Power Plant Steam Generators

Chapter Three
Steam Generators

3.1 Definition
A steam generator or a boiler is defined as a closed vessel in which water
is converted into steam by burning of fuel in presence of air at desired
temperature, pressure and at desired mass flow rate.
According to American society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.), a
steam generator or a boiler is defined as "a combination of apparatus for
producing, finishing or recovering heat together with the apparatus for
transferring the heat so made available to the fluid being heated and
vaporized.
The boiler is the part of a steam power plant process that produces the
steam and thus provides the heat.
A steam boiler as show in figure 3.1 fulfills the following statements:
• It is part of a type of heat engine or process
• Heat is generated through combustion (burning)
• It has a working fluid, heat carrier that transfers the generated heat
away from the boiler.
• The heating media and working fluid are separated by wall.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Figure 3-1: steam boiler

Principle: In case of boiler, any

type of fuel burn in presence of air
and form flue gases which are at
very high temperature (hot fluid).
The feed water at atmospheric
pressure and temperature enters the
system from other side (cold fluid).
Because of exchange of heat
between hot and cold fluid, the
cold fluid (water) temperature
raises and it form steam. The flue

Figure 3-2: Principle of Boiler

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Power Plant Steam Generators

gases (hot fluid) temperature decreases and at lower temperature hot fluid is
thrown into the atmosphere via stack/chimney. The function of boiler is to
facilitate the generation of steam by providing the necessary heat transfer
surfaces as show in figure 3-2 , space for storage of water and steam, furnace
for burning the fuel and necessary equipment’s for control of safe operation
the large variety of
The steam or hot water under pressure can then be used for transferring
heat to a process that consumes the heat in the steam and turns it into work.

3.2 Main types of a modern boiler

In a modern boiler, there are two main types of boilers when considering
the heat transfer means from flue gases to feed water, these type can be
classified as follow:-

3.2.1 Fire tube boiler

The fire-tube boiler is
sometimes called a “smoke-
tube boiler” or “shell boiler”.
Flue gases from the furnace are
conducted to flue passages,
which consist of several
parallel-connected tubes. The
tubes run through the boiler
vessel, which contains the
feedwater. The tubes are thus
surrounded by water as shown
Figure 3-3: schematic of fire tube steam boiler

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Power Plant Steam Generators

in figure 3-3. The heat from the flue gases is transferred from the tubes to
the water in the container, thus the water is heated into steam. An easy way
to remember the principle is to say that a fire tube boiler has "fire in the
tubes". A fire tube boiler is simple and its initial cost is low and used in
industrial plants to produce saturated steam up to (18 bar) pressure about (6
kg/s) capacity.

3.2.1.1 Advantages of Fire-Tube Boiler:

Following are the major advantages offered by fire tube boiler :

 Due to their availability as packaged systems, they can be easily

relocated from one place to another.
 The construction and maintenance routine of a typical fire tube boiler
happens to be very simple.
 Fire tube boilers usually consist of a single furnace tube and a burner.
Hence, the control systems meant for heating purpose inside these
boilers is kept very simple.
 Due to their comparatively low operating pressures, the accessories
needed to support fire tube boiler systems can be obtained at very
economical rates.
 These types of boiler systems are found to be very fuel efficient.
Besides, their operation is very easy.
 They provide very cost-effective heating solutions.
 Their cleaning procedure is very simple.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.2.1.2 Disadvantages of Fire-Tube Boiler:

Major disadvantages associated with fire tube boilers are mentioned below:

 As a general rule, the maximum output generated out of fire tube

boiler is around 27 000 kg / h.
 The fire tube boiler systems are not capable of working with
applications which involve high operating pressures i.e. beyond 250
psig. This limitation is experienced due to the large diameter
cylindrical construction of fire tube boilers.
 Also, these boiler systems are not considered suitable for processes
where high capacity steam is required.

