A

MINOR PROJECT REPORT

ON

CELL PHONE CONTROLLED

AUDIO/VIDEO MUTE
SWITCH
AT

SESSION: 2009-2010
Submitted By:

PRAVESH JAIN
&
PIYUSH JAIN

VII SEMESTER

Department of Electronics & Communication

Engineering
MAHARISHI ARVIND
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
JAIPUR
(AFFILIATED TO RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA)

1
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the minor project report entitled “CELL PHONE
CONTROLLED AUDIO/VIDEO MUTE SWITCH” which is submitted by
“ PRAVESH JAIN ” & “ PIYUSH JAIN” in partial fulfillment for the
award of degree of Bachelor of Technology (Electronics & Communication
Engineering) by Rajasthan Technical University, Kota is a record of his
own work carried under our guidance.

DATE : Mr. LOKESH SHARMA

PLACE: &
Mr. C. P. GUPTA
Project Guide
(Senior Lecturer)
(ECE DEPARTMENT)

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The basic be attitude, bliss and euphoria that accompany the successful
completion of any task would not be completed without the expression of
complete appreciation of simple virtues to the people who made it possible.
So, with reverence honor we acknowledge all those guidance and
encouragement has made successful in winding up this.
I wish to express my unlimited gratitude and thanks to my project in
charge Mr. C. P. GUPTA & Mr. LOKESH SHARMA (SENIOR
LECTURER ECE) and all respected persons.
I am also very thankful to Mr. ADRASH GOYAL (Lab Technician), Mr.
Sanjay Pawar (Lab Technician) all Teachers and other staff members of
MAIET, Jaipur who have directly and indirectly helped in our earnest
effort to complete this project.

DATE PRAVESH JAIN

&
PIYUSH JAIN

3
4
 PREFACE

The Minor Project is an essential requirement for an engineering student.

The student has to complete the project for the pre describe period as per
the university norms. The purpose of project is to help the student to gain
practical experience. Moreover, as for the utility of project, concerning, it
can be said that student gets an opportunity during his project to imply the
theoretical knowledge in the field work and to clear the difficulties in a
better way.

In the year 2009, in between 7th semester, we completed our project on

“CELL PHONE CONTROLLED AUDIO/VIDEO MUTE SWITCH”.

5
 INDEX

Contents

 Light emitting diode 6--9

 LM 317 10--11
 Resistor 12--13
 Transistor 14--15
 Diode 16--19
 Transformer 20--27
 Application 28
 Reference 29

6
 Light-emitting diode
.

Light-emitting diode

Red, green and blue LEDs of the 5mm type

Type Passive, optoelectronic

Working principle Electroluminescence

Invented Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)

Electronic symbol

Pin configuration Anode and Cathode

 A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /ˌɛl.iːˈdiː/[1], or just /lɛd/) is a

semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many
devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and
infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
 The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward
biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
7
 semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and
integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and
assist in reflection.[3]
 LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller
size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliance. However, they
are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for
general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources
of comparable output.
 They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for
traditional light sources in automotive lighting (particularly indicators)
and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text
and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

Technology

 Parts of an LED

8
 The inner workings of an LED

 I-V diagram for a diode an LED will begin to emit light when the on-
voltage is exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2-3 Volt
 Efficiency and operational parameters
 Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60
milliwatts [mW] of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds
introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt [W]. These
LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power
inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to
allow for heat removal from the LED die.
 One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as
measured by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly
matched and overtook the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting
systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a
luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per watt [lm/W]. For comparison, a
conventional 60–100 W incandescent lightbulb produces around 15
lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights produce up to 100 lm/W. A
recurring problem is that efficiency will fall dramatically for increased
current. This effect is known as droop and effectively limits the light
output of a given LED, increasing heating more than light output for
increased current.
 In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the
company Cree, Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 milliamperes [mA]. This
produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA,
becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time,
and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006
they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous
efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans for
135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008, which would be approaching
an order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and
better even than standard fluorescents.[25] Nichia Corporation has
developed a white LED with luminous efficiency of 150 lm/W at a
forward current of 20 mA.[26]
 It should be noted that high-power (≥ 1 W) LEDs are necessary for
practical general lighting applications. Typical operating currents for
these devices begin at 350 mA. The highest efficiency high-power white

