Deterioration and Maintenance of Pavements Skid Resistance

Chapter 9 Skid Resistance

Index

9.1 Introduction
1 Terminology
1 Microtexture
2 Macrotexture
2 Early developments in the UK
3 Influence of traffic
4 Effects of Seasonal Variation
5 Skid Resistance investigatory levels for carriageways in the UK
6 Slip resistance for footways and walkways

9.2 Skid Resistance Measuring Equipment

1 Portable or Pendulum skid resistance tester
2 SCRIM
3 Griptester
4 High speed locked wheel friction tester

9.3 Practical issues

1 Identifying problem sites
2 New surface technology
3 Polished stone value
1 Typical values of PSV
4 Selection of aggregate minimum PSV
5 Maximum AAV
6 Road deaths in Western Europe in 1992
7 Effects of Winter Conditions
8 International Friction Index

9.4 References / Bibliography

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Skid Resistance

Plates
9.1 Early skid resistance measuring equipment (1930's)
9.2 Front wheel drive car with internally mounted wheel (circa 1955)
9.3 SCRIM machine
9.4 SCRIM machine measuring wheel
9.5 Griptester
9.6 Griptester push mode
9.7 Griptester towed mode
9.8 Dynatest T1290 high speed Pavement Friction Tester

Figures
9.1 Forces acting on a body at rest
9.2 Microtexture and Macrotexture
9.3 Macrotexture – Positive and Negative
9.4 Variation in SFC with transition from dry to wet surface
9.5 Observed correlation between SRV and SFC
9.6 Influence of traffic on SFC
9.7 Effects of seasonal variation
9.8 Pendulum skid tester
9.9 SCRIM machine diagram
9.10 Dynatest T1290 Pavement Friction Tester – example of typical output
9.11 Procedure to Identify and Treat Sites with Skidding Resistance Problems

Tables
9.1 Skid Resistance Investigatory Levels
9.2 Recommended levels of Pedestrian surface potential for Slip
9.3 Typical values of polished stone value (PSV)
9.4 Minimum value of PSV for Chippings for Flexible Surfacings
9.5 Maximum AAV for Flexible Surfacings
9.6 Road deaths in Western Europe in 1992
9.7 Effects on friction of different road conditions

Equations
9.1 Coefficient of friction and SRV
9.2 Sideways force coefficient and skid resistance value
9.3 Mk 1 Griptester v SCRIM
9.4 Mk 2 Griptester v SCRIM

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9.1 Introduction
Skid resistance is about friction and the following short note sets out the basic
principles.

If a body of weight P (mass [M] x acceleration due to gravity [g]) is at rest on a

surface all the forces acting on it are vertical. If a horizontal force F is applied to try
and move the body the magnitude of this force must be sufficient to overcome the
resisting effects of friction. If the coefficient of friction is 1.0 then F = P

In the case of a pavement the coefficient of friction µ is known as the skid resistance
and acts to resist horizontal (uncontrolled) movement of the vehicle.

Figure 9.1 - Forces acting on a body at rest

The highway engineer has no direct influence on the force F but needs to ensure that
µ is as large as possible by ensuring competent drainage to minimise surface
lubrication and that the coefficient of friction of the surface aggregate is as high as
possible – or within certain limits depending on location. This characteristic is known
as the polished stone value (PSV).

The interpretation of skid resistance is complicated by various factors some of which

are:
Tyre size, tread depth, pattern, rubber compound
Slip speed
Vertical load
Quantity (depth) of water on surface
Seasonal variation due to weathering (microtexture)
Texture depth (macrotexture)
Temperature
Speed of measurement

Testing is carried out on a wetted pavement using either:

Portable skid resistance tester (pendulum)

SCRIM (slip fixed at 200 and 50 kph)
Griptester
High speed locked wheel device

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9.1.1 Terminology
9.1.1.1 Microtexture is the roughness of the surface of the aggregate and is
affected by weathering, achieving its greatest depth during the winter months due to
the combined abrading effects of water and detritus. This is the principal determinant
of skid resistance on a given site assuming competent drainage to ensure that the tyre
is in direct contact with the aggregate.