3.2.2 Water tube boiler

The conditions are the opposite of a fire tube boiler. The water circulates
in many parallel-connected tubes. The tubes are situated in the flue gas
channel, and are heated by the flue gases, which led from the furnace
through the flue gas passage. In a modern boiler, the water circulates in the
tubes, which are welded together and form the furnace walls. Therefore the
water tubes are directly exposed to radiation and gases from the combustion
Figure 3-4. Similarly to the fire tube boiler, the water tube boiler received its
name from having "water in the tubes". A modern utility boiler is usually a
water tube boiler, because a fire tube boiler is limited in capacity and only
feasible in small systems. Water tube boiler is classified as:
 Vertical tube boiler

 Horizontal tube boiler

 Inclined tube boiler

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Figure 3-4: drawing describing the water tube boiler principle.

3.2.2.1 Advantages of Water Tube Boilers

• More amount of steam can be generated at high pressure.
• Heating surface is more; therefore steam is generated quickly in water
tube boilers.
• Replacement of defective tube is easier.
• Simpler in construction.
• Cleaning and inspection is easy when compared to fire tube boilers.
• The various parts of the boiler can be separated easily; hence it can be
transported easily from one place to another.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.2.2.2 Limitations of Water Tube Boilers

These boilers are less suitable for use with impure and dirty water. Because
of scale formation on tubes, overheating and bursting of the tubes is likely to
occur.
• Skilled persons are required for inspection.
• The cost of maintenance is high when compared to fire tube boilers.

3.3 Comparison between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers:

3.4 The Selection of Steam Generator:

• Quantity of steam or hot water required.
• Pressure, temperature, or steam quality required.
• Location and purpose of the installation.
• Type of fuel to be used.
• Availability of water

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.5 Classification of a Modern Boiler

Steam generators are classified as follows:
a. As per location of fire and water spaces :
• Fire Tube Boiler
• Water Tube Boiler
b. Based on circulation:
• Natural Circulation Boiler
• Forced/Assisted Circulation Boiler
c. Based on pressure requirement:
• Subcritical Boiler
• Supercritical Boiler
d. As per arrangement of steam and water spaces :
• Drum Type Boiler
• Once-through Boiler
e. Based on type of firing/heat transfer:
• Stoker-fired Boiler
• Fossil Fuel (Gas/Oil/Coal)-fired Boiler
• Fluidized-bed Boiler
• Waste Heat Recovery Boiler

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.6 Natural circulation boilers

3.6.1 General
The natural circulation is one of the oldest principles for steam/water
circulation in boilers. Its use has decreased during the last decades due to
technology advances in other circulation types. Natural circulation principle
is usually implemented on small and medium sized boilers. Typically the
pressure drop for a natural circulation boiler is about 5-10 % of the steam
pressure in the steam drum and the maximum steam temperature varies from
540 to 560 °C.

3.6.2 Natural circulation principle

The water/steam circulation begins from the feed water tank, from where
feed water is pumped. The feedwater pump Figure 3.5 raises the pressure of
the feedwater to the wanted boiler pressure. In practice, the final steam
pressure must be under 170 bar in order for the natural circulation to work
properly. The feed water is then preheated in the economizer almost up to
the boiling point of the water at the current pressure. To prevent the feed
water from boiling in the economizer pipes the economizer temperature is on
purpose kept about 10 degrees under the boiling temperature. From the
economizer the feed water flows to the steam drum of the boiler. In the
steam drum the water is well mixed with the existing water in the steam
drum. This reduces thermal stresses within the steam drum.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Figure 3.5: Natural circulation principle

The saturated water flows next from the steam drum through downcomer
tubes to a mud drum (header). There are usually a couple of downcomer
tubes, which are unheated and situated outside the boiler.
The name "mud drum" is based on the fact that a part of the impurities in
the water will settle and this 'mud' can then be collected and removed from
the drum.
The saturated water continues from the header to the riser tubes and
partially evaporates. The riser tubes are situated on the walls of the boiler for
efficient furnace wall cooling. The rises tubes are sometimes also called
generating tubes because they absorb heat efficiently to the water/steam
mixture. The riser tubes forms the evaporator unit in the boiler.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.6.3 Driving force of natural circulation

The driving force of the natural circulation is based on the density
difference between water/steam mixture in riser and downcomer tubes, of
which the riser tubes represent the lower density mixture and downcomer
tubes the higher density mixture as show in figure 3.6 .

