bytes of random
numbers can be generated by ‘GenerateActivity’, then the ‘QRCodeEncoder’ is used
to encode these numbers into pictures. Each generated picture is stored in the library
of the server device first, then it will display on the smartphone screen. In the decod-
ing module, the ‘ContinuousCaptureActivity’ is used to enable the smartphone of
client to recognise and decode QR-codes. The ‘callback’ function allows the decoding
procedure to run continuously and avoids the scanning of duplicate QR-codes.
As shown in figure 8, the client can select one mode from the menu, which in-
cludes ‘Automatic Single Scan Mode’, ‘Manual Continuous Scan Mode’, and ‘Auto-
8

matic Continuous Mode’. After selecting a mode, client places the QR-code within
the scanning box to improve decoding efficiency, and the random yellow point shown
in the scanning box is used to locate the finder pattern of the QR code. Once the QR
code is scanned, the smartphone will vibrate and play a sound to indicate the QR code
is scanned. A preview page of the decoded QR-code can be found at the bottom of
screen. If the user selects the ‘Manual Continuous Scan Mode’, the decoded text of
the one-time keys will display. The QR code size can also be found on the screen
which helps the client monitor the transmission performance. The ‘Automatic Single
Scan Mode’ is used to decode one QR code automatically only. On the other hand, the
‘Pause’ and ‘resume’ button can be used to stop the QR code decoding procedure
temporarily.

Fig. 6. QR-Code Decoding Procedure.

 9

3.4 Communications

In the third tier, the socket communications module enables the client and the server
to securely communicate with others. The ‘IdSendActivity’ and ‘IdSendFragment’
options allow the id of the scanned QR code to be sent from client to server. Because
the one-time key can only be used once, then the sender (server) will delete the corre-
sponding QR code upon receiving the id. During the communication procedure, the
system’s security is guaranteed by the socket communications module. In addition,
the message transmitted between the client and the server is the id of the QR-code;
users need not worry about their valuable information being stolen by a third party.
The communication procedure is presented in figure 9. If the ‘Manual Continuous
Scan Mode’ is selected, the client must press the ‘send id now’ button manually to
inform server. The ‘Automatic Continuous Mode’ automatically sends the id to tell
the server which QR code has been scanned. When the server receives the message,
the QR code which is stored in the local library of the phone will be deleted immedi-
ately.

Fig.7. Communications between Client and Server.

3.5 Payment mode

Since the project can achieve an absolute secure communication environment be-
tween mobile electronic devices, promoting the APP to real-life applications is easily
done. As a real-life application, a novel payment mode of the APP was designed. The
working procedure is illustrated in figure 10.
Firstly, when a buyer wants to pay the money for a cup of coffee or withdraw
money from ATM, the seller or ATM can generate a QR-code which contains a pay-
ment link for the buyer. After the buyer scans the QR code, the APP will automatical-
10

ly jump to the ‘send payment’ page. If the buyer checks the amount of the payment
and the name of the receiver are correct, they can press the ‘send payment’ button to
complete the transaction. With this method, the buyer need not worry that their pin
code and bank card information could be copied by malicious users. In addition, this
mode includes offline and online verification to increase security, since smartphone
access usually requires a password or fingerprint authentication to protect against
malicious users and the buyer is also required to enter another password to confirm
their payment. In addition, the bank or seller can add their own authentication meth-
od, such as SMS verification, to enhance the security level.

Fig. 8. Payment Mode.

This section introduces the developing procedure of the APP, and the source code
structure is based on a three-tier architecture which contains different modules: De-
vices discovery and connections, The exchange of one-time keys, and Communica-
tions. The Client and the server establish a connection via Wi-Fi Direct, which is
convenient and secure. Users can choose a QR code decoding mode based on their
needs. The ‘Manual Continuous Scan Mode’ allows the client to monitor the trans-
mission progress, and the ‘Automatic Continuous Mode’ automates the scanning,
communication, and deletion of QR codes, thereby achieving ideal transmission per-
formance. The one-time pad keys distribution procedure of the system is completed
when every QR code has been scanned and deleted. Since one-time keys are ex-
changed face to face, thus eliminating the possibility of copying by attackers, the
security of the whole system is guaranteed. Finally, the introduction of a novel pay-
ment mode promotes the APP as a real-life application.
 11