9
 LED is claimed[27] by Philips Lumileds Lighting Co. with a luminous
efficacy of 115 lm/W (350 mA)
 Note that these efficiencies are for the LED chip only, held at low
temperature in a lab. In a lighting application, operating at higher
temperature and with drive circuit losses, efficiencies are much lower.
United States Department of Energy (DOE) testing of commercial LED
lamps designed to replace incandescent or CFL lamps showed that
average efficacy was still about 31 lm/W in 2008 (tested performance
ranged from 4 lm/W to 62 lm/W)[28].
 Cree issued a press release on November 19, 2008 about a laboratory
prototype LED achieving 161 lumens/watt at room temperature. The total
output was 173 lumens, and the correlated color temperature was reported
to be 4689 K.[29][unreliable source?]

White light
 There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using
LEDs. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors[44] –
red, green, and blue, and then mix all the colors to produce white light.
The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light
from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same
way a fluorescent light bulb works.
 Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra which
appear white.

LM317
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

10
A constant current source circuit constructed with LM317

Part pinout of LM317T showing its constant voltage reference

LM317 is the standard part number for an integrated three-terminal adjustable

linear voltage regulator. LM317 is a positive voltage regulator supporting input
voltage of 3V to 40V and output voltage between 1.25V and 37V. A typical
current rating is 1.5A although several lower and higher current models are
available. Variable output voltage is achieved by using a potentiometer or a
variable voltage from another source to apply a control voltage to the control
terminal. LM317 also has a built-in current limiter to prevent the output current
from exceeding the rated current, and LM317 will automatically reduce its
output current if an overheat condition occurs under load. LM317 is
manufactured by many companies, including National Semiconductor, Fairchild
Semiconductor, and STMicroelectronics.

Although LM317 is an adjustable regulator, it is sometimes preferred for high-

precision fixed voltage applications instead of the similar LM78xx devices
because the LM317 is designed with superior output tolerances. For a fixed
voltage application, the control pin will typically be biased with a fixed resistor
network, a Zener diode network, or a fixed control voltage from another source.
Manufacturer datasheets provide standard configurations for achieving various
design applications, including the use of a pass transistor to achieve regulated
output currents in excess of what the LM317 alone can provide.

LM317 is available in a wide range of package forms for different applications

including heatsink mounting and surface-mount applications. Common form
factors for high-current applications include TO-220 with part number LM317T
and TO-3 with part number LM317K. LM317 is capable of dissipating a large
amount of heat at medium to high current loads and the use of a heatsink is
recommended to maximize the lifespan and power-handling capability.

LM337 is the negative voltage complement to LM317 and the specifications

and function are essentially identical, except that the regulator must receive a
control voltage and act on an input voltage that are below the ground reference
point instead of above it.

Specifications
Vout range 1.25V - 37V

11
Vin - Vout difference 3V - 40V
Operation ambient temperature 0 - 125°C
Output Imax <1.5A
Minimum Load Currentmax 10mA

12
 RESISTOR
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across
its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance
with Ohm's law: V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are

ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of
various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-
resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,

maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics
include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance.

The ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference

between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent
series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in
a breakdown voltage.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to
smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are
used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select
particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

13
Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation
limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is
applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated

circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment
designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when
dissipating their power.

14
 TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or
switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of
a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the
current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor
provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but most
are found in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and its
presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.

Transistor as a switch

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications
including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic
gates.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the

base voltage rises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the collector
voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant equations:

VRC = ICE × RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC)
VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V
If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than V CC / RC,
even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be saturated.
Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely
off,[12] or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is
common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

Transistor as an amplifier
15
Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration.
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage in (Vin)
changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's current
amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin
produce large changes in Vout.

It is important that the operating values of the transistor are chosen and the circuit
designed such that as far as possible the transistor operates within a linear portion of the
graph, such as that shown between A and B, otherwise the output signal will suffer
distortion.

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing
current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.