Figure 3.6: driving force in Natural circulation principle

The driving pressure can be defined as following:

Where:-
g : is the gravitational acceleration (9,81 m/s2).
H : the heights are according to Figure 3.6 [m].
(ρdc − ρr ) : the difference in the average density between the downcomers
(dc) and raiser (r) tubes [kg/m3].

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Power Plant Steam Generators

The boiling height, i.e. the height where water has high enough
temperature to boil, can be calculated using the circulation ratio and
water/steam enthalpies:

Where:-
h”: is the enthalpy [kJ/kg] of saturated steam,
h’ : enthalpy of saturated water (at the pressure of the steam drum),
U: is the circulation ratio, and
Δh: is the enthalpy change caused by the rise in evaporation pressure
because of the subcooling of water in downcomer tubes).

3.7 Assisted or forced circulation boilers

3.7.1 General
In contrast to natural circulation boilers, forced circulation is based on
pump-assisted internal water/steam circulation. The circulation pump is the
main difference between natural and forced circulation boilers. In the most
common forced circulation boiler type, the principles of forced circulation
are basically the same as for natural circulation, except for the circulation
pump. The operation pressure level of forced circulation boiler can be
slightly higher than a natural circulation boiler, but since the steam/water
separation in the steam drum is based on the density difference between
steam and water, these boilers are not either suitable for supercritical
pressures (>221 bar). Practically the maximum operation pressure for a
forced circulation boiler is 190 bar and the pressure drop in the boiler is
about 2-3 bar.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.7.2 Principle of forced circulation

The water/steam circulation begins from the feed water tank, from where
feed water is pumped. The feedwater pump raises the pressure of the
feedwater to the wanted boiler pressure. In practice, the final steam pressure
is below 190 bar, in order to keep the steam steadily in the subcritical region.
The feed water is then preheated in the economizer almost up to the boiling
point of the water at the current pressure.

Figure 3.8 : Principle of forced/assisted circulation.

In a forced/assisted circulation boiler, the circulation pump Figure 3.8

provides the driving force for the steam/water circulation. Since the pump
forces the circulation, the evaporator tubes can be built in almost any
position. Greater pressure losses can be tolerated and therefore the
evaporator tubes in a forced circulation boiler are cheaper and have a smaller

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Power Plant Steam Generators

diameter (compared to natural circulation evaporator tubes). This type of

circulation is called forced circulation, due to the existence of a water
circulation pump in the circuit. The steam/water circulation is forced by the
pump and does not rely on density differences as in natural circulation.

3.8 Circulation ratio

The circulation ratio is one important variable when designing new
boiler. It is defined as the mass rate of water fed to the steam-generating
tubes (raisers) divided by the mass rate of generated steam. Thus, it is
meaningful to define the circulation ratio only for water tube boilers:

The variations in circulation ratio result from the pressure level of the
boiler, therefore high pressure boilers have low ratios and low- construction
of the recovery boiler using natural circulation drum.

For certain natural circulation applications dimensioning the circulation

ratio is very difficult. The circulation ratio varies between 5 and 100 for
natural circulation boilers. The circulation ratio of forced circulation boilers
is normally between 3 and 10. Once through boilers generate the same mass
rate of steam as has been fed to boiler, thus their circulation ratio is 1.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9 BOILER ACCESSORIES

The boiler accessories are fitted for efficient operation of the boiler. A
modern boiler has the following accessories associated with it.
1. Feed pump.
2. Economizer.
3. Air preheater.
4. Superheater.
5. Steam drum ( steam separator).
6. Injector.

3.9.1 Feed Pump

Feed pump is used to force the water into the boiler. Since the inside
pressure of the boiler is high, the water should be pumped to a considerable
pressure above that of boiler.
Basically two types of pumps are in use as show in figure 3.9 :
1. Reciprocating feed pump: consists of a cylinder and a piston. The
piston displaces water as it reciprocates inside the cylinder.
2. Rotary feed pump: are of centrifugal type and are commonly run
either by a small steam turbine or by electric motor.