9.1.1.2 Macrotexture is the texture depth, which is the height the aggregate
sits above the bituminous matrix and is the principal determinant of competent
drainage to ensure there is a minimum thickness of water between the aggregate and
tyre.

Figure 9.2 - Microtexture and Macrotexture

The above diagram is relevant to Hot Rolled Asphalt which has been used extensively
in the UK and is largely credited with the good record of high skid resistance and
relatively low skidding accident rate compared with some other European Countries.

The terminology has become more complicated with the advent of generic SMA mixes
where the aggregate does not stand proud of the bituminous matrix as can be seen in
the following diagram.

Figure 9.3 - Macrotexture – Positive and Negative

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9.1.2 Early developments in the UK

In the first half of the 20th Century, growth of motorised traffic, capable of ever greater
speeds, created a pressure to find ways of making road surfaces that could both withstand
the increased loads and provide grip for the tyres of the vehicles using the roads.
Surfacings and structures that had been designed for horse-drawn traffic and slow-moving
vehicles with steel or solid rubber tyres were no longer suitable. Cobbled streets, wooden
blocks between the rails in tramways in cities and unsealed surfaces in rural areas were
inadequate for the demands of modern traffic.

Research to try and understand the problem of providing grip for road vehicle tyres began
in Britain in the inter-war years with the development of a device that could be used to
measure skid resistance on in-service roads. The motorcycle and sidecar with its angled
wheel and mechanical linkage to transfer the frictional forces from the tyre to a chart
recorder has become an iconic image in the study of road surface characteristics. A small
fleet of these machines was developed and used in the 1930s to establish some
fundamental principles that continue to be used to this day (Bird and Scott, 1936).

Plate 9.1 - Early measuring equipment (1930's)

Developments in measurement techniques continued after the Second World War, moving
to rather safer front-wheel drive cars with an internally-mounted angled wheel to measure
sideways-force coefficient (SFC) and a towed trailer with a small, lockable wheel to measure
braking force coefficient (BFC) at different speeds. It rapidly became apparent that
standardisation of test conditions was important and so these devices tended to use
standard tyres with smooth tread and were operated at controlled speeds.

Plate 9.2 - Front wheel drive car with internally mounted wheel (circa 1955)

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Other machines were built in that period that allowed the performance of different tyres
to be assessed but work on road surfaces depended primarily on the use of the side-force
cars and brake-force trailer. As research progressed, important factors - such as the
decrease in skid resistance with increasing speed, the microtexture on the aggregate and
the influence of surface texture depth - became known and better understood.

To comply with the appropriate protocols any testing for slip (pedestrian surface) or skid
(vehicular surface) should be done with the surface wetted. The following diagram
taken from Croney (1977) [p644] clearly indicates the variation of skid resistance with
the onset and cessation of rainfall, returning to a maximum when the surface becomes
dry.

Figure 9.4 - Variation in SFC with transition from dry to wet surface

The following relationship between Slip Resistance Value (SRV) and Sideways Force
Coefficient SFC is also taken from Croney (19770 [p641]

Figure 9.5 - Observed correlation between SRV and SFC in 63 tests

on rough looking and medium textured surfaces

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As explained below, suggestions for possible skid resistance levels for UK roads were first
made in the late 1950s (Giles, 1957). However, at that stage measurement techniques
were confined to the specialised SFC cars and BFC trailer plus the portable skid
resistance tester - the "pendulum" (Giles et.al, 1964). However, the test vehicles needed
support from water tankers if any length of road was to be measured. The BFC method
could only measure very short lengths and both types of equipment recorded their data on
paper charts. The pendulum could only make spot-checks. These techniques were really
only suitable for research use or localised checks. Before national standards could be
contemplated, a machine was needed that could make continuous measurements of the
skid resistance over long distances, together with a means of processing the large volumes
of data that would be collected.