4 The Evaluation of Transmission Performance

Introducing the developing procedure of the APP reveals that the overall transmission
performance is related to several parameters: the QR code size (m) in bytes, the dis-
play rate (r) / (the number of pictures presented per second), the quantity of QR-codes
per cycle (n), and the time (t) between camera auto focus intervals in seconds. There-
fore, about m*n bytes can be exchanged by using the APP, and the overall transmis-
!∗!
sion rate (R) in bytes/s is calculated as: 𝑅 = , and the total decoding time (T) can
!
be found in the ‘Android monitor’ by connecting smartphones to a computer.
This Section discusses four experiments that are designed to analyse transmission
performance in different scenarios and optimise the transmission rate of the system.
Only one parameter can be changed in each experiment, and the mobile phones are
placed in a cradle to avoid measurement errors. In addition, each set of data has been
analysed at least 10 times to ensure accuracy.
4.1 The correlation between QR code size and transmission rate

Figure 24 shows how a larger QR code size brings a higher complexity to the pic-
tures. This phenomenon may increase the amount of time the phone spends in analys-
ing the decoded data. Since users expect to transfer more data at an ideal speed, the
best transmission rate of the system will be discussed in this section.

Fig. 9. QR-Code in 200 and 3000 bytes.

The first experiment analyses the performance of the APP by changing QR code
sizes from 200 bytes to 3000 bytes in different situations. For example, ‘r=1, n=10,
t=2 s’ means 1 picture is presented per second, 10 QR codes are produced in the first
cycle, and the time between camera auto focus intervals is 2 s.
12

Transmission Rate(bytes/ 2400

2100
1800
1500
1200 r=1,n=10,t=
900 0.1s
s)

600
300 r=1,n=10,t=
0 2s

1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
200
400
600
800

QR code size (bytes)

Fig. 10. The Correlation between QR-Code Size and Transmission Rate.

As seen in figure 23, the overall transmission rate will increase until the QR code
size reaches 2400 bytes, after which time, the rate will decrease rapidly. The best
transmission rate is equal to 2178 bytes/s, when r=1 picture/s, n=10 QR codes, t=2 s,
m=2400 bytes per QR code. The maximum data size encoded in one picture is up to
3000 bytes. Despite the larger size of QR code can deliver more data, it can negative-
ly influence decoding efficiency. These changes of the figure 25 can be explained in
this way: the larger the amount of data encoded in a QR code, the longer the client’s
processing time will be. Figure 26 proves this explanation by showing that the aver-
age decoding time for one QR code increases as the QR code size becomes larger.
Figure 13 shows a drastically increasing trend seen when the QR code contains data
more than 2600 bytes.
4000
decoding Cme(ms)

3000
2000
1000
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
QR code size (bytes)

Fig. 11. The Correlation between QR-Code Size and Decoding Time.

4.2 The correlation between display rate and transmission rate

One of the major functions of this project is the continuous scanning mode, which is
designed to improve transmission efficiency and user experience. In this mode, multi-
ple QR codes can be provided continuously at a display rate by server and the client
can scan all the QR codes continuously without press the scan button. The display rate
 13

(r) is the number of QR-codes that can be presented every second, and it should be
used as another parameter to test the system’s performance.
In the second experiment, the display rate is set from 1 to 6 pictures per second,
while the other factors remain the same in every set. As shown in the figure 14, since
the phone can decode 1800 bytes in around 600ms, when the QR-code size is smaller
than 2400 bytes, the transmission rate can be improved by setting the display rate to 2
pictures/s. However, when the server presents the QR-code at 6 pictures per second,
!
the client will need to capture and decode information in 0.166 ( ) s. The smartphone
!
is more likely to fail to distinguish one QR-code from another, possibly causing un-
stable decoding performance and producing a worse result. In addition, users are ad-
vised not to set the display rate faster than 1 pictures/s when they plan to transfer QR
code sizes larger than 2400 bytes, as the performance will be degraded dramatically.

2200
Transmission rate(bytes/

1900
1600
1300
1000 m=1600
s)

700 bytes,n=10,t=2s
400 m=2000
100 bytes,n=10,t=2s
1 2 3 4 6

display rate (pictures/s)

Fig. 12. The Correlation between Display rate and Transmission Rate.