From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for
sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete
transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and
audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier
architecture evolved.

Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and
relatively inexpensive.

Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in
the same circuit, as some believe tubes have a distinctive sound.

16
Diode

Figure 1: Closeup of a diode, showing the square shaped semiconductor crystal

Figure 2: Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier

Figure 3: Structure of a vacuum tube diode

In electronics a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric
current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the
most common type today, which is a crystal of semiconductor connected to two
17
electrical terminals, a P-N junction. A vacuum tube diode, now little used, is a vacuum
tube with two electrodes; a plate and a cathode.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current in one direction
(called the forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert
alternating current to direct current, and remove modulation from radio signals in radio
receivers.

However diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action, due
to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying
the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that
perform many different functions. Diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes),
electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), generate radio frequency
oscillations (tunnel diodes), and produce light (light emitting diodes).

Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals'
rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes were made of crystals of minerals
such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as
germanium are sometimes used.

Semiconductor diodes
A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that
has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge
carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that
contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's
terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between
these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The
crystal conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the
anode) to the n-type side (called the cathode), but not in the opposite direction.

Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact
between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction

Current–voltage characteristic
A semiconductor diode’s behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage
characteristic, or I–V curve (see graph at right). The shape of the curve is determined by
the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region
that exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is
first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into
the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in
which no electron is present) with which the electrons “recombine”. When a mobile
electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an
immobile positively charged donor (the dopant) on the N-side and negatively charged
acceptor (the dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes

18
depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow
without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant
ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left
behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an
increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then
finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a “built-in” potential across the
depletion zone.

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in
potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant
electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction
by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However,
if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can
once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction (i.e.
substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction).. For silicon
diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is
passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the
P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be
“turned on” as it has a forward bias.

Figure 5: I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).

A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see the
figure at right).

At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called
reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number
of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually
damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in
the avalanche region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener
diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the
valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such

19
that the reverse voltage is “clamped” to a known value (called the zener voltage), and
avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum
current and power in the clamped reverse voltage region. Also, following the end of
forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device
does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases.

The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small
reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the
current through the device is very low (in the µA range). However, this is temperature
dependent, and at suffiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current
can be observed (mA or more).

The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is
conducted.

As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined “cut-in voltage” or

“on-voltage” or “diode forward voltage drop (Vd)”, the diode current becomes
appreciable (the level of current considered “appreciable” and the value of cut-in voltage
depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance.

The current–voltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the
arbitrary “cut-in” voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other
diode types — Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V and red or blue light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively.

At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5
V is typical at full rated current for power diodes.

Small-signal behaviour
For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A
specific example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal circuits.

Zener diodes

Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener
breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as
a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and
switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the
temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener
diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in
series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or
Transorb, a registered trademark). The Zener diode is named for Dr. Clarence
Melvin Zener of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device.
Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog
logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic).

Transformer
20
Pole-mounted single-phase transformer with center-tapped secondary. A grounded
conductor is used as one leg of the primary feeder.
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core,
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary
winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as
follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped
down" by making NS less than NP.

In the vast majority of transformers, the coils are wound around a ferromagnetic core,
air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer

hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to
interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles,
although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need
for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all
electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential
for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance transmission

21
economically practical.

Basic principles
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a
coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).
Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed.
The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer
An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the
primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped
around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.

Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and
Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are
oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic
flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to
the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with
time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, [21] the
instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation[22] for

22
stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is
perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the
magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming
electric power must equal the outgoing power.

Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.[21] For example,
if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the

primary circuit to have an impedance of . This relationship is reciprocal, so that

the impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be .

Detailed operation
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the
primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to
the field due to current in the secondary circuit.

Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two
windings of zero resistance.[23] When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small
current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.[23] The current
required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has
23
been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible,
although still required to create the magnetic field.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.
[24]
Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop,
and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to
the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the
primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF".[25] This is due to Lenz's law
which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose
development of any such change in magnetic field.