The advent of digital computers in the 1960s provided a solution to the data-
processing problem and the Sideway-Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine
(SCRIM) was developed at TRL (then the Road Research Laboratory) in the late 1960s as a
potential network level survey tool. The concept combined the well-established side-force
coefficient principle with a large capacity on-board water supply and electronic data
recording.

With some development, the prototype proved successful and in the early 1970s the first
production machines were introduced, built under licence by WDM Ltd of Bristol who have
made them ever since. With the production machines came the direct recording of the
data on punched paper-tape as an on-board storage medium, which meant an easy transfer
of data for computer analysis. At that stage the machine was still primarily used for
research but the Department of Transport centrally began to use it to assess portions of
its network and one or two County Councils purchased machines to monitor their own
local networks.

A period of further refinement to improve reproducibility followed (Hosking and Woodford,

1976,1978) that continued into the 1980s, during which period comparison exercises were
carried out that have evolved into an annual accreditation trial in which the whole UK and
Ireland fleet of SCRIMs comes to TRL for cross-checking every spring. Fourteen machines
attended the 2008 trials.

9.1.3 Influence of traffic (HD28/94)

Figure 9.6 - Example of the Influence of Traffic on SFC

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9.1.4 Effects of Seasonal Variation (HD28/94)

Figure 9.7 - Effects of Seasonal Variation of SFC

9.1.5 Skid resistance investigatory levels for carriageways

Table 9.1 - Skid Resistance Investigatory Levels

The above chart has been taken from UKPMS Chapter 11 Griptester and shows both
SFC (Sideways Force Coefficient) and GN (Grip Number) for convenience.

A chart showing the same SFC values can be found in HD28/04

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9.1.6 Slip resistance for footways and walkways

Returning to the subject of footways and slip resistance, dealt with in the Footways
and Walkways chapter, the TRL Pendulum is currently the preferred method of
slipperiness assessment of HSL/HSE and the UK Slip Resistance Group.

For use on footways and external areas the use of the standard TRL rubber slider is
recommended. RAPRA (Rubber and Plastics Research Association) have developed a
standard simulated shoe sole known as [Four-S] to represent footwear heel materials of
moderate slip resistance

Guidance relating to potential for slip produced (HSE, 2006) is set out below:

Potential for Slip TRL Pendulum Four-S Pendulum Surface Roughness

Value Value (µm) [micron]
High 19 and below 25 and below Below 10
Moderate 20 to 39 25 to 35 Between 10 and 20
Low 40 to 74 35 to 65 > 20 and up to 30
Extremely low Above 75 Above 65 Above 30

Table 9.2 - Recommended levels of Pedestrian surface potential for Slip

9.2 Skid Resistance measuring equipment

9.2.1 Portable or Pendulum skid resistance tester

In the early 1960's the portable or pendulum skid resistance tester was developed
(Giles, et.al. 1964) that could be taken to a local site to measure the skid resistance of
the road.

Figure 9.8 - Pendulum skid tester

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The test procedure is now the subject of a European standard (CEN, 1997). The device
is not suitable for network monitoring because the test is time consuming and requires
traffic management to protect the operator. Whilst there are shortcomings, one
advantage is that readings can be readily taken at different positions along or across a
carriageway, which is useful in detailed investigations such as accident investigations.

The equipment consists of a rubber slider mounted on a "foot" assembly at the end of a
pendulum arm. The slider is angled at approximately 200 to the foot and mounted on a
soft spring. Following release from a horizontal position, the foot reaches a speed of
approximately 10 km/hr before the trailing edge of the slider makes contact with the
road surface. Contact is maintained for a distance of approximately 125mm. The work
done to overcome frictional forces between the slider and the road surface determines
the height the pendulum reaches after leaving contact with the road. The scale is
calibrated in units of Skid Resistance Value (SRV), which can with reference to Giles'
paper be converted to friction coefficients.

As a general rule, SRV values (also known as British Pendulum Number [BPN]) may be
converted to Coefficient of Friction (CoF) by simple division by 100, although this simple
relationship is not accurate above a slip resistance value of 40.