Figure 3.9: Water Feed Pump

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9.2 Economizer
It is also known as ‘Feed water heater’. It is used to heat the feed-water by
utilizing the heat of the waste flue gases before they are discharged to the
atmosphere through chimney. Figure 3.10 show types of economizers.

Figure 3.10: Types of Economizer

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9.2.1 The economizer has many advantages

1. The temperature range between various parts of the boiler is reduced
which results in reduction of stress on the inner wall of boiler drum
due to uneven thermal expansion.
2. Evaporate capacity of the boiler is increased.
3. Overall efficiency of the plant is increased.

3.9.3 Air Pre-Heaters

Air preheater is an auxiliary system that increases the temperature of air
before it enters the furnace as show in figure 3.11 . It is generally placed
after the economizer - i.e in between economizer and chimney.

Figure 3.11: Air Preheater.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9.4 Super Heaters

They are located in the path of the hot furnace gases. The superheater in
the form of coils of the tube and are used to heat up the steam above the
saturation temperature. Figure 3.12 shows the steam superheater.
Super heater steam has the following advantages.
1. Steam consumption by the turbine is reduced.
2. Loss due to condensation is reduced.
3. Erosion of turbine blade is eliminated.
4. Efficiency of the plant is increased.

Figure 3.12: Steam Superheater.

3.9.5 Steam Drum (Steam separator)

The steam generated may be either wet steam (or) dry steam (or)
superheated steam. The wet steam must be separated from the dry steam
before letting it enter the main steam line figure 3.13. This separation is done
by steam separator. It prevents the wet steam from entering the main steam
line, thus prevents the turbine blades from corrosion.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Figure 3.13: Steam Drum

For the smallest drops (less than 10 microns) fiber mist eliminators are
used. As the particles become larger, impingement devices like screens are
adopted. As they get still larger, chevrons are used. Finally, for the larger
drops, cyclones are adopted. They can operate for the entire range of liquid-
to-gas-phase flow rates.

A system which has different geometric constraints is illustrated in

Figure 3.14. Head room is limited in a steam drum so the liquid and vapor
from many heated tubes enter at the bottom; pass up into the periphery into a
double row of cyclone separators. Almost dry steam leaves out of the top of
the cyclone while the separated liquid leaves the bottom. The almost-dry
steam proceeds to the scrubber section (usually chevrons) and then out of the
drum to the superheater.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Figure 3.14: Steam Drum Separator Section Typical of Modern Drum.

The mass flow rate of drops less than 10 microns in diameter is quite
small in typical steam generation installations so the mass fraction of liquid
flowing out of the separator section for installation of this type is typically of
the order of 0.1 percent.

Separation can be a problem when some vapor is entrained with liquid,

such as when a jet or stream of liquid enters a pool. This is called
carryunder. To prevent carryunder from being a problem, the liquid flow rate
down in the pool must be kept well below the bubble rise velocity; that is,
the velocity down for the liquid should be less than 0.2 m/s.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9.5.1 Types of Separators

3.9.5.1.1 Gravity Separators

The simplest separator is the gravity separator shows in figure 3.15. The
superficial velocity of vapor at the free surface should be less than 0.3 m/s.
When the velocity is greater than this the carryover increases rapidly. Often
these separators are constructed as large-diameter inclined pipes in which
the two-phase mixture enters at the bottom of the high end, and separated
liquid is removed from the bottom of the low end. Vapor is removed from
the top of the high end. In excess of 99 percent of the entrained liquid can
be removed in gravity separators though some small drops are carried over
for all flow rates. These separators can be horizontal or vertical cylinders or
spheres.