4.3 The correlation between quantity of QR codes and transmission rate

While the client expects to transmit as many QR-codes as possible every time, this
could be a challenge for the APP. Therefore, the third experiment is designed to eval-
uate the correlation between the quantity of QR codes and the transmission rate.
In figure 15, the total quantity of presented QR-codes varies between 10 and 25.
When the QR code size is smaller than 1000 bytes, the average decoding time for one
QR code is 500ms, suggesting that the quantity does not significantly influence the
transmission rate. However, the transmission rate dramatically decreases when the
QR-code size gets larger than 1600 bytes. The reason might be that, when a client
attempts to capture more QR-codes, the APP is less likely to decode all the data in
one cycle, thus increasing the overall decoding time and achieving a worse transmis-
sion rate. Considering the efficiency of the system, the ideal total quantity of QR-
codes presented by the server is 10 pictures.
14

2200
Transmission rate(bytes/

1900 m=1000 bytes,r=1,t=2s

1600
1300 m=1600 bytes,r=1,t=2s
s)

1000 m=1800 bytes,r=1,t=2s

700
m=2200 bytes,r=1,t=2s
400
10 15 20 25 m=2400 bytes,r=1,t=2s

QuanCty of QR codes

Fig. 13. The Correlation between Quantity of QR-Codes and Transmission Rate.

4.4 The correlation between camera auto-focus interval and transmission rate

As discussed in section 4.4, the embedded camera is the hardware of the smartphone
and the camera is expected to be utilised as efficiently as possible. The ‘AutoFo-
cusManager’ of the source code initially sets the auto-focus interval to be 1 s.
As shown in figure 16, when the camera is trying to capture pictures every 0.1 s,
the smartphone will have a harder time recognising and distinguishing each QR code,
resulting in an undesirable rate. Since the transmission rate and autofocus interval
show a positive relationship, it is suggested to set the camera auto-focus interval
higher than 0.1 s to stabilize the decoding system. In addition, when the QR code size
is larger than 1200 bytes, the transmission rate can be enhanced dramatically by
changing the auto-focus interval from 0.1 s to 2 s. When the QR code size is smaller
than 400 bytes, the decoding time for one QR code is around 400 ms, and the camera
auto-focus may not significantly influence the system’s transmission rate.
2200
Transmission rate(bytes/

1900
1600 m=400
bytes,n=10,r=1
1300 m=800
s)

1000 bytes,n=10,r=1
m=1200
700 bytes,n=10,r=1
400 m=1600
bytes,n=10,r=1
100
0.1 camera auto-focus interval (s)
1 2

Fig. 14. The Correlation between Camera Auto-focus Interval and Transmission Rate.
 15

This section analyses the trade-off between transmission rate (R) and QR-code size
(m), display rate (r), quantity of QR-code (n), and camera auto-focus interval (t). The
system’s performance can be improved by encoding more data in each QR-code;
however, transmitting a QR code that is larger than 2400 bytes would negatively in-
fluence the transmission rate. The ideal display rate depends on the QR code size.
Since the APP can process 1800-2000 bytes in 500-600 ms, when the QR-code size is
smaller than 2000 bytes, the display rate can be set to 2 pictures/s. Otherwise, setting
the rate to 1 pictures/s is suggested. In addition, the quantity of QR code and the cam-
era auto-focus interval are recommended to be set as 10 pictures and 2 seconds, re-
spectively. Last, the maximum transmission rate is around 2200 bytes/s when m=2400
bytes, r=1 picture/s, n=10 pictures, and t=2 s.

5 Conclusion and future work

This paper develops an Android APP to provide a secure communication channel for
smartphone users, and the one-time pad key distribution problem is solved by using
QR codes as a carrier. After introducing the relevant background and some existing
technologies of the project, the developing and working procedures of the APP are
analysed to help the reader understand each function clearly.
The large storage capacity and quick response of QR codes improve the perfor-
mance of the system. The correlation between transmission rate and several parame-
ters have been evaluated in order to find the optimised result. About 1800 bytes of
random keys can be decoded in 600 ms, and the maximum transmission rate is around
2200 bytes/s. The continuous scanning mode improves the user’s experience by im-
proving the working efficiency, and the payment mode makes this APP be more ap-
plicable to real life. The project achieves a guaranteed security since the QR code can
be exchanged face to face to avoid eavesdropping, and the Wi-Fi direct connection
can also protect users’ privacy.
For feasible future works, the transmission rate for QR codes larger than 3000
bytes could be enhanced by improving the hardware of smartphone, such as the
screen resolution. Since the versions of Android vary, solving the API compatibility
problem is recommended. Further, adding an exchange bank pin code function is
suggested, which could result in increased APP applicability.

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