The conversion set out in BSI 96/104915 [B/208] is as follows:

CoF = (3 x SRV) / (330 – SRV) (9.1)

The correlation between Pendulum data and SCRIM (SC) is:

SC = SRV/100 – 0.05 (9.2)

9.2.2 SCRIM

The SCRIM or Sideways force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine, is the best know
example of side-way force measurement method, it was developed by TRL in the late 1960's
and its rugged construction and large water tank, giving an extended survey range, make it
ideal for routine network monitoring.

Each SCRIM chassis is fitted with a test wheel, generally in the nearside wheelpath, which is
aligned to the direction of travel. The test wheel is free to rotate, but the alignment means it
is forced to slip continuously over the road surface, providing a continuous measurement of
skid resistance. The slip speed depends on the vehicle speed and the angle of the test
wheel. UK SCRIM's have an angle of 200 between the test wheel and the direction of travel
and this geometry means that at 50 km/hr, the standard speed for testing in the UK, the slip
speed is 17 km/hr. The test wheel is fitted with a smooth pneumatic tyre fabricated from
natural rubber within a specified resilience range.

A vertical load of 200 kg was originally applied by means of a dead weight attached to the
test assembly. Recent developments have introduced a load cell to monitor the actual load
as it can vary if the vehicle tilts during cornering or the surface of the pavement is uneven.

A detailed calibration procedure takes place annually at TRL for all UK SCRIM machines. The
recommended survey procedure, in terms of calibration requirements, test speed, tyre
conditioning and maximum wear, flow rate etc is set out in BS 7941-1

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Plate 9.3 - SCRIM machine

Figure 9.9 - SCRIM machine - diagram

Plate 9.4 - SCRIM measuring wheel

The standard test speed is 50 km/hr, which can lead to problems at roundabouts and in
urban area. In these circumstances it is possible to test at 20 km/hr.

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9.2.3 Griptester

Plate 9.5 - Griptester

Plate 9.6 – Push mode Plate 9.7 - Towed mode

The Griptester is a 3 wheeled trailer developed in the mid 1980's by Findlay Irvine in
Edinburgh, Scotland, initially designed to measure the surface friction on heli-decks on
offshore oil drilling/production platforms where it was used in push mode. Because of
its compactness – it will fit in the back of a Volvo estate car.

The Griptester is an alternative to SCRIM for smaller networks and is used by many
local Highway Authorities. It is also commonly used for friction measurements on
airfield pavements, where the ICAO regulations are more stringent than those normally
used on highway pavements.

In push mode the Griptester is fitted with a small water tank and has been used in this
manner to test pedestrian footways, as well as the surfaces of aircraft carriers and
helicopter landing pads.

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In tow mode the payload of the tow vehicle, which restricts the volume of water that
can be carried, generally limits the range of the survey.

The test wheel is fitted with a smooth tyre compliant with an ASTM specification. It is
mounted in the same direction as the other wheels but is geared so that it travels more
slowly. It is therefore forced to slip continuously across the surface. The slip speed is
a fixed 14.5% of the vehicle speed, i.e. a slip speed of 7 km/hr if the test speed is 50
km/hr. Whilst the Griptester can be operated at a maximum speed of 130 km/hr, high
speeds are not recommended because of the oscillation in wheel loading that could
occur leading to dangerous instability.

Trials have been undertaken Jacobs Babtie (2004) to establish a correlation with
SCRIM with the following results:

Mark 1 Griptester data and SCRIM SC = 0.789 x GripNumber – 0.049 (9.3)

Mark 2 Griptester data and SCRIM SC = 0.85 x GripNumber (9.4)

9.2.4 High-speed locked wheel friction tester

The methods described previously are low speed techniques, in that the slip speeds
between the rubber material and road surface are relatively low. This is a direct
consequence of the test methods used but it can be argued that the speeds are not
representative of the speed of majority of the vehicles. Other methods are required to
measure skid at high slip speeds, but these are not suitable for continuous monitoring
because of the high rate of wear of the test tyres.

One example is the ASTM trailer, where the wheel on the trailer is locked for a period
of a few seconds during a test. The slip speed is equal to the vehicle speed once the
wheel is locked and tests can be carried out at up to 130 km/hr. Since the load and
traction forces are measured throughout the test, it also provides information on the
peak friction force, which is reached when the test wheel is beginning to slide. The
Dynatest T1290 is shown on the following photographs. The typical output from the
device is also shown. This and similar methods are likely to remain as research
techniques because the methods are not practical for network monitoring.

Plate 9.8 - Dynatest T1290 high speed Pavement Friction Tester

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One must, however, wonder about the inherent safety and stability of a trailer with a
single axle with two wheels, one of which is momentarily locked.

Figure 9.10 - Dynatest T1290 Pavement Friction Tester – example of typical output

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9.3 Practical Issues

9.3.1 Identifying problem sites

Figure 9.11 - Procedure to Identify and Treat Sites with Skidding Resistance Problems

The above figure has been taken from HD28/04

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9.3.2 New surfacing technology

The specifications that support the UK skidding standards are essentially based on the hot
rolled asphalt with pre-coated chippings (HRA) and surface dressing materials that
were traditionally used on the network. However, in recent years, different types of asphalt
mixtures - the so-called "thin surfacings" - have become more widely used in the UK and
are the first choice for new surfacings on trunk roads where their of reduced tyre/road
noise and speed of laying bring advantages.

However, it is less easy to make these materials to comply with current specifications,
particularly in relation to texture depth. Also, the shape and form of the texture could
mean that these materials develop better skid resistance for a given level of polishing
resistance. This raises the possibility of greater flexibility of aggregate choice in some
situations.

There is therefore a new challenge to establish appropriate criteria for their use. To this
end, collaborative research (supported by the Highways Agency, Quarry Products
Association and Refined Bitumen Association) is in hand that is studying the performance of
modern asphalt surfaces using different sizes of coarse aggregate (including 0/6, 0/10
and 0/14 mm mixtures) in relation to their texture depth and skid resistance at higher
speeds (Roe et al, 2008). Texture depth requirements for these types of materials in
some situations are currently being revised.

9.3.3 Polished Stone Value (PSV)

Simplistically, polished stone value is a measure of the resistance of the aggregate to

wear.

Samples of aggregate are set in a curved mould and after conditioning for a standard
time with an abrasive compound the Polished Stone Value is measured using a
standard pendulum test.

PSV is regarded as one of the most useful tests undertaken on the components of an
asphalt mix.

9.3.3.1 Typical values of PSV

Group of Roadstone PSV

Crushed rock aggregates
Dolerite 57
Granite 56
Sandstones 66
Limestones 56
Natural gravel aggregates
Flint gravel 41
Quartzite gravels 40

Table 9.3 - Typical values of PSV

The two following tables have been taken from HD28/94

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9.3.4 Selection of aggregate minimum PSV

Table 9.4 - Minimum PSV of Chippings or Coarse Aggregate in Unchipped Surfaces of

New Surface Courses (HD36/06)

9.3.5 Maximum AAV

Traffic (cv/lane/day) at design 251 – 1001 – 1751 - 2501 – >3250

life <250 1000 1750 2500 3250
Max AAV for chippings for HRA
and surface dressing, and for 14 12 12 10 10 10
aggregate in slurry and
Microsurfacing systems
Max AAV for aggregate in thin
surface course systems, 16 16 14 14 12 12
exposed aggregate concrete
surfacing and coated macadam
surface course

Table 9.5 - Maximum AAV of Chippings, or Coarse Aggregates in Unchipped Surfaces

for New Surface Courses. (HD36/06)

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9.3.6 Road deaths in Western Europe in 2008

Country per million persons

Greece 138
Belgium 88
Portugal 83
Italy 79
Denmark 74
Luxembourg 72
Spain 68
France 67
Eire 63
Germany 54
Sweden 52
United Kingdom 43
Netherlands 41

Table 9.6 - Road deaths per million population (source Eurostat Code tsdr420)

9.3.7 Effects of Winter Conditions

The following information sets out some interesting relative figures relating, amongst
other things, to skid resistance in icy conditions. Wallman (2001)

A number of surveys of friction for different road conditions, can be summarised as

follows:

Dry bare surface 0.8 – 1.0

Wet bare surface 0.7 – 0.8
Packed snow 0.2 – 0.3
Loose snow/slush 0.2 – 0.5 *
Black ice 0.15 – 0.3
Loose snow and black ice 0.15 – 0.25
Wet black ice 0.05 – 0.10

Table 9.7 - Effects on friction for different road conditions

* The higher value when the tyres are in contact with the pavement.

The friction numbers were obtained by skiddometer measurements with 17% slip.

The numbers should be considered as relative to one another and must not be
compared with SCRIM output.

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9.3.8 International Friction Index

A major problem is the comparison of skid resistance output in various countries

because of the manner in which they are made using different equipment and testing
regimes. A proposal is under consideration (2011) to develop an international friction
index. This is particularly relevant in the EU due to the desires for harmonisation in
the participating countries.

9.4 Development of a Skid Resistance Policy

The policy for managing skid resistance on Motorways and Trunk Roads in the UK is
set out in DMRB HD28/04). This document sets out the survey regime, default site
categories and Investigatory Levels and gives advice about risk management, site
investigation and use of slippery road signs once the skid resistance falls below the
Investigatory Level. The implementation of the policy in England is believed to have
contributed to the significant reduction in accident numbers during thee 1990's.

Guidance on skid resistance for Local Authorities (LA) roads was given in the updated
Code of Practice for Maintenance Management (IHT 2001). Local Authority roads are
more diverse in nature than Trunk (National) Roads both in terms of their geometric
design and the levels of traffic carried. The Code of Practice recommends that LA's
draw up a strategy for managing skid resistance levels following a similar approach to
the Trunk Road policy. This should define:

The part of the LA network to which the policy applies. (roads carrying high
traffic levels, particularly those with large numbers of heavy vehicles, are most
prone to polishing and consequent loss of skid resistance)

The survey strategy. (including the equipment to be used, the frequency of

surveys and the quality assurance procedures to be followed for data collection)

The approach for setting threshold levels for investigation. (higher skid resistance
should be required at sites where road users are likely at sites to need to stop or
change direction – these should be defined and the frequency at which
requirements are reassessed should be stated)

The procedure for investigation and determining the need and priority for
maintenance treatment. (where there is evidence that improving the condition of
the surfacing is likely to significantly reduce the risk of accidents, treatment
should be prioritised; less urgent cases should be completed in a reasonable
period, taking into account other maintenance requirements, but in some cases
there may be little or no benefit in undertaking treatment)

Defined responsibility and a timetable for delivering each part of the strategy.

Documentation to be retained.

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9.4 References / Bibliography

Bird, G and W.J.O. Scott (1936). Studies in road friction 1. Road surface resistance to
skidding. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and Ministry of Transport Road
Research Technical Paper No. 1. HMSO, London.

BSI (1999), Methods for measuring the skid resistance of pavement surfaces. Part 1:
Side-way force coefficient routine investigation machine. BS 7941-1, British Standards
Institution, London.

CEN (1997), Surface characteristics – test methods – Part 4: Method for measurement
of skid resistance of a surface: the pendulum test. PREN 13063-4, 1997 CEN, Brussels.

Croney, D. (1977), The Design and Performance of Road Pavements, First Edition,
H.M.S.O., London.

Descornet, G., B. Schmidt, M. Boulet, M. Gothie, M-T. Do, J. Fafie, M. Alonso, P. Roe, R.
Forest and H. Viner. Harmonisation of routine and research measuring equipment for
skidding resistance. FERHL Report 2006/01. Brussels.

Giles, C. G. (1957). The skidding resistance of roads and the requirements of modern
traffic. Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, Volume 6. February 1957, pages
216-249. London.