Figure 3.14: Steam Drum Separator Section Typical of Modern Drum.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9.5.1.2 Centrifugal Separators

Centrifugal separators have a higher characteristic throughout and have

the unique characteristic in that they can be used to separate any proportions
of liquid or vapor in the incoming stream. They are used within their design
envelope; they effectively separate 99 percent of the liquid. Drops that are
less than 10 microns in diameter are not usually separated. The pressure drop
in these separators tends to be larger than in other kind because the
characteristic velocity is larger. The swirl shown in the center of Figure 3.15
is typical of centrifugal separators.

When a cyclone separator is overloaded, the pressure in the swirl

chamber drops so much below that of the pool into which the separated
liquid drains that the liquid rises up the downcomer and floods the separator.

Figure 3.15 : Steam Drum Separator Section Typical of Modern Drum.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

3.9.5.1.3 Chevrons and Screens

Chevrons and screens operate by intercepting drops which are unable to

follow the vapor as it goes through a tortuous path through the device. These
separators work on dispersed flows and are generally ineffective on drops
less than 10 microns in diameter. Figure 3.16 shows how the chevrons are
arranged. Vapor flow is in the horizontal plane while the separated liquid
runs down due to gravity normal to the page.

Figure 3.16 . Chevron Separator with Scoops Showing the Path of the
Air or Vapor.

When a chevron separator is overloaded, the liquid is re-entrained before

it can drain away. Knitted wire mesh separators perform much the way
chevron separators do except that they have lower characteristic velocities in
them but can trap smaller drops. They fail when overloaded in the same way
that chevron separators do, the separated liquid is re-entrained before the
liquid can drain away. Mist eliminators are particularly well adapted to the
elimination of drops smaller than 10 microns. They consist of a mat or

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Power Plant Steam Generators

bundle of fibers arranged so that the separated liquid can drain away easily,
and the gas can continue on through the filter material see Figure 3.17.

As the velocity through these separators increases, they also fail in the
same way as the wire mesh or chevron separators; the liquid is re-entrained
before it has a chance to drain away.

Figure 3.17. A high efficiency Brink mist eliminator element.

Pressure drop in separators is the penalty we must pay to separate the two
phases. It is important to be able to estimate the pressure drops through the
separator and select a separator type which is suitable for the application in
question. Table 3.2 summarizes the performance of these kinds of separators
in terms of the dimensional quantity given below.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Where :- Fs : is a dimensional constant in m/s(kg/m3)1/2.

vg = Vapor-phase velocity in m/s .

pg = Vapor density in kg/m3.

in which the characteristic velocity is the velocity into the separator.

Table 3.2. Types of Separators and Their Characteristics

3.9.6 Injector
An injector is used to feed water into boiler using steam from the same
boiler as show in figure 3.18 A&B.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Figure 3.18: A Steam Injector.

Figure 3.8: Steam Injector

Figure 3.18: B Steam Injector.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Determination of steam/water parameters

Given parameters

Normally in a steam boiler design assignment the parameters describing

the live (output) steam, e.g. mass flow, pressure and temperature are given.
If the steam boiler to be designed has a reheat cycle, also reheat pressure and
temperature are given. Reheat steam mass flow can be given as well. These
parameters are used to determine the rest of the steam/water parameters.

Pressure losses
The pressure losses in the heat exchanger units of the boiler are estimated
according to the following approximations:
• Economizer: the pressure loss is 5-10 % of the pressure of the
feedwater entering the economizer.
• Evaporator:
1- Once through boilers: in once-through boilers the pressure loss of the
evaporator is between 5 and 30 %.
2- Forced and natural circulation boilers: the pressure drop in the
evaporator part of drum based boilers does not affect the pressure loss
of the main steam/water flow through the boiler. This means that
saturated steam leaving the steam drum has the same pressure as the
feedwater entering the steam drum. The pressure loss of the
evaporator has to be overcome using the driving force (natural
circulation) or circulation pump (forced circulation).
• Superheater: the total pressure drop of all superheater packages is
less than 10 % of the pressure of the superheated steam.

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Power Plant Steam Generators

• Reheater: the pressure drop in the reheater is about 5 % of the

pressure of reheated steam Pressure losses of connection tubes
between different heat transfer surfaces (e.g. between evaporator and
superheater) can be neglected in these calculations.