Practical considerations
Leakage flux

Leakage flux of a transformer

Main article: Leakage inductance
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding
links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses
paths that take it outside the windings.[26] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in
leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.[25] Leakage
results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with
each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below),
but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be
directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load.[26] Transformers are
therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.

However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic
paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a
transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[25] Leaky
transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as
electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely handling loads that
become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[27] Air gaps are also
used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in
circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings.

Effect of frequency
24
The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral
with respect to time of the applied voltage. [28] Hypothetically an ideal transformer would
work with direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time. [29] In
practice, the flux would rise to the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs,
causing a huge increase in the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All
practical transformers must therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.[29]

Transformer universal EMF equation

If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms
Voltage of the winding E, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-
sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF
equation:[23]

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency. [23] By
operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a
given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation, and fewer turns
are needed to achieve the same impedance. However properties such as core loss and
conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment
employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.[30]

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than

intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current; at lower frequency, the magnetizing
current will increase. Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may
require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is
practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with "volts per hertz"
over-excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated
frequency.

Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer windings is of importance for the

determination of the transient response of the windings to impulse and switching surge
voltages.

Energy losses
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In
practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding
structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for
electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.[31]

Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of

99.85%,[32] While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to large heavily-
loaded transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant.

A small transformer, such as a plug-in "wall-wart" or power adapter type used for low-
power consumer electronics, may be no more than 85% efficient, with considerable loss
even when not supplying any load. Though individual power loss is small, the aggregate
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losses from the very large number of such devices is coming under increased scrutiny.[33]

The losses vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss.
Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses
contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning
that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which
encourages development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient
transformer).[34]

Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those
in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors.
At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding
resistance and losses.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to
hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.[34]
Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from
such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire
length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the
flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy
current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
square of the material thickness.[34]
Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically
expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect
known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly
associated with transformers,[22] and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating
in susceptible cores.
Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating
electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite
vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a
small amount of power.[35]
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its
magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any
leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's
support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. [36] There
are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually
small.

Dot Convention

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It is common in transformer schematic symbols for there to be a dot at the end of each
coil within a transformer, particularly for transformers with multiple windings on either
or both of the primary and secondary sides. The purpose of the dots is to indicate the
direction of each winding relative to the other windings in the transformer. Voltages at
the dot end of each winding are in phase, while current flowing into the dot end of a
primary coil will result in current flowing out of the dot end of a secondary coil.

Equivalent circuit
Refer to the diagram below
The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an
equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless transformer.[37]
Power loss in the windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series
resistances RP and RS. Flux leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped
without contributing to the mutual coupling, and thus can be modeled as reactances of
each leakage inductance XP and XS in series with the perfectly-coupled region.

Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core, and are
proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. [38] Since
the core flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss can be represented by a
resistance RC in parallel with the ideal transformer.

A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain the mutual
flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux; saturation effects
cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect
tends to be ignored in most circuit equivalents.[38] With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux
lags the induced EMF by 90° and this effect can be modeled as a magnetizing reactance
(reactance of an effective inductance) XM in parallel with the core loss component. RC
and XM are sometimes together termed the magnetizing branch of the model. If the
secondary winding is made open-circuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetizing branch
represents the transformer's no-load current.[37]

The secondary impedance RS and XS is frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary

side after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor .

27
Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the primary side
The resulting model is sometimes termed the "exact equivalent circuit", though it retains
a number of approximations, such as an assumption of linearity.[37] Analysis may be
simplified by moving the magnetizing branch to the left of the primary impedance, an
implicit assumption that the magnetizing current is low, and then summing primary and
referred secondary impedances, resulting in so-called equivalent impedance.

The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results
of two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test

APPLICATIONS

28
  Hospitals, medical centers or intensive care units, where emergency light
is required

 Offices, factories, cinemas, theaters, concerts, museums or art galleries

that prevent video body bugs
.
 Offices, restaurants or any commercial premises that would like to shun
away cellular or RF disturbance.

   Detect peeping camera in shopping mall toilet, school toilet, locker room
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REFERENCE LINK

 www.google.com
29
 Electronics for you Magazine.
 Various Books of Electronics.

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