Giles C. G., B. E. Sabey and K. H. F. Cardew (1964). Development and performance of

the portable skid-resistance tester. Road research technical paper, number 66, Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, London.

Highways Agency, Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and the

Department for Regional Development, Northern Ireland. Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, Volume 7. The Stationery Office, London. HD28 (1988, 1994 and 2004). Skid
Resistance. DMRB 7.3.1

Hosking, J. R. and G. C. Woodford, 1976a. Measurement of skidding resistance. Part I. Guide

to the use of SCRIM. Department of the Environment, TRRL Laboratory

Report LR 737. Transport and Road Research Laboratory Crowthorne.

Hosking, J. R. and G. C. Woodford, 1976b. Measurement of skidding resistance. Part III.

Factors affecting SCRIM measurements. Department of the Environment, TRRL Laboratory
Report LR 739. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.

Hosking, J. R. (1976). Aggregates for Skid resistant roads. TRRL Laboratory Report
LR693, TRRL, Crowthorne.

Hosking, J. R .and G. C. Woodford, 1978. Measurement of skidding resistance. Part IV. The
effect on recorded SFC of design changes in the measuring equipment. Department of the
Environment, TRRL Supplementary Report SR 346. Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Crowthorne.

HSE, 2006. Evaluation of Kirchberg Rolling Slider and SlipAlert Slip Resistance Meters,
report HSL/2006/65, Buxton.

Chapter 9 - 20 of 21
Deterioration and Maintenance of Pavements Skid Resistance

IHT (2001). Delivering Best Practice in Highway Maintenance – Code of Practice for
Maintenance Management, Institution of Highways and Transportation, London.

ROADS LIAISON GROUP (2005). Well-maintained highways. Code of Practice for Highway
Maintenance Management. The Stationery Office, London.

Roe, P. G. and S. A. Hartshorne (1998). The Polished Stone Value of aggregates and in-
service skidding resistance. TRL report 322, TRL, Crowthorne.

Roe, P. G., A. R. Perry and H. E. Viner (1998). High amd Low speed skid resistance – the
effect of texture depth. TRL Report 367, TRL, Crowthorne.

Roe, P.G. and R. SINHAL (2005). Recent developments to the SCRIM measurement
technique in the UK. International Conference on Surface Friction of Roads and Runways,
Christchurch, New Zealand, May 2005.

Roe, P. G., A. Dunford and G. I. Crabb (2008) HA/QPA/RBA Collaborative Programme

2004/07: Surface requirements for asphalt roads. TRL Report PPR324, Crowthorne (in
preparation).

Rogers, M. P. and T. Gargett (1991). A skidding resistance standard for the national
network. Highways and Transportation, Volume 38, Number 4, pages 10-16.

Salt, G. F. and W. S. Szatkowski (1973) A guide to levels of skidding resistance for roads.
Department of the Environment, TRRL Laboratory Report LR 510. Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.

Szatkowski, W. S. and J. R. Hosking (1972). The effect of traffic and aggregate on the
skidding resistance of bituminous surfacings. TRRL Laboratory Report LR504, TRRL,
Crowthorne.

WALLMAN, C G, H ASTROM (2001). Friction measurement methods and correlation between

road friction and traffic safety – a literature review. Swedish National Road and Transport
Institute (VTI), Linkoping, Sweden.

Wambold J. C., C.E. Antle, J. J. Henry and Z. Rado (1995). International PIARC experiment
to compare and harmonise texture and skid resistance measurements. PIARC technical
committee on surface characteristics.

Woodbridge, M, E., A. Dunford and P. G. Roe (2006). Wehner-Schulze machine: first UK

experiences with a new test for polishing resistance in aggregates. TRL Report PPR144,
Crowthorne.

Other useful information:

A major US study under the auspices of the Transportation Research Board – National
Cooperative Highway Research Board under the title NCHRP Project 01-43 Guide to
Pavement Friction was delivered in February 2009 and a free of charge document in
.pdf format can be downloaded from the NCHRP as a web only document as follows:

onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_w108.pdf

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