Procedure for determination of specific enthalpies and mass flow rates

1. The specific enthalpy of the superheated steam can be determined with

an h-s diagram if both the temperature and the pressure of the steam are
known. Thus, the specific enthalpies for live (superheated) steam and
reheated steam can be calculated.

2. The total pressure loss of the superheater stages should be chosen.

Thus, the pressure in steam drum (drum-type boilers) or pressure after
evaporator (once-through boilers) can be calculated by adding the
pressure loss over the superheater stages to the pressure of the
superheated steam.

3. Specific enthalpy of saturated water and steam (in the steam drum) can
be read from an h-s diagram or steam tables, as the pressure in the steam
drum is known. In once-through boilers the determination of specific
enthalpy after the evaporator is based on the temperature. The reason for
this is the unclear state of supercritical steam after the evaporator in
once-through circulation. The temperature after the evaporator in once-
through boilers is typically between 400 and 450 °C.

4. For removal of minerals concentrated in the steam drum, a part of the

water in steam drum is removed as blowdown water from the bottom of

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the steam drum. Normally the mass flow rate of blowdown is 1-3 % of
the mass flow rate of feedwater coming into steam drum.

5. In principle, the feedwater coming into steam drum should be saturated

water. To prevent the feedwater from boiling in the transportation pipes,
the temperature of the feedwater reaching the steam drum is 15-30 °C
below saturation temperature. The feedwater is then called subcooled (in
contrast to supercooled). When the temperature in the steam drum and
the value of subcooling are known, the temperature after the economizer
can be determined. Thewater pressure after the economizer can be
assumed to be equal to the pressure in the steam drum and specific
enthalpy after the economizer can then be read from a h-s diagram. In
once through boilers the pressure after the economizer can be calculated
by adding the pressure loss in the evaporator to the pressure after
evaporator. The temperature after the evaporator is normally between
300 and 350 °C (can be chosen). Knowing the pressure and the
temperature, the specific enthalpy after the evaporator can be defined.

6. The pressure before the economizer can be calculated by adding the

pressure loss in the economizer to the feedwater pressure after
economizer. The feedwater temperature might be stated in the boiler
design assignment. If it is not given, it should be chosen from the range
of 200-250 °C. The mass flow rate before the economizer is the blow
down mass flow rate added to the mass flow rate from the steam drum to
the superheaters.

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Superheater and Reheater

Reheating takes usually place in two

stages. The pressure before the
reheater is the reheated steam pressure
added on the pressure loss in the
reheater. The steam goes through a
high pressure turbine before it enters
the reheater. In the high-pressure
turbine, the specific enthalpy of steam
decreases according to the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine. Isentropic
efficiency is normally between 0,8
and 0,9. A part of the low-pressure
Figure 3.19: An example of the heat load share of
steam coming from high-pressure
superheater stages.

turbine continues to the high-pressure feedwater heater (closed-type

feedwater heater). However, the mass flow rate of reheated steam is still 85-
90 % of that of the live steam.

Superheating is often applied in three stages having spray water groups

between each other to reduce steam temperature when necessary. Between
reheaters, the steam temperature is controlled using other means. Spray
water group dimensioning is usually based on a Heat load steam temperature
decrease of 15-40 °C by water spraying. Spray water originates normally
from the feedwater line before the economizer. Thus the pressure difference
is the pressure loss of the heat transfer surfaces between the economizer inlet

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and the location of the spray water nozzle. An example of a possible heat
load share between the superheater stages is shown in figure 3.19.

Pressure loss in superheaters can be divided into equal partial pressure

losses corresponding to each superheater stage. Pressure loss of the spray
nozzles can be neglected. Temperature rise over all superheaters can be
divided into quite similar parts along the same principle.

Spray water group mass flow

Normally the mass flow rate of superheated steam (live steam) is known.
Thus, mass flow rate calculations start usually by calculating the mass flow
rate of spray water to the last spray water group (which is in this example
between the second and third superheater stages). The mass flow rates can
be solved with energy and mass balance equations. With the equations
below (equation 1 ), the mass flow rate of steam after second superheater
stage and mass flow rate of spray water to the last spray water group can be
calculated. The mass flow rate of spray water to the first spray water group
can be calculated along the same procedure:

……….. (1)

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Figure 3.20: Flow chart of the PCF boiler arrangement used in this
heat load calculation model.

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3.10: Boiler Calculations and Performance:

Exhaust Gases steam to H .P.turbine

@ Tg , m g s
@ Ts , Ps , hs , m

Air @Ta , ma

w
water from last FWH @Tw , m
f
Fuel @T f , m

steam to L.P.Turbine
2
@ T2 , P2 , h2 , m

5
steam from H .P.Turbine @T5 , P5 , h5 , m

3.10.1 Boiler efficiency: it is defined as the ratio between the total heat
output (to convert water to steam and to reheat the steam) to the heat input as
fuel. Each kg of fuel has a chemical energy known as "heating value" or
calorific value”.

m s (hs  hw )  m 1 (h2  h1 )
b 
m f .C.V

Where C.V. is the calorific value in kJ/kgf

By mass balance:
m w  m s
m 5  m 6
m g  m a  m f

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3.10.2 Equivalent Evaporation:

it can be defined as the flow rate ratio of steam to fuel that attained if the
boiler receive saturated water at 100 oC and convert it to saturated steam at
the same temperature.

(m s / m f )(hs  hw )
E.E 
2257

Where the value 2257 represent the latent heat of evaporation at 100oC.

Example 1:
A steam generator works at 15 bar absolute pressure. The
economizer receives the water at 35o C and heats it to 104o C while
the super heater receives wet steam from steam drum at x  0.97
and heats it to 300o C . The coal used as a fuel has a heating value of
33.5MJ / kg and the steam produced per kg coal is 10kgs / kg f . The
air is drawn by the forced draft fan to the boiler at
20o C and 20kga / kg f . The flue gases are discharged to the chimney
at150o C . Assuming Cp g  1.008kJ / kg..K :
1. Determine the  b ; E.E
2. Draw the heat balance sheet.

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Solution:

300C

104C
35C X=0.97

m sf (hs  hw ) 10 * (3039  147)

b    86.3%
C.V 33500
m sf (hs  hw ) 10 * (3039  147)
E.E    12.8kgs / kg f
2257 2257

Qeconomizer  m
 sf * Cp w * (T2  T1 )  10 * 4.2 * (104  35)  2898kJ / kg f

Qevaporator  m
 sf * (h3  h2 )  10 * (2731  437)  22940kJ / kg f

where h3  h f  x.h fg  844.6  0.97 *1945.2  2731 kJ / kg

and h2  Cp w .T2  4.2 *104  437 kJ / kg

Qsuperheater  m
 sf * (h4  h3 )  10 * (3039  2731)  3080kJ / kg f
m a  m f
Qchimney  m gf * Cp g * (Tg  Ta )  .Cp g * (Tg  Ta )  (1  m af ) * Cp g * (Tg  Ta )
m f
 (1  20) * 1.008 * (150  20)  2751.84kJ / kg f

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Energy input Energy output

KJ/Kgf KJ/Kgf

Economizer 2898
8.4

Evaporator 22940 66.5

33500 Super heater 3080 8.8

Chimney 2752 8

Uncounted 1830 8.3

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Power Plant Steam Generators

EXAMPLE 2
The following results were obtained from a boiler trail. Feed water
temperature 36C, steam pressure = 14.8 bar, with dry saturated steam.
Duration of trail = 10 hrs. Total Quantity of steam generated = 50,000 kg.
Total coal burned = 6000 kg, C.V of coal = 30,000 kJ/kg. Total grate area
3 m2.
Calculate (i) Amount of coal burned per m2 grate area per hour, (ii) boiler
efficiency, (iii) equivalent evaporation.

SOLUTION:

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Power Plant Steam Generators

From steam tables, corresponding to steam pressure = 14.8 bar, dry saturated
steam h hg 2789.4 kJ/kg
From steam tables , corresponding to feed water temperature 36C,
hf 150.7 kJ/kg
From steam tables, corresponding to 100C
hfg 2256.9 kJ/kg

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Power Plant Engineering TUTORIAL SHEET ‐ 3 ‫الجامعه المستنصريه – كليه الهندسه‬

Steam Generators ‫قسم الهندسه الميكانيكيه‬

1- How much is used/kg of coal burnt in a boiler having chimney of 35 m

height to create a draught of 20 mm of water, when the temperature of flue
gas in the chimney is 370ºC and the boiler house temperature is 34ºC. Does
this chimney satisfy the condition of maximum discharge?
Answers: 18.683 kg of air/kg of coal, W21.172

2‐ Calculate the mass of flue gases flowing through the chimney when
draught produced is equal to 1.9 cm of water. Temperature of flue gases is
290C and the ambient temperature is 20C. The flue gases formed per kg
of fuel burnt are 23 kg. Neglect the losses and take the diameter of chimney
as 1.8 m.
Answers: H 34.67 m , H1 29.05 m of air, mg 39.8 kg/s

3- A boiler generates 2400 kg of dry steam per hour at a pressure of 11 bar

the grate area is 3 m2, and 90 kg of coal is burnt per m2 of grate area per
hour. The calorific value of coal is 33180 kJ/kg and the temperature of feed
water is 17.5C. Determine (i) Actual evaporation per kg of coal
(ii) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100C (iii) efficiency of the boiler.
Answers: 8.889 kg/kg of fuel, 10.659 kg/kg of coal, 86.93%

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Power Plant Steam Generators

Problems

Q1//a 1.173-MW steam power plant of overall efficiency of 32% utilize a

steam generator that produces steam at 40bar and 300 oC at a rate of
1.128kg/s. The temperature of the feed water is raised from 40 oC to 125 oC
in the economizer and the ambient air is drawn to the boiler at a rate of
2.72 kg/s at 16 oC. The temperature of flue gases leaving the chimney is
150.4 oC and its specific heat is Cp=1.01 kJ/kg.K and the dryness fraction
of steam collected in the steam drum is 0.95. The fuel used is of
33000kJ/kg heating value.
1. Determine the boiler efficiency and the equivalence evaporation.
2. Determine the thermal efficiency if the generator efficiency 0.95.
3. Draw the heat balance sheet.

Q2/a steam power plant of a 25-MW electric output power has a medium
water tube steam generator of the following specifications

Steam production 31.6kg/s

Steam pressure 60bar
Steam temperature 500 oC
Dryness fraction of steam in the steam drum 0.96
Feed water temperature from F.W.Hs 100 oC
Water leaving economizer 250 oC
Fuel :natural gas of heating value 38700 kJ/m3
Fuel consumption 2.85 m3/s
Percent of unburned fuel 3%
Flue gas flow rate 12.8 kg/s
Flue gas temperature 150 oC
Flue gas specific heat 1.008 kJ/kg.K
Ambient temperature 30 oC

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Power Plant Steam Generators

1. Determine the boiler efficiency and the equivalent evaporation.

2. Draw the heat balance sheet for the boiler.
3. Determine the overall efficiency for this plant.

Q3/a 3-MW steam power plant have a water tubes boiler of the following
specification:

Steam production 9000 kg/h

Steam pressure 15 bar
Steam temperature 300 oC
Dryness fraction of steam in the steam drum 0.9
Feed water temperature 313K
Water leaving economizer 115 oC
heating value of the fuel 31 MJ/kg
Fuel consumption 1000 kg/h
Flue gas temperature 160 oC
Flue gas density 1.15 kg/m3
Flue gas specific heat 1.11 kJ/kg.K
Boiler house temperature 20 oC
Chimney diameter 1.24 m
Velocity of flue gases leaving the chimney 3 m/s

1. Determine the overall efficiency, boiler efficiency, and equivalence

evaporation.
2. Draw the heat balance sheet for the boiler.
3. State the requirements of good steam generator